Nepal

This article is about the country. For other uses, seeNepal (disambiguation).

Nepal ( i/nəˈpɔːl/ nə-PAWL;[8] Nepali: नेपाल [neˈpal]( )), officially the Federal Democratic Republic ofNepal,[9] is a landlocked country located in South Asia.With an area of 147,181 square kilometres (56,827 sqmi) and a population of approximately 27 million,[2]Nepal is the world’s 93rd largest country by land mass[10]and the 41st most populous country. It is located inthe Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People’sRepublic of China, and to the south, east, and west bythe Republic of India. Specifically, the Indian statesof Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, andSikkim border Nepal, whereas across the Himalayaslies the Tibet Autonomous Region. Nepal is separatedfrom Bangladesh by the narrow Indian Siliguri Corridor.Kathmandu is the nation’s capital and largest metropolis.The mountainous north of Nepal has eight of the world’sten tallest mountains, including the highest point onEarth, Mount Everest, called Sagarmatha (सगरमाथा) inthe Nepali language. More than 240 peaks over 20,000ft (6,096 m) above sea level are located in Nepal.[11] Thesouthern Terai region is fertile and humid.Hinduism is practiced by about 81.3% of Nepalis, mak-ing it the country with the highest percentage of Hindus.Buddhism is linked historically with Nepal and is prac-ticed by 9%, Islam by 4.4%, Kiratism 3.1%, Christianity1.4%,[2] and animism 0.4%. A large portion of the popu-lation, especially in the hill region, may identify them-selves as both Hindu and Buddhist, which can be at-tributed to the syncretic nature of Hinduism and Bud-dhism in Nepal.[12]

A monarchy throughout most of its history, Nepal wasruled by the Shah dynasty of kings from 1768 — whenPrithvi Narayan Shah unified its many small kingdoms[1]until 2008. A decade-long Civil War involving theCommunist Party of Nepal and several weeks of massprotests by all major political parties led to the 12-pointagreement[13] of 22 November 2005. The ensuing elec-tions for the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly on 28May 2008 overwhelmingly favored the abolition of themonarchy and the establishment of a federal multipartyrepresentative democratic republic.The political parties of Nepal agreed to form an in-terim government under the leadership of Chief JusticeKhil Raj Regmi in order to hold elections for the Con-stituent Assembly by 19 November 2013 to end a po-

litical deadlock.[14][15] The election was held success-fully and the 2nd Nepalese Constituent Assembly wassworn in, with Sushil Koirala appointed as the new primeminister.[16][17]

In 2014, Nepal ranked 145th of 187 countries on theHuman Development Index (HDI) and despite severalchallenges, Nepal has been making steady progress andthe Government of Nepal have made commitment to helpthe nation to graduate towards one of the more developednations by 2022.[18][19]

1 Etymology

Local legends say that a Hindu sage named “Ne” estab-lished himself in the valley of Kathmandu in prehistorictimes and that the word “Nepal” came into existence asthe place protected (“pala” in pali) by the sage “Ne”. Ac-cording to the Skanda Purana, a rishi called “Ne” or “Ne-muni” used to live in Himalaya.[20] In the Pashupati Pu-rana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector.[21] Heis said to have practised meditation at the Bagmati andKesavati rivers[22] and to have taught there.[23]

2 History

Main article: History of Nepal

2.1 Ancient

Nepal is first mentioned in the late Vedic text, Athar-vaveda Parisista as a place exporting blankets, and inthe post-Vedic Atharva Siras Upanisad.[24] In Samu-dragupta’s Allahabad inscription it is mentioned as a bor-dering country. The 'Skanda Purana' has a separate chap-ter known as 'Nepal Mahatmya', which "explains in moredetails about the beauty and power of Nepal." Nepal isalso mentioned in Hindu texts such as the NarayanaPuja.[24]

According to Gopal Vansawali, the genealogy ofNepalese monarchy, the earliest settlers in Nepal wereGopalas, followed by Mahispala, followed by Kirata.[25]Tibeto-Burman people probably lived in Nepal 2,500years ago.[25] However, there is no archaeologic evi-dence of Gopala, Mahispala or Kirata rulers other than

1

2 2 HISTORY

Lumbini, listed as the birthplace of Buddha by the UNESCOWorld Heritage Convention

later documents (Lichchavi and Malla era) mentioningthem.[26]

There is a quite detailed description of the kingdom ofNepal in the account of the renowned Chinese Buddhistpilgrim monk Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE.[27][28]Stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley are importantsources for the history of Nepal.The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighthcentury, probably due to Tibetan dominance, and was fol-lowed by Thakuri era, from 879 CE (Nepal Samvat 1),although the extent of their control over the country isuncertain. In the 11th century it seems to have includedthe Pokhara area.

2.2 Medieval

Main article: Malla (Nepal)In the early 12th century, leaders emerged in far westernNepal whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix malla(“wrestler”). These kings consolidated their power andruled over the next 200 years, until the kingdom splin-tered into two dozen petty states. Another Malla dy-nasty, beginning with Jayasthiti, emerged in the Kath-mandu valley in the late 14th century, andmuch of centralNepal again came under a unified rule. However, in 1482the realm was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu,Patan, and Bhaktapur.

Former royal palace at Basantapur, Kathmandu

2.3 Kingdom of Nepal

Main article: Kingdom of Nepal

In the mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkhaking, set out to put together what would become present-day Nepal. He embarked on his mission after seekingarms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bor-dering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles andsieges, notably the Battle of Kirtipur, he managed to con-quer the Kathmandu Valley in 1769. A detailed accountof Prithvi Narayan Shah’s victory was written by FatherGiuseppe who was an eyewitness to the war.[29]

Hindu temples in Patan, capital of one of the three medievalNewar kingdoms

The Gorkha dominion reached its height when the north-ern India territories of Kumaon and Garhwal in the westto Sikkim in the east became under Nepal rule.At its maximum extent, Greater Nepal extended from theTista River in the east, to Kangara, across the Sutlej Riverin the west as well as further south into the Terai plainsand north of the Himalayas than at present. A disputewith Tibet over the control of mountain passes and innerTingri valleys of Tibet forced the Chinese Qing Emperorin Peking (now Beijing) to start the Sino-Nepalese War

2.3 Kingdom of Nepal 3

Janaki Mandir, one of the famous temples of Janakpur, Nepal

compelling the Nepalese to retreat and pay heavy repara-tions to Peking.Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Com-pany over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepaleventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1815–16).At first the British underestimated the Nepalese andwere soundly defeated until committing more military re-sources than they had anticipated needing. They weregreatly impressed by the valour and competence of theiradversaries. Thus began the reputation of “Gurkhas” asfierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the Treatyof Sugauli, under which Nepal ceded recently capturedportions of Sikkim and lands in Terai as well as the rightto recruit soldiers. Madheshis, though having supportedthe British East India Company during the war, had theirlands gifted to Nepalese.Factionalism inside the royal family led to a period of in-stability. In 1846 a plot was discovered revealing thatthe reigning queen had planned to overthrow Jung Ba-hadur Kunwar, a fast-rising military leader. This led tothe Kot Massacre; armed clashes between military per-sonnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the ex-ecution of several hundred princes and chieftains aroundthe country. Jung Bahadur Kunwar emerged victoriousand founded the Rana Lineage and was later known asJung Bahadur Rana.The king was made a titular figure, and the post of PrimeMinister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranaswere staunchly pro-British and assisted them during theIndian Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 (and later in both WorldWars). Some parts of the Terai Region populated withnon-Nepalese peoples were gifted to Nepal by the Britishas a friendly gesture, because of her military help to sus-tain British control in India during the Sepoy Rebellion.In 1923, the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signedan agreement of friendship, which superseded the SugauliTreaty signed in 1816.Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.[30] Neverthelessdebt bondage even involving debtors’ children has beena persistent social problem in the Terai. Rana rule wasmarked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation

Nepalese royalty in the 1920s

and religious persecution.[31][32]

In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy move-ments and political parties in Nepal were critical of theRana autocracy. Meanwhile, with the invasion of Ti-bet by China in the 1950s, India sought to counterbal-ance the perceivedmilitary threat from its northern neigh-bour by taking pre-emptive steps to assert more influencein Nepal. India sponsored both King Tribhuvan (ruled1911–55) as Nepal’s new ruler in 1951 and a new gov-ernment, mostly comprising the Nepali Congress Party,thus terminating Rana hegemony in the kingdom.After years of power wrangling between the king and thegovernment, King Mahendra (ruled 1955–72) scrappedthe democratic experiment in 1959, and a “partyless”Panchayat system was made to govern Nepal until 1989,when the “Jan Andolan” (People’s Movement) forcedKing Birendra (ruled 1972–2001) to accept constitutionalreforms and to establish a multiparty parliament thattook seat in May 1991.[33] In 1991–92, Bhutan expelledroughly 100,000 Bhutanese citizens of Nepali descent,most of whom have been living in seven refugee campsin eastern Nepal ever since.[34]

In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) starteda bid to replace the royal parliamentary system with apeople’s republic by violent means. This led to the longNepal Civil War and more than 12,000 deaths. On 1 June2001, there was a massacre in the royal palace. KingBirendra, Queen Aiswarya, and seven other members ofthe royal family were killed. The perpetrator was CrownPrince Dipendra, who committed suicide (he died threedays later) shortly thereafter. This outburst was alleged tohave been Dipendra’s response to his parents’ refusal toaccept his choice of wife. Nevertheless there are specula-tion and doubts among Nepalese citizens about who wasresponsible.Following the carnage, King Birendra’s brotherGyanendra inherited the throne. On 1 February2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the entire governmentand assumed full executive powers to quash the violentMaoist movement,[33] but this initiative was unsuccessfulbecause a stalemate had developed in which the Maoistswere firmly entrenched in large expanses of countryside

4 3 GEOGRAPHY

yet could not dislodge the military from numerous townsand the largest cities. In September 2005, the Maoistsdeclared a three-month unilateral ceasefire to negotiate.In response to the 2006 democracy movement King Gya-nendra agreed to relinquish sovereign power to the peo-ple. On 24 April 2006 the dissolved House of Represen-tatives was reinstated. Using its newly acquired sovereignauthority, on 18 May 2006 the House of Representativesunanimously voted to curtail the power of the king anddeclared Nepal a secular state, ending its time-honouredofficial status as a Hindu Kingdom. On 28 December2007, a bill was passed in parliament to amend Article159 of the constitution – replacing “Provisions regard-ing the King” by “Provisions of the Head of the State” –declaring Nepal a federal republic, and thereby abolish-ing the monarchy.[35] The bill came into force on 28 May2008.[36]

2.4 Republic

The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) won the largestnumber of seats in the Constituent Assembly electionheld on 10 April 2008, and formed a coalition govern-ment which included most of the parties in the CA. Al-though acts of violence occurred during the pre-electoralperiod, election observers noted that the elections them-selves were markedly peaceful and “well-carried out”.[37]

The newly elected Assembly met in Kathmandu on 28May 2008, and, after a polling of 564 constituent Assem-bly members, 560 voted to form a new government,[36]with the monarchist Rastriya Prajatantra Party, whichhad four members in the assembly, registering a dissent-ing note. At that point, it was declared that Nepal had be-come a secular and inclusive democratic republic,[38][39]with the government announcing a three-day public holi-day from 28 to 30May. The King was thereafter given 15days to vacate the Narayanhiti Royal Palace, to re-open itas a public museum.[40]

Nonetheless, political tensions and consequent power-sharing battles have continued inNepal. InMay 2009, theMaoist-led government was toppled and another coali-tion government with all major political parties bar-ring the Maoists was formed.[41] Madhav Kumar Nepalof the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) was made the Prime Minister of the coalitiongovernment.[42] In February 2011 the Madhav KumarNepal Government was toppled and Jhala Nath Khanalof the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) was made the Prime Minister.[43] In August2011 the Jhala Nath Khanal Government was toppledand Baburam Bhattarai of the Communist Party of Nepal(Maoist) was made the Prime Minister.[44]

The political parties were unable to draft a constitution inthe stipulated time.[45] This led to dissolution of the Con-stituent Assembly to pave way for new elections to strivefor a new political mandate. In opposition to the theory of

separation of powers, then Chief Justice Khila Raj Regmiwas made the chairman of the caretaker government. Un-der Mr. Regmi, the nation saw peaceful elections forthe constituent assembly. The major forces in the earlierconstituent assembly (namely CPNMaoists and Madhesiparties) dropped to distant 3rd and even below.[46][47]

In February 2014, after consensus was reached betweenthe two major parties in the constituent assembly, SushilKoirala was sworn in as the new prime minister ofNepal.[16][48]

3 Geography

Main articles: Geography of Nepal and Geology of Nepal

Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, 800 kilometres(497 mi) long and 200 kilometres (124 mi) wide, withan area of 147,181 km2 (56,827 sq mi). See List of ter-ritories by size for the comparative size of Nepal. It liesbetween latitudes 26° and 31°N, and longitudes 80° and89°E.Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic ar-eas: Mountain, Hill and Terai. These ecological belts runeast-west and are vertically intersected by Nepal’s major,north to south flowing river systems.The southern lowland plains or Terai bordering Indiaare part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic plains.They were formed and are fed by three major Himalayanrivers: the Kosi, the Narayani, and the Karnali as well assmaller rivers rising below the permanent snowline. Thisregion has a subtropical to tropical climate. The outer-most range of foothills called Shiwalik or Churia Rangecresting at 700 to 1,000 metres (2,297 to 3,281 ft) marksthe limit of the Gangetic Plain, however broad, low val-leys called Inner Tarai (Bhitri Tarai Uptyaka) lie north ofthese foothills in several places.TheHill Region (Pahad) abuts the mountains and variesfrom 800 to 4,000 metres (2,625 to 13,123 ft) in altitudewith progression from subtropical climates below 1,200metres (3,937 ft) to alpine climates above 3,600 metres(11,811 ft). The Mahabharat Range reaching 1,500 to3,000 metres (4,921 to 9,843 ft) is the southern limit ofthis region, with subtropical river valleys and “hills” al-ternating to the north of this range. Population density ishigh in valleys but notably less above 2,000 metres (6,562ft) and very low above 2,500 metres (8,202 ft) wheresnow occasionally falls in winter.The Mountain Region (Parbat), situated in the GreatHimalayan Range, makes up the northern part of Nepal.It contains the highest elevations in the world including8,848 metres (29,029 ft) height Mount Everest (Sagar-matha in Nepali) on the border with China. Seven otherof the world’s eight thousand metre peaks are in Nepalor on its border with China: Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu,

5

Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Manaslu.Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding tothe altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie be-low 1,200 metres (3,937 ft), the temperate zone 1,200to 2,400 metres (3,937 to 7,874 ft), the cold zone 2,400to 3,600 metres (7,874 to 11,811 ft), the subarctic zone3,600 to 4,400 metres (11,811 to 14,436 ft), and theArctic zone above 4,400 metres (14,436 ft).Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, au-tumn, winter and spring. TheHimalaya blocks cold windsfrom Central Asia in the winter and forms the northernlimit of themonsoon wind patterns. In a land once thicklyforested, deforestation is a major problem in all regions,with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems.Nepal is popular for mountaineering, having some of thehighest and most challenging mountains in the world, in-cluding Mount Everest. Technically, the south-east ridgeon the Nepali side of the mountain is easier to climb; so,most climbers prefer to trek to Everest through Nepal.

3.1 Neotectonics

The collision between the Indian subcontinent and theEurasian continent, which started in Paleogene time andcontinues today, produced the Himalaya and the TibetanPlateau, a spectacular modern example of the effects ofplate tectonics. Nepal lies completely within this colli-sion zone, occupying the central sector of the Himalayanarc, nearly one third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi)-longHimalayas.[49][50][51][52][53][54]

The Indian plate continues to move north relative toAsia at the rate of approximately 50 mm (2.0 in) peryear.[55] Given the great magnitudes of the blocks ofthe Earth’s crust involved, this is remarkably fast, abouttwice the speed at which human fingernails grow. As thestrong Indian continental crust subducts beneath the rel-atively weak Tibetan crust, it pushes up the HimalayanMountains. This collision zone has accommodated hugeamounts of crustal shortening as the rock sequences slideone over another. As such Nepal is prone to frequentearthquakes, a major earthquake happening within every100 years.[56]

Erosion of the Himalayas is a very important source ofsediment, which flows via several great rivers (the Industo the Indian Ocean, and the Ganges and Brahmaputrariver system) to the Bay of Bengal.[57]

3.2 Environment

The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal re-sult in a variety of biomes, from tropical savannas alongthe Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and coniferousforests in the Hill Region, to temperate broadleaf andconiferous forests on the slopes of the Himalaya, to

montane grasslands and shrublands and rock and ice atthe highest elevations.At the lowest elevations is the Terai-Duar savanna andgrasslands ecoregion. These form a mosaic with theHimalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, which occurfrom 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) and in-clude the Inner Terai Valleys. Himalayan subtropical pineforests occur between 1,000 and 2,000 metres (3,300 and6,600 ft).Above these elevations, the biogeography of Nepal is gen-erally divided from east to west by the Gandaki River.Ecoregions to the east tend to receive more precipitationand to be more species-rich. Those to the west are drierwith fewer species.From 1,500 to 3,000 metres (4,900 to 9,800 ft), aretemperate broadleaf forests: the eastern and western Hi-malayan broadleaf forests. From 3,000 to 4,000 me-tres (9,800 to 13,100 ft) are the eastern and westernHimalayan subalpine conifer forests. To 5,500 metres(18,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan alpineshrub and meadows.

4 Politics

Main article: Politics of Nepal

Nepal has seen rapid political changes during the last twodecades. Up until 1990, Nepal was a monarchy underexecutive control of the King. Faced with a communistmovement against absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in1990, agreed to a large-scale political reform by creatinga parliamentary monarchy with the King as the head ofstate and a PrimeMinister as the head of the government.Nepal’s legislature was bicameral, consisting of a Houseof Representatives called the Pratinidhi Sabha and aNational Council called the Rastriya Sabha. The Houseof Representatives consisted of 205 members directlyelected by the people. The National Council had 60members: ten nominated by the king, 35 elected by theHouse of Representatives, and the remaining 15 electedby an electoral college made up of chairs of villages andtowns. The legislature had a five-year term but was dis-solvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalicitizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote.The executive comprised the King and the Council ofMinisters (the cabinet). The leader of the coalition orparty securing the maximum seats in an election was ap-pointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was ap-pointed by the king on the recommendation of the PrimeMinister. Governments in Nepal tended to be highly un-stable, falling either through internal collapse or parlia-mentary dissolution by themonarch, on the recommenda-tion of the prime minister, according to the constitution;no government has survived for more than two years since

6 4 POLITICS

1991.The movement in April 2006 brought about a change inthe nation’s governance: an interim constitution was pro-mulgated, with the King giving up power, and an interimHouse of Representatives was formed with Maoist mem-bers after the new government held peace talks with theMaoist rebels. The number of parliamentary seats wasalso increased to 330. In April 2007, the CommunistParty of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim governmentof Nepal.In December 2007, the interim parliament passed a billmaking Nepal a federal republic, with a president as headof state. Elections for the constitutional assembly wereheld on 10 April 2008; the Maoist party led the resultsbut did not achieve a simple majority of seats.[58] The newparliament adopted the 2007 bill at its first meeting by anoverwhelming majority, and King Gyanendra was given15 days to leave the Royal Palace in central Kathmandu.He left on 11 June.[59]

On 26 June, the prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala,who had served as Acting Head of State since January2007, announced that he would resign on the election ofthe country’s first president by the Constituent Assembly.The first round of voting, on 19 July, saw Parmanand Jhawin election as Nepali vice-president, but neither of thecontenders for president received the required 298 votesand a second round was held two days later. Ram BaranYadav of the Nepali Congress party defeated Maoist-backed Ram Raja Prasad Singh with 308 of the 590 votescast.[60] Koirala submitted his resignation to the new pres-ident after Yadav’s swearing-in ceremony on 23 July.

Prachanda speaking at a rally in Pokhara.

On 15 August 2008, Maoist leader Prachanda (PushpaKamal Dahal) was elected Prime Minister of Nepal, thefirst since the country’s transition from a monarchy to arepublic. On 4 May 2009, Dahal resigned over on-goingconflicts with regard to the sacking of the Army chief.Since Dahal’s resignation, the country has been in a se-rious political deadlock with one of the big issues beingthe proposed integration of the former Maoist combat-ants, also known as the People’s Liberation Army, intothe national security forces.[61] After Dahal, Jhala Nath

Khanal of CPN (UML) was elected the Prime Minister.Khanal was forced to step down as he could not succeedin carrying forward the Peace Process and the constitu-tion writing. On August 2011, Maoist Dr. Babu RamBhattarai became third Prime Minister after the electionof constituent assembly.[62] On 24 May 2012, Nepals’sDeputy PM Krishna Sitaula resigned. [63] On 27 May2012, the country’s Constituent Assembly failed to meetthe deadline for writing a new constitution for the coun-try. Prime Minister Baburam Bhattarai announced thatnew elections will be held on 22 November. “We haveno other option but to go back to the people and elect anew assembly to write the constitution,” he said in a na-tionally televised speech. One of the main obstacles hasbeen disagreement over whether the states which will becreated will be based on ethnicity.[64]

Nepal is one of the few countries in Asia to abolish thedeath penalty[65] and the first country in Asia to rule infavor of same-sex marriage. The decision was based on aseven-person government committee study, and enactedthrough Supreme Court's ruling November 2008. Theruling granted full rights for LGBT individuals, includ-ing the right to marry[66] and now can get citizenship as athird gender rather than male or female as authorized byNepal’s Supreme Court in 2007.[67]

4.1 Environmental policy

As a mountainous country with agriculture, hydropowerand tourism all important for its economy, Nepal is vul-nerable to the impacts of climate change, such as ris-ing temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns and incidentsof drought. According to the Climate & DevelopmentKnowledge Network, this has prompted the governmentto introduce new initiatives and institutional reforms.[68]

4.2 Government

Singha Durbar, the seat of Nepalese government

Nepal is a multi-party system federal republic. The In-terim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 has defined three or-

4.3 Subdivisions 7

gans of the government.

• Executive: The executive power of Nepal is vestedin the Council of Ministers. The responsibility ofissuing general directives, controlling and regulat-ing the administration of Nepal lie in the Coun-cil of Ministers. The Prime Minister of Nepal isthe head of the Government. The Prime Ministerappoints the Ministers. While appointing Minis-ters, the Prime Minister shall appoint them, on therecommendation of the concerned political party,from amongst the members of the Legislature-Parliament.

• Legislative: The Legislature-Parliament of Nepalis unicameral. Constituent assembly is working asthe legislature of Nepal at present. The legislatureis composed of 601 members. Among them, 240members are directly elected by the people from 240constituencies. 335 members are elected throughproportional basis and 26 members are nominatedby the cabinet. All the bills are presented in the par-liament. After passing the bills by the majority. Af-ter his approval, it becomes the law. In this way, allthe laws are made in the parliament. The legisla-tive controls over the finance of the country. Leg-islative passes the annual budget according to whichthe government spends money in various tasks. Leg-islative can raise questions to any work of the gov-ernment. If the government does not work properly,legislative can withdraw its support and governmentis dissolved. In this way the legislative has controlover the executive.

• Judiciary: The Constitution provides three tiersof Court which include the Supreme Court ofNepal, the Court of Appeal and the District Courts.Supreme Court is the Apex Court. All courts andjudicial institutions except the constitutional assem-bly court, are under the Supreme Court. There is nodistinction between Criminal and Civil court exceptsome basic procedures. District Court is the Courtof first instance upon which Court of Appeal hearappeal. In addition to these regular courts there isprovision in constitution to establish special types ofcourts or tribunals for the purpose of hearing specialtypes of cases by the law. According to these provi-sion there are four Revenue Tribunals, one Adminis-trative Court, one Labor Court, one Debt Recoverytribunal and one Debt recovery Appeal Tribunal andone special court are functioning under the respec-tive laws. These institutions are under the judicialcontrol of the Supreme Court. There are 16 Courtof Appeal and 15 Districts in Nepal. The SupremeCourt is also the ultimate interpreter of the consti-tution.

4.3 Subdivisions

Main articles: Development Regions of Nepal, List ofzones of Nepal and List of districts of NepalNepal is divided into 14 zones and 75 districts, grouped

Mahakali

Seti

Bheri

Rapti

Lumbini

Narayani

JanakpurSagarmatha

Koshi Mechi

Karnali

Dhawalagiri

Gandaki

Bagmati

Administrative subdivisions of Nepal

into five development regions. Each district is headed bya permanent chief district officer responsible for main-taining law and order and coordinating the work of fieldagencies of the various government ministries. The fiveregions and 14 zones are:

• Eastern Region (Purwanchal)

• Koshi• Mechi• Sagarmatha

• Central Region (Madhyamanchal)

• Bagmati• Janakpur• Narayani

• Western Region (Pashchimanchal)

• Dhawalagiri• Gandaki• Lumbini

• Mid-Western Region (Madhya Pashchimanchal)

• Bheri• Karnali• Rapti

• Far-Western Region (Sudur Pashchimanchal)

• Mahakali• Seti

8 6 ECONOMY

5 Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Nepalese Armed Forces and Foreignrelations of Nepal

Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbors, India andChina. In accordance with a long-standing treaty, Indianand Nepalese citizens may travel to each other’s coun-tries without a passport or visa. Nepalese citizens maywork in India without legal restriction. The Indian Armymaintains seven Gorkha regiments consisting of Gorkhatroops recruited mostly from Nepal.

Khukuri symbolic weapon of the Nepalese Army and Gurkha

However, since the Government of Nepal has been domi-nated by Socialists and India’s by more right-wing parties,India has been remilitarizing the “porous” Indo-Nepaliborder, to stifle the flow of Islamist groups.[69]

Nepal established relations with the People’s Republicof China on 1 August 1955, and relations since havebeen based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexis-tence. Nepal has aided China in the aftermath of the2008 Sichuan earthquake, and China has provided eco-nomic assistance for Nepali infrastructure. Both coun-tries have cooperated to host the 2008 Summer Olympicssummit of Mt. Everest.[70] Nepal has assisted in curbinganti-China protests from the Tibetan diaspora.[71]

Nepal’s military consists of the Nepalese Army, whichincludes the Nepalese Army Air Service. The NepalesePolice Force is the civilian police and the Armed PoliceForce Nepal[72] is the paramilitary force. Service is vol-untary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years.Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military—1.5% of its GDP. Much of the equipment and arms areimported from India. Consequently, the US providedM16s M4s and other Colt weapons to combat commu-nist (Maoist) insurgents. The standard-issue battle rifleof the Nepalese army is the Colt M16.[73]

In the new regulations by Nepalese Army, female soldiershave been barred from participating in combat situationsand fighting in the frontlines of war. However, they are al-

lowed to be a part of the army in sections like intelligence,headquarters, signals and operations.[74]

6 Economy

Main article: Economy of NepalNepal’s gross domestic product (GDP) for 2012 was

Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas.

Kathmandu street vendors

estimated at over $17.921 billion (adjusted to NominalGDP).[5] In 2010, agriculture accounted for 36.1%, ser-vices comprise 48.5%, and industry 15.4% of Nepal’sGDP.[75] While agriculture and industry is contracting,the contribution by service sector is increasing.[75][76]Agriculture employs 76% of the workforce, services 18%andmanufacturing/craft-based industry 6%. Agriculturalproduce – mostly grown in the Terai region borderingIndia – includes tea, rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, rootcrops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainlyinvolves the processing of agricultural produce, includ-ing jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Its workforce ofabout 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilledlabor.Nepal’s economic growth continues to be adversely af-fected by the political uncertainty. Nevertheless, realGDP growth is estimated to increase to almost 5 percentfor 2011/2012. This is a considerable improvement from

9

The trading of wool.

the 3.5 percent GDP growth in 2010/2011 and would bethe second highest growth rate in the post-conflict era.[77]Sources of growth include agriculture, construction, fi-nancial and other services. The contribution of growthby consumption fueled by remittances has declined since2010/2011. While remittance growth slowed to 11 per-cent (in Nepali Rupee terms) in 2010/2011 it has sinceincreased to 37 percent. Remittances are estimated to beequivalent to 25–30 percent of GDP. Inflation has beenreduced to a three-year low to 7 percent.[77]

The proportion of poor people has declined substan-tially in recent years. The percentage of people liv-ing below the international poverty line (people earn-ing less than US$1.25 per day) has halved in onlyseven years.[77] At this measure of poverty the percent-age of poor people declined from 53.1% in 2003/2004to 24.8% in 2010/2011.[77] With a higher poverty lineof US$2 per-capita per day, poverty declined by onequarter to 57.3%.[77] However, the income distributionremains grossly uneven.[78] In a recent survey, Nepalhas performed extremely well in reducing poverty alongwith Rwanda and Bangladesh as the percentage of poordropped to 44.2 percent of the population in 2011 from64.7 percent in 2006–4.1 percentage points per year,which means that Nepal has made significant improve-ment in sectors like nutrition, child mortality, electricity,improved flooring and assets. So if the progress of reduc-ing poverty continues in this rate, then it’s predicted thatNepal will halve the current poverty rate and eradicate itwithin the next 20 years.[79][80][81]

The spectacular landscape and diverse, exotic cultures ofNepal represent considerable potential for tourism, butgrowth in this hospitality industry has been stifled by po-litical instability and poor infrastructure. Despite theseproblems, in 2012 the number of international touristsvisiting Nepal was 598,204, a 10% increase on the previ-ous year.[82] The tourism sector contributed nearly 3% ofnational GDP in 2012 and is the second biggest foreignincome earner after remittances.[83]

The rate of unemployment and underemployment ap-proaches half of the working-age population. Thus manyNepali citizens move to other countries in search of work.Top destinations include India, Qatar, the United States,Thailand, the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Japan,Brunei Darussalam, Australia, and Canada.[84][85] Nepalreceives $50 million a year through the Gurkha soldierswho serve in the Indian and British armies and are highlyesteemed for their skill and bravery. As of 2010, the totalremittance value is worth around $3.5 billion.[85] In 2009alone, the remittance contributed to 22.9% of the nation’sGDP.[85]

A long-standing economic agreement underpins a closerelationship with India. The country receives for-eign aid from India, Japan, the UK, the US, the EU,China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. Povertyis acute; per-capita income is around $1,000.[86] Thedistribution of wealth among the Nepalese is consistentwith that in many developed and developing countries:the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the na-tional wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%.The government’s budget is about $1.153 billion, with ex-penditure of $1.789 billion (FY05/06). The Nepalese ru-pee has been tied to the Indian Rupee at an exchange rateof 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchangerate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for for-eign exchange has all but disappeared. The inflation ratehas dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflationduring the 1990s.Nepal’s exports of mainly carpets, clothing, hemp naturalfiber, leather goods, jute goods and grain total $822 mil-lion. Import commodities of mainly gold, machineryand equipment, petroleum products and fertilizer totalUS$2 bn. EU (46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Ger-many (7.1%) are its main export partners. Recently, theEuropean Union has become the largest buyer of Nepaliready made garments (RMG). Exports to the EU ac-counted for “46.13 percent of the country’s total gar-ment exports”.[87] Nepal’s import partners include In-dia (47.5%), the United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China(10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%).Besides having landlocked, rugged geography, few tan-gible natural resources and poor infrastructure, the in-effective post-1950 government of uneducated old self-centered Politicians and the long-running civil war isalso a factor in stunting the economic growth anddevelopment.[88][89][90]

10 7 INFRASTRUCTURE

7 Infrastructure

7.1 Energy

The bulk of the energy need is dominated by fuel wood(68%) agricultural waste (15%), animal dung (8%), andimported fossil fuel (8%).[91][92] Except for some lignitedeposits, Nepal has no known oil, gas or coal deposits.All commercial fossil fuels (mainly oil and coal) are ei-ther imported from India or from international marketsrouted through India andChina. Fuel imports absorb overone-fourth of Nepal’s foreign exchange earnings.[92] Onlyabout 1% energy need is fulfilled by electricity. Para-doxically, the perennial nature of Nepali rivers and thesteep gradient of the country’s topography provide idealconditions for the development of some of the world’slargest hydroelectric projects in Nepal. Current estimatesput Nepal’s economically feasible hydropower potentialto be approximately 83,000 MW from 66 hydropowerproject sites.[92][93] However, currently Nepal has beenable to exploit only about 600 MW from 20 major hy-dropower plants and a number of small and micro hy-dropower plants.[91] There are 9 major hydropower plantsunder construction, and additional 27 sites consideredfor potential development.[91] Only about 40% of Nepal’spopulation has access to electricity.[91] Even in this sce-nario there is a great disparity between urban and ruralareas. The electrification rate in urban areas is 90%,whereas the rate for rural areas is only 5%.[92] Power cutsof up to 22 hours a day takes place in peak demand pe-riods of winter and the peak electricity demand is almostthe double the capability or dependable capacity.[94] Theposition of the power sector remains unsatisfactory be-cause of high tariffs, high system losses, high generationcosts, high overheads, over staffing, and lower domesticdemand.[92]

7.2 Transport

Means of transport in mountain area

Nepal remains isolated from the world’s major land, airand sea transport routes although, within the country, avi-

ation is in a better state, with 47 airports, 11 of themwith paved runways;[95] flights are frequent and supporta sizable traffic. The hilly and mountainous terrain in thenorthern two-thirds of the country has made the build-ing of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expen-sive. In 2007 there were just over 10,142 km (6,302 mi)of paved roads, and 7,140 km (4,437 mi) of unpavedroad, and one 59 km (37 mi) railway line in the south.[95]There is a single reliable road route from India to theKathmandu Valley. More than one-third of its people liveat least a two hours walk from the nearest all-season road;15 out of 75 district headquarters are not connected byroad. In addition, some 60% of road network and mostrural roads are not operable during the rainy season.[96]The only practical seaport of entry for goods bound forKathmandu is Calcutta in India. Internally, the poor stateof development of the road system makes access to mar-kets, schools, and health clinics a challenge.[88]

7.3 Communication

Mahabir Pun hand-making a satellite dish in Nepal

According to the Nepal Telecommunication AuthorityMIS May 2012 report,[97] there are 7 operators and thetotal voice telephony subscribers including fixed and mo-bile are 16,350,946 which give the penetration rate of61.42%. The fixed telephone service account for 9.37%,mobile for 64.63%, and other services (LM, GMPCS) for3.76% of the total penetration rate. Similarly, the num-bers of subscribers to data/internet services are 4,667,536which represents 17.53% penetration rate. Most of thedata service is accounted by GPRS users. Twelve months

7.5 Health 11

earlier the data/internet penetration was 10.05%, thus thisrepresents a growth rate of 74.77%.[97]

Not only has there been strong subscriber growth, es-pecially in the mobile sector, but there was evidence ofa clear vision in the sector, including putting a reformprocess in place and planning for the building of nec-essary telecommunications infrastructure. Most impor-tantly, the Ministry of Information and Communications(MoIC) and the telecom regulator, the National Telecom-munications Authority (NTA), have both been very activein the performance of their respective roles.[98] Despite allthe effort, there remained a significant disparity betweenthe high coverage levels in the cities and the coverageavailable in the underdeveloped rural regions. Progresson providing some minimum access had been good, how-ever. Of a total of 3,914 Village Development Commit-tees across the country, only 306 were unserved by De-cember 2009.[98] In order to meet future demand, it wasestimated that Nepal needed to invest around US$135million annually in its telecom sector.[98] In 2009, thetelecommunication sector alone contributed to 1% of thenation’s GDP.[99] As of 30 September 2012, Nepal has1,828,700 Facebook users.[100]

In the broadcast media, as of 2007, the state operates2 television stations as well as national and regional ra-dio stations. There are roughly 30 independent TV chan-nels registered, with only about half in regular operation.Nearly 400 FM radio stations are licensed with roughly300 operational.[95] According to 2011 census, the per-centage of households possessing radio was 50.82%, tele-vision 36.45%, cable TV 19.33%, computer 7.23%.[2]According to the Press Council Nepal, as of 2012 thereare 2038 registered newspapers in Nepal, among which514 are in publication.[101] In 2013, the Reporters With-out Borders ranked Nepal at 118th place in the world interms of press freedom.[102][103]

7.4 Education

Main article: Education in NepalCurrently the overall literacy rate (for population aged

Nepalese teacher and schoolchildren in Pokhara

5 years and above) has increased from 54.1% in 2001 to65.9% in 2011. Male literacy rate is 75.1% comparedto female literacy rate of 57.4%. The highest literacyrate is reported in Kathmandu district (86.3%) and low-est in Rautahat (41.7%).[2] While the net primary enroll-ment rate was 74% in 2005;[104] in 2009, that enrollmentrate was at 90%.[105] However increasing access to sec-ondary education (grades 9-12) remains a major chal-lenge, as evidenced by the disturbingly low net enrollmentrate of 24% at this level. More than half of primary stu-dents do not enter secondary schools, and only one-half ofthem complete secondary schooling. In addition, fewergirls than boys join secondary schools and, among thosewho do join, fewer complete the 10th grade.[106] Nepalhas six universities: Tribhuvan University, KathmanduUniversity, Pokhara University, Purbanchal University,Mahendra Sanskrit University, and the Agriculture andForestry University of Nepal (AFU).[107] Some newlyproposed universities are Lumbini Bouddha University,Mid-Western University, and Far-Western University.Some fine scholarship has emerged in the post-1990era.[108]

7.5 Health

Main article: Health in NepalPublic health and health care services in Nepal are pro-

Kunde Hospital in remote Himalayan region

vided by both the public and private sector and farespoorly by international standards. According to 2011census, more than one third (38.17%) of the total house-

12 8 CRIME AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

holds do not have toilet in their houses.[2] Tap/Pipedwater is the main source of drinking water for 47.78%of the total households. Tube well/hand pump is themain source of drinking water for about 35% of the totalhouseholds, while spout, uncovered well/kuwa and cov-ered well/kuwa are the main source for 5.74%, 4.71%and 2.45% respectively.[2] Based on 2010 World HealthOrganization (WHO) data, Nepal ranked 139 in life ex-pectancy in 2010 with the average Nepalese living to 65.8years.[109][110]

Disease prevalence is higher in Nepal than it is in otherSouth Asian countries, especially in rural areas. Leadingdiseases and illnesses include diarrhea, gastrointestinaldisorders, goiter, intestinal parasites, leprosy, visceralleishmaniasis and tuberculosis.[111] About 4 out of 1,000adults aged 15 to 49 had human immunodeficiency virus(HIV), and the HIV prevalence rate was 0.5%.[112][113]Malnutrition also remains very high: about 47% ofchildren under 5 are stunted, 15 percent wasted, and36 percent underweight, although there has been a de-clining trend for these rates over the past five years,they remain alarmingly high.[114] In spite of these fig-ures, some improvements in health care have been made,most notable is the significant progress in maternal-childhealth.[115][116] Overall Nepal’s HDI for health was 0.77in 2011, ranking Nepal 126 out of 194 countries, up from0.444 in 1980.[117][118]

7.6 Community forestry

The Community Forestry Program in Nepal is a par-ticipatory environmental governance that encompasseswell-defined policies, institutions, and practices. Theprogram addresses the twin goals of forest conserva-tion and poverty reduction. As more than 70 per-cent of Nepal’s population depends on agriculture fortheir livelihood, community management of forests hasbeen a critically important intervention. Through legisla-tive developments and operational innovations over threedecades, the program has evolved from a protection-oriented, conservation-focused agenda to a much morebroad-based strategy for forest use, enterprise develop-ment, and livelihood improvement. By April 2009, one-third of Nepal’s population was participating in the pro-gram, directly managing more than one-fourth of Nepal’sforest area.[119][120]

The immediate livelihood benefits derived by rural house-holds bolster strong collective action wherein local com-munities actively and sustainably manage forest re-sources. Community forests also became the source ofdiversified investment capital and raw material for newmarket-oriented livelihoods. Community forestry showstraits of political, financial, and ecological sustainabil-ity, including emergence of a strong legal and regulatoryframework, and robust civil society institutions and net-works. However, a continuing challenge is to ensure eq-uitable distribution of benefits to women and marginal-

ized groups. Lessons for replication emphasize expe-riential learning, establishment of a strong civil societynetwork, flexible regulation to encourage diverse institu-tional modalities, and responsiveness of government andpolicymakers to a multistakeholder collaborative learningprocess.[121][122]

8 Crime and law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in NepalSee also: Directorate of Military Intelligence, Nepal,National Investigation Department of Nepal and Humantrafficking in Nepal

Law enforcement in Nepal is primarily the responsibil-ity of the Nepalese Police Force which is the nationalpolice of Nepal.[123] It is independent of the NepaleseArmy. In the days of its establishment, Nepal Policepersonnel were mainly drawn from the armed forces ofthe Nepali Congress Party which fought against feudalRana autocracy in Nepal. Central Investigation Bureau(CIB) and National Investigation Department of Nepal(NID) are the investigation agencies of Nepal. Theyhave offices in all 75 administrative districts includingregion offices in five regions and Zonal offices in four-teen Zones. Numbers varies from three to five mem-bers at each district level in rural districts and numberscan be higher in urban districts. They have both Do-mestic and International surveillance unit which mainlydeals with cross border terrorists, drug trafficking, moneylaundering.[124][125][126][127]

A 2010 survey estimated about 46,000 hard drug usersin the country, with 70% of the users to be within theage group of 15 to 29.[128] The same survey also reportedthat 19% of the users had been introduced to hard drugswhen they were less than 15 years old; and 14.4% of drugusers were attending school or college.[128] Only 12 ofthe 17 municipalities studied had any type of rehabilita-tion center.[128][129] There has been a sharp increase in theseizure of drugs such as hashish, heroin and opium in thepast few years; and there are indications that drug traf-ficker are trying to establish Nepal as a transit point.[130]

Human trafficking is a major problem inNepal.[131][132][133] Nepali victims are trafficked withinNepal, to India, the Middle East, and other areas suchas Malaysia and forced to become prostitutes, domesticservants, beggars, factory workers, mine workers, circusperformers, child soldiers, and others. Sex trafficking isparticularly rampant within Nepal and to India, with asmany as 5,000 to 10,000 women and girls trafficked toIndia alone each year.[134][135][136]

With wider availability of information technology, cy-ber crime is a growing trend. The police handled 16cases of cyber crime in fiscal year 2010/2011, 47 cases in2011/2012 and 78 in the current fiscal year.[137] In 2013,

9.1 Languages 13

out of 78 cases of cyber crime this year 57 are related tosocial networking sites.[137]

Capital punishment was abolished in Nepal in 1997.[138]In 2008, the Nepalese government abolished the Haliyasystem of forced labour, freeing about 20,000 people.[139]How effective this has been has been questioned.[140]

9 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of NepalAccording to 2011 census, Nepal’s population grew from

Population density map of Nepal

9 million people in 1950 to 26.5 million in 2011. Thepopulation was 23million in 2001 with a subsequent fam-ily size decline from 5.44 to 4.9 from 2001 to 2011. Some1.9 million absentee population was noted in 2011, overa million more than in 2001, most being male workers.This correlated with the drop in sex ratio from 94.41as compared to 99.80 for 2001. The annual populationgrowth rate is 1.35%.[2]

The Nepalese are descendants of three major migrationsfrom India, Tibet, and North Burma and the Chineseprovince of Yunnan via Assam.Among the earliest inhabitants were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginalTharu in the southern Terai region. The ancestors ofthe Brahmin and Chetri caste groups came from India’spresent Kumaon, Garhwal and Kashmir regions, whileother ethnic groups trace their origins to North Burmaand Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar in thewest, Rai, Sunuwar and Limbu in the east (from Yunnanand north Burma via Assam), and Sherpa and Bhutia inthe north (from Tibet).Despite the migration of a significant section of the pop-ulation to the southern plains or terai in recent years,the majority of the population still lives in the centralhighlands. The northern mountains are sparsely popu-lated. Kathmandu, with a population of over 2.6 million(metropolitan area: 5 million), is the largest city in thecountry.According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published

A mountain village in Nepal

Nepalese women dancing in Teej

by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants,Nepal hosted a population of refugees and asylum seek-ers in 2007 numbering approximately 130,000. Ofthis population, approximately 109,200 persons werefrom Bhutan and 20,500 from People’s Republic ofChina.[141][142] The government of Nepal restrictedethnic Nepalese expelled from Bhutan to seven camps inthe Jhapa and Morang districts, and refugees were notpermitted to work in most professions.[141] At present,the United States is working towards resettling more than60,000 of these refugees in the US.[34]

9.1 Languages

Main article: Languages of Nepal

Nepal’s diverse linguistic heritage evolved from fourmajor language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman,Mongolian and various indigenous language isolates.The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as na-tive language) according to the 2011 census are Nepali(44.6%), Maithili (11.7%), Bhojpuri (6.0%), Tharu(5.8%), Tamang (5.1%), Nepal Bhasa (3.2%), Bajjika(3%) andMagar (3.0%), Doteli (3.0%), Urdu (2.6%) andSunwar. In addition, Nepal is home to at least four indige-nous sign languages.Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is written in Devanagari

14 9 DEMOGRAPHICS

script. Nepali is the official national language and servesas lingua franca among Nepalis of different ethnolinguis-tic groups. The regional languages Awadhi, Bhojpuri,Maithili and rarely Hindi are spoken in the southern TeraiRegion. Many Nepalis in government and business speakEnglish as well. Varieties of Tibetan are spoken in andnorth of the higher Himalaya where standard literary Ti-betan is widely understood by those with religious edu-cation. Local dialects in the Terai and hills are mostlyunwritten with efforts underway to develop systems forwriting many in Devanagari or the Roman alphabet.

9.2 Religion

Main article: Religion in NepalThe overwhelming majority of the Nepalese population

Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal.

follows Hinduism. Shiva is regarded as the guardian deityof the country.[145] Nepal is home to the famous LordShiva temple, the Pashupatinath Temple, where Hindusfrom all over the world come for pilgrimage. Accordingto theology, Sita Devi of the epic Ramayana, was born inthe Mithila Kingdom of King Janaka Raja.Lumbini is a Buddhist pilgrimage site and UNESCOWorld Heritage Site site in the Kapilavastu district. Tra-ditionally it is held to be the birthplace in about 563 B.C.of Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya caste prince of theSakya clan, who, as the Buddha Gautama, gave birth tothe Buddhist tradition.The holy site of Lumbini is bordered by a large monasticzone, in which only monasteries can be built. All three

main branches of Buddhism exist in Nepal and the Newapeople have their own branch of the faith.[146] Buddhismis also the dominant religion of the thinly populatednorthern areas, which are mostly inhabited by Tibetan-related peoples, such as the Sherpa.The Buddha, born as a Hindu, is also said to be a descen-dant of Vedic Sage Angirasa in many Buddhist texts.[147]The Buddha’s family surname is associated with GautamaMaharishi.[148] Differences between Hindus and Bud-dhists have been minimal in Nepal due to the culturaland historical intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist be-liefs. Moreover traditionally Buddhism and Hinduismwere never two distinct religions in the western senseof the word. In Nepal, the faiths share common tem-ples and worship common deities. Among other na-tives of Nepal, those more influenced by Hinduism werethe Magar, Sunwar, Limbu and Rai and the Gurkhas.[25]Hindu influence is less prominent among the Gurung,Bhutia, and Thakali groups who employ Buddhist monksfor their religious ceremonies.[25] Most of the festivals inNepal are Hindu.[149] The Machendrajatra festival, dedi-cated to Hindu Shaiva Siddha, is celebrated bymany Bud-dhists in Nepal as a main festival.[150] As it is believed thatNe Muni established Nepal,[151] some important priestsin Nepal are called “Tirthaguru Nemuni”. Islam is a mi-nority religion in Nepal, with 4.2% of the population be-ing Muslim according to a 2006 Nepalese census.[152]Mundhum, Christianity and Jainism are other minorityfaiths.[153]

9.3 Largest cities

Narayanhiti Palace Museum

The 14 largest cities in 2011 by population as per cen-sus 2011[2]

Main article: List of cities in Nepal

• Kathmandu (Pop.: 975,453) the largest city and cap-ital of Nepal.

10.1 Cuisine 15

• Biratnagar (Pop.: over 700,000 including sub urbanareas) the second largest City of Nepal

• Pokhara (Pop.: 264,991)

• Lalitpur (Pop.: 220,802)

• Bharatpur (Pop.: 143,836)

• Birganj (Pop.: 135,904)

• Butwal (Pop.: 118,462)

• Dharan (Pop.: 116,181)

• Bhim Datta (Pop.: 104,599)

• Dhangadhi (Pop.: 101,970)

• Janakpur (Pop.: 97,776)

• Hetauda (Pop.:84,671)

• Madhyapur Thimi (Pop.:83,036)

• Bhaktapur (Pop.: 81,748)

10 Culture

Main articles: Culture of Nepal and Music of NepalFolklore is an integral part of Nepalese society. Tradi-

Traditional Nepalese cuisine- (Dal bhat)

tional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life,tales of love, affection and battles as well as demons andghosts and thus reflect local lifestyles, cultures and beliefs.Many Nepalese folktales are enacted through the mediumof dance and music.The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into12 months. Saturday is the official weekly holiday. Mainannual holidays include the National Day, celebrated onthe birthday of the king (28 December), Prithvi Jayanti(11 January), Martyr’s Day (18 February), and a mix ofHindu and Buddhist festivals such as dashain in autumn,and tihar in late autumn. During Swanti, the Newars per-form the Mha Puja ceremony to celebrate New Year’sDay of the lunar calendar Nepal Sambat.

Musicians singing devotional songs

Momo

Most houses in rural lowland of Nepal are made up ofa tight bamboo framework and walls of a mud and cow-dung mix. These dwellings remain cool in summer andretain warmth in winter. Houses in the hills are usuallymade of unbaked bricks with thatch or tile roofing. Athigh elevations construction changes to stone masonryand slate may be used on roofs.Nepal’s flag is the only national flag in the world that isnot rectangular in shape[154] and is considered to be themost mathematical flag in the world.[155] According to itsofficial description, the red in the flag stands for victory inwar or courage, and is also color of the rhododendron, thenational flower of Nepal. Red also stands for aggression.The flag’s blue border signifies peace. The curved moonon the flag is a symbol of the peaceful and calm nature ofNepalese, while the sun represents the aggressiveness ofNepalese warriors.

10.1 Cuisine

Main articles: Nepalese cuisine and Newa cuisineSee also: List of Nepalese dishes

A typical Nepalese meal is Dal bhat. Dal is a spicy

16 13 CITATIONS

lentil soup, served over bhat (boiled rice), served withtarkari (curried vegetables) together with achar (pickles)or chutni (spicy condiment made from fresh ingredients).It consists of non-vegetarian as well as vegetarian itemsserved with non-alcoholic beverages. Mustard oil is thecooking medium and a host of spices, such as cumin,coriander, black pepper, sesame seeds, turmeric, garlic,ginger, methi (fenugreek), bay leaves, cloves, cinnamon,chilies, mustard seeds, etc., are used in the cooking. Thecuisine served on festivals is generally the best. Momois a type of steamed bun with or without fillings. Momohave become a traditional delicacy in Nepal. They areone of the most popular fast foods in many regions of theNepal.

11 Sports

Dasarath Rangasala Stadium

Halchowk Studium

Association football is the most popular sport inNepal[156] and was first played during the Rana dynastyin 1921.[157] Also, cricket has been gaining popularitysince the last decade. Cricket in Nepal is making quickprogress as the Nepal cricket team has won the 2012 ICCWorld Cricket League Division Four and the 2013 ICCWorld Cricket League Division Three[158] simultaneouslyhence qualifying for 2014 Cricket World Cup Quali-

fier. They have also qualified for the 2014 ICC WorldTwenty20 which is currently taking place in Bangladesh.Phapla Cricket Stadium is the national cricket stadium inNepal. It is located in Dhangadhi Kailali.

12 See also

• List of Nepal-related topics

• Outline of Nepal

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[2] “National Population and Housing Census 2011 (NationalReport)". Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal). Retrieved26 November 2012.

[3] http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP_PPP.pdf

[4] http://databank.worldbank.org

[5] “Nepal”. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 20April 2012.

[6] “Gini Index”. World Bank. Retrieved 2 March 2011.

[7] “2014 Human Development Report Summary”. UnitedNations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21–25.Retrieved 27 July 2014.

[8] “Nepal”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). OxfordUniversity Press. September 2005.

[9] “CIA – The World Factbook”. Cia.gov. Retrieved 5 De-cember 2012.

[10] “TheWorld Factbook: Rank order population”. CIA. Re-trieved 14 February 2014.

[11] Shaha (1992), p. 1.

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[13] Nepal, UN. “12-point understanding reached betweenthe Seven Political Parties and Nepal Communist Party(Maoists)". http://www.un.org.np/. Retrieved 3 July2014.

[14] Bhusal, Thira (14 March 2013). “Major parties ink 11-point agreement”. Republica. Retrieved 13 March 2013.

[15] "बाधा अड्काउ फुकाउनेसहित राजनीतिक सहमतिमाहस्ताक्षर, शपथ भोलि बिहान ९ बजेमात्रै". Nagarik. 23November 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.

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[17] “Nepal Peace Reports”. The Carter Foundation. Re-trieved 14 February 2014. |first1= missing |last1= in Au-thors list (help)

[18] “The 2013 Human Development Report – “The Rise ofthe South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"". HDRO(Human Development Report Office) United Nations De-velopment Programme. pp. 144–147. Retrieved 15 Jan-uary 2014.

[19] Planning Commission, Nepal. “AnApproach to theGrad-uation from the Least Developed Country by 2022”. http://www.npc.gov.np/. Retrieved 3 July 2014.

[20] Dangol, Amrit (6 May 2007). “Alone in Kathmandu”.Alone in Kathmandu. Retrieved 29 July 2009.

[21] Prasad, P. 4 The life and times of Maharaja JuddhaShumsher Jung Bahadur Rana of Nepal

[22] Khatri, P. 16 The Postage Stamps of Nepal

[23] W.B., P. 34 Land of the Gurkhas

[24] P. 17 Looking to the Future: Indo-Nepal Relations in Per-spective By Lok Raj Baral

[25] “A Country Study: Nepal”. Federal Research Division,Library of Congress. Retrieved 23 September 2005.

[26] Rai-Sampahang, Khagendra. "किराँतबारे अनुसन्धानआवश्यक". Gorkhapatra. Retrieved 13 September 2013.

[27] Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang DynastyRecord of the Western Regions, pp. 219–220. NumataCenter for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley,California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8

[28] Watters, Thomas. 1904-5. On Yuan Chwang’s Travels inIndia (A.D. 629–645), pp. 83–85. Reprint: MushiramManoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973.

[29] Giuseppe, Father (1799). “Account of the Kingdom ofNepal”. Asiatick Researches. London: Vernor and Hood.Retrieved 2 June 2012. Page 308.

[30] Tucci, Giuseppe. (1952). Journey to Mustang, 1952.Trans. by Diana Fussell. 1st Italian edition, 1953; 1st En-glish edition, 1977. 2nd edition revised, 2003, p. 22. Bib-liotheca Himalayica. ISBN 99933-0-378-X (South Asia);ISBN 974-524-024-9 (Outside of South Asia).

[31] Dietrich, Angela (1996). “Buddhist Monks and RanaRulers: A History of Persecution”. Buddhist Himalaya:A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods. Re-trieved 17 September 2013.

[32] Lal, C. K. (16 February 2001). “The Rana resonance”.Nepali Times. Retrieved 17 September 2013.

[33] “Timeline: Nepal”. BBC News. Retrieved 29 September2005.

[34] Bhaumik, Subir (7 November 2007). “Bhutan refugeesare 'intimidated'". BBC News. Retrieved 25 April 2008.

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[48] “Sushil Koirala becomes new prime minister of Nepal”.Ekantipur. Retrieved 14 February 2014. |first1= missing|last1= in Authors list (help)

[49] Beek van der Peter, Xavier Robert, Jean-Louis Mugnier,Matthias Bernet, Pascale Huyghe and Erika Labrin, “LateMiocene- Recent Exhumation of the Central Himalayaand Recycling in the Foreland Basin Assessed by ApatiteFission-Track Thermochronology of Siwalik Sediments,Nepal”, Basic research, 18, 413–434, 2006.

[50] Berger Antoine, Francois Jouanne, Riadm Hassani andJean Louis Mugnier, “Modelling the Spatial Distributionof Present day Deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical isthe Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal?", Geophys.J.Int.,156, 94–114, 2004.

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[52] Chamlagain Deepak and Daigoro Hayashi, “NeotectonicFault Analysis by 2D Finite Element Modeling for Study-ing the Himalayan Fold and Thrust belt in Nepal”, Uni-versity of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Journal of Asian EarthSciences, 1–16, 14 July 2006.

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18 13 CITATIONS

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19

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• Shaha, Rishikesh (1992). Ancient and MedievalNepal. New Delhi: Manohar Publications. ISBN81-85425-69-8.

• Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj (2002). The Brick and theBull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capitalof Nepal. Himal Books. ISBN 99933-43-52-8.

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• Haven, Cynthia (24 August 2010). “The Best Mem-oir You Never Heard Of: “Shadow Over Shangri-La"". San Francisco Chronicle.

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• “Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet”. Nepal homepage. Re-trieved 23 September 2005.

• Sharma, Sushil (29 August 2005). “Jailed ex-PMin Nepal court plea”. BBC News. Retrieved 29September 2005.

• “Nepal’s new emblem”. Citizen Journalism Nepal.Retrieved 7 February 2007.

• Gotz Hagmuller (2003). PatanMuseum: The Trans-formation of a Royal Palace in Nepal. London:Serindia. ISBN 978-0-906026-58-8.

• Kunda Dixit (2006). A people war: Images of theNepal conflict 1996–2006. Kathmandu: nepa-laya.

• Barbara Crossette (1995). So Close to Heaven:The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas.New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74363-4.

• Bista, Dor Bahadur (1967). People of Nepal. Dept.of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broad-casting, Govt. of Nepal. ISBN 99933-0-418-2.

• Whelpton, John (2005). A History of Nepal. Cam-bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521804707.

• Michael Hutt, ed., Himalayan 'people’s war' :Nepal’s Maoist rebellion, London: C. Hurst, 2004

• Peter Matthiessen (1993). The Snow Leopard. Pen-guin. ISBN 0-00-272025-6.

• Joe Simpson (1997). Storms of Silence. Moun-taineers Books. ISBN 0-89886-512-3.

• Samrat Upadhyay (2001). Arresting God in Kath-mandu. Mariner Books. ISBN 0-618-04371-3.

• Joseph R. Pietri (2001). The King of Nepal. Indi-anapolis, IN: Indiana Creative Arts. ISBN 0-615-11928-X.

• Maurice Herzog (1951). Annapurna. The LyonsPress. ISBN 1-55821-549-2.

• Dervla Murphy (1968). The Waiting Land: A Spellin Nepal. Transatlantic Arts. ISBN 0-7195-1745-1.

• Rishikesh Shaha (2001). Modern Nepal: A Politi-cal History. Manohar Publishers and Distributors.ISBN 81-7304-403-1.

• Jane Wilson-Howarth (2007). A Glimpse of EternalSnows: a family’s journey of love and loss in Nepal.Pier 9, Australia. p. 432. ISBN 978-1-921259-26-5.

• Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods inNepal. – International Centre for Integrated Moun-tain Development, Kathmandu, March 2011

21

15 External links• Official website of the Government of Nepal

• Nepal entry at The World Factbook

• Nepal from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Nepal at DMOZ

• About Nepal

• Nepal at Encyclopædia Britannica

• Nepal profile from the BBC News

• Wikimedia Atlas of Nepal

• Planet Nepal Nepal Encyclopedia Project

• Cost of Living Index in Nepal - Statistics & Graphsof Nepalese Citizen’s Economic Power

• People missing in connection with the conflict inNepal database on ICRC’s Restoring family linkswebsite

• Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods inNepal. – International Centre for Integrated Moun-tain Development, Kathmandu, March 2011

• World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Nepal

Coordinates: 26°32′N 86°44′E / 26.533°N 86.733°E

22 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.1 Text• Nepal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal?oldid=635818775 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Mav, Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, Andre

Engels, Scipius, Danny, Rmhermen, Christian List, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, B4hand, Fonzy, Olivier, Edward, Bdesham, Nealmcb,Patrick, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Liftarn, Gabbe, Menchi, Mic, Ixfd64, Lquilter, GTBacchus, Delirium, Paddu, Ellywa, Ahoerste-meier, Docu, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, KoyaanisQatsi, Angela, Julesd, Pratyeka, Whkoh, Nikai, Dpol, Jiang, Kaihsu, GCarty, CarlKen-ner, Tobias Conradi, JASpencer, Timwi, David Newton, Janko, RickK, Lfh, N-true, Istabraq, Shresthasj, WhisperToMe, Selket, Pere-grine981, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Imc, Grendelkhan, Morwen, Wernher, Stormie, Raul654, Camerong, Cvaneg, Hajor, Denelson83,Jni, SD6-Agent, Sjorford, Branddobbe, Robbot, Vardion, Santoshmaharjan, Kizor, Lapax, Altenmann, Stephan Schulz, Nurg, Romanm,Samrolken, Hemanshu, Diderot, Timrollpickering, Doidimais Brasil, Hadal, Wikibot, Ungvichian, Mushroom, Ambarish, Scythian99,BovineBeast, PBP, Davidcannon, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Dave6, Nichalp, Lupin, IRelayer, Tom Radulovich, 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Spliffy, Cromag, X3210, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Ief, Lewis R, NeilN, GrinBot, Asterion, Amberrock,One, That Guy, From That Show!, Parvez gsm, robot, Piyushu, Caponer, Wai Hong, Sardanaphalus, Veinor, Fightindaman, Je-sus geek, Stalfur, SmackBot, Pwt898, WilliamThweatt, YellowMonkey, Sagun, Saravask, David Kernow, Zazaban, Raedwulf16, Personman345, GoldenXuniversity, GrandfatherJoe, McGeddon, C.Fred, Vald, ARYAN818, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged 85, Davewild, Thunder-boltz, Clpo13, Verne Equinox, Bwithh, EncycloPetey, Renesis, Delldot, Eskimbot, Rojomoke, Mgreenbe, W Tanoto, JJay, Sardino, Kin-tetsubuffalo, Hmusseau, Edgar181, HalfShadow, LittleRoughRhinestone, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Desiphral, Polaron, Eug, Holy Ganga,ERcheck, Squiddy, Chris the speller, Jamie C, Keegan, Timbouctou, Geneb1955, Rakela, Persian Poet Gal, Thumperward, SeanWillard,MalafayaBot, Fizban, Bndahal, Silly rabbit, SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Davidmpye, Akanemoto,Bazonka, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Viewfinder, Effer, Kungming2, Quackslikeaduck, Baronnet, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, Theconquerer,Struds, Rlevse, GoodDay, MaxSem, Rama’s Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Grusl, Милан Јелисавчић, Prattmic, Keith Lehwald,Neo139, OrphanBot, MJCdetroit, EOZyo, Hither2forlorn, Xyzzyplugh, WMXX, DBBell, Stevenmitchell, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Emre D.,Fuhghettaboutit, Kingdon, Meerav, Cybercobra, Prameya, Nakon, Garrett F, Horses In The Sky, Zyzzy2, RandomP, Iridescence, BryanG,Minority2005, Fireashes, CraigTheBrit, DavidSSabb, Kotjze, Aaniyo, Nmpenguin, Ligulembot, Vina-iwbot, Bejnar, RossF18, Kukini,Ricky@36, Timdream, Ugur Basak Bot, Wilt, Ohconfucius, The undertow, SashatoBot, Caravaca, Agradman, Franc13, Sugarskane, Kuru,John, Rigadoun, Wtwilson3, GeoffreyVS, Heimstern, Korean alpha for knowledge, Bo99, JorisvS, Kashmiri, Green Giant, Goodnight-mush, Kransky, IronGargoyle, HADRIANVS, Beefy SAFC, Chrisch, Tarikur, Rkmlai, Pazuzu1990, Hvn0413, Werdan7, Beetstra, NoahSalzman, Raymond Palmer, Alethiophile, Samfreed, AxG, Muppeteer, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, Ambuj.Saxena, Aotearoa, Pe-ter Horn, Jose77, Aakash87, Dl2000, Kevin W., Hu12, DabMachine, Levineps, Ahtsisab, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Theone00,Tmangray, Shoeofdeath, Walton One, VSTiger, Sjerickson07, Tony Fox, Amakuru, Bobamnertiopsis, Linkspamremover, Anger22, Thrice-cube, Tawkerbot2, Pudeo, RaviC, MightyWarrior, Grasshoppa, Fvasconcellos, Dia^, Fentona, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Skathayat, Stansult,Van helsing, Aherunar, John Riemann Soong, Rawling, Theleek, Mika1h, Pankajjain, Kushal one, CWY2190, ShelfSkewed, Gsrihari-raju, Outriggr, Shandris, Lazulilasher, WeggeBot, Moreschi, Saturn070, Richard Keatinge, Jac16888, Cydebot, The Deformed Child,Wakeyjamie, Danrok, Ntsimp, Subravenkat, Stephen and Franklin and Roger and James, Perfect Proposal, Bernardmax, Ramitmaha-jan, Achangeisasgoodasa, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, Corpx, Corcorda, Llort, Vampiric.Media, Wikincs, Socom49, Avashnirvana, Falca-nary, Christian75, Chrislk02, JCO312, Asenine, Biblbroks, Kozuch, Omicronpersei8, Gyudon, EvocativeIntrigue, Joowwww, Mattisse,Thijs!bot, Leo das, Wikiwow, Epbr123, Subcontinental, Biruitorul, Tozznok, Armanaziz, NumaNumaYay, Guluspogi@yahoo.com, MojoHand, Anupam, Jp07, RevolverOcelotX, Adhikar1, SGGH, Heelop, Merbabu, Franklee, RFerreira, Rabin06, NigelR, Suraj11024, I nepali,Jws42, Pdhakal, Therequiembellishere, Tonyseeker, Tocino, Big Bird, DeusMP, Haha169, Natalie Erin, AlefZet, Northumbrian, Escarbot,Oreo Priest, Mentifisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Gaviidae, 33066, EarthPerson, Quintote, Dr. Blofeld, DarkAu-

16.1 Text 23

dit, Websuraj, Scepia, Vanjagenije, Modernist, Superzohar, Danger, Credema, Jhsounds, Gdo01, Yellowdesk, Alphachimpbot, Rcduggan,Ventriloquist, Djackmanson, E.James, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Dagayute, Uunter, Fellix, Deflective, MER-C, Nepal avish, Smallbighorn,Kshitize, Scythian1, Jackieboy87, Hello32020, Db099221, OhanaUnited, Andonic, Hut 8.5, B cubed, Leolaursen, PhilKnight, Joshua,Dipenda, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Aekbal, Akuyume, HempalShrestha, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mar-tinDK,MJD86,Weser, JNW, Bibhu heaven 123, Bigdan201, JimDouglas, Sindhutvavadin, Pokhrel nabaraj, TheAnomebot2, BrianHickey,Indon, MED12345678, Mrbobmac, Teddythtam2003, Tuncrypt, IkonicDeath, Superbwiktim, Nposs, Jeb8828, 28421u2232nfenfcenc,Sudyp, Rif Winfield, DerHexer, JaGa, Philg88, Edward321, Vsubedi, Lenticel, Karan.ag, Inclusivedisjunction, Samratchand, Flami72,Dvalerio, Wikinger, Gwern, S3000, Misarxist, RoTi38, MartinBot, Donarst, NAHID, ARC Gritt, Paracel63, Kevinsam, Rettetast, R'n'B,CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, AgarwalSumeet, Jobbus McKnockey, Fconaway, Lilac Soul, Johnluisocasio, What the fuck?, WilhiteA,WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWIKIPEDIA, Element6968, Zhiqiang, Jphism, Echeesekid, J.delanoy, Jahanas, Rgoodermote, Lpark-erjedi, Pharos04, JamesR, Smartguy0, UBeR, Numbo3, Himguard, Pjottermans, Qatter, Riteshlamsal, Textangel, Barts1a, BrokenSphere,Mayaisastar, Yifan1982, Shrivastav, Jhattara, Naniwako, Berkeleybernie, Mjb1981, Ajcfreak, Rockmandu, AntiSpamBot, Youwinjack,Junafani, Plasticup, Nepalikukur, Airpeters01, Sundar1, In Transit, Cynthia0725, SJP, Ahuskay, Sahyogi, Flatterworld, Jamminguy2,Rumpelstiltskin223, Mikeonatrike, Angular, Eljusto1, Cometstyles, Tweisbach, LordCo Centre, Ostentatious, Nimora, Bonadea, Doctorox-enbriery, Jarry1250, Andy Marchbanks, Empty cognizance, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Montchav, Signalhead, Vranak, G2bambino,Chinneeb, Deor, VolkovBot, That-Vela-Fella, CWii, Safemariner, Dragoonkain, Jeff G., Achbha, Cmkz, Partha lal, RabinK007, Sm-cilreavy, Barneca, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, Kundadixit, BirmanM, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, Pahari Sahib, GimmeBot, Jalwikip,Bigvibes, Ietsov, Johnb01, Rei-bot, Aymatth2, Someguy1221, Jack of All, Master of None, Iamnepali, Kushalzone, Vanished user iki-jeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Steven J. Anderson, Lradrama, Lanka07, Ajursha, JhsBot, Slysplace, DyceBot, LeaveSleaves, Arheus, R0kins0l,Veggieburgerfish, David in DC, Ilyushka88, Maxim, Quindraco, Nedrutland, Tidying Up, Larklight, Dick Kimball, Wei Xiwu, Enigma-man, Apforz42, Nw adelman, Synthebot, Meetkamaljee, J. J. in PA, Alfredo J. Herrera Lago, Keepssouth, Rabinesh, Birmanmaharjan,Angsty, The Devil’s Advocate, Luffmodular, Craigtheretard, AlleborgoBot, Miguel.v, Blaske, Mario1952, Reginald Perrin, Shaidar cue-biyar, Daveh4h, Saroozz, Nfranraicis, Francisrainik, Hughey, Demmy, Joachim Weckermann, Smurali49, Sameermanandhar, SieBot,Zip600001, Tomalak geretkal, Qwertzxcvb, Calliopejen1, ChanningLaurel, Pakchat, Beeandy, Jessend, Rob.bastholm, Caltas, Lexlimbu,Kbridell, Renegade111, Edmund Patrick, Yintan, Lakshya htd, AnThRaX Ru, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg, Rabinbaral, Keilana, Ujj-wol, LADave, Was Once, Prestonmag, Sthapa, Lightmouse, Chadsnook, Int21h, Ramgautam, Lukas Upadhya, BenoniBot, Moletrouser,Maelgwnbot, Correogsk, Schrodt, Andrij Kursetsky, Vice regent, Chrisrus, Capitalismojo, Theway2getme, Tesi1700, Sinhala freedom,Ptr123, Nn123645, Torch1234, Varanwal, Bigen182, Akldawgs, Richard David Ramsey, Sitush, Hindupridemn, Jimmy Slade, NyteSky,Vinay Jha, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, JJ Williams, RS1900, Mr. Granger, MenoBot, Nischaldahal, Loren.wilton, Martarius,OtherAJ, ClueBot, Kathmandu2007, PipepBot, RonBeeCNC, Kotniski, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kumuty, Lexington1, Golden-hawk 0, Plastikspork, GeneCallahan, Aj rock, Der Golem, VQuakr, Mild Bill Hiccup, CrazyRepublican, Rafaelgarcia, Vdgreat, Pranav17,Doseiai2, Boing! said Zebedee, Timberframe, CounterVandalismBot, Cliffsteinman, Prakritilama, Harland1, Razv, Otolemur crassicau-datus, Piledhigheranddeeper, Mark.word1, Catbtds, Nepaltoursdestination, Rockfang, Ajhodd, Einsteinewton, Artotem, DragonBot, De-troiterbot, Marlow10, Frances410, Excirial, Dsquirrel, Dre123, Anonymous101, Alexbot, Saditya76, Leontios, QWerk.fi, Nana Bjørnlund,PixelBot, WikiZorro, Adimovk5, Wiki dr mahmad, Vivio Testarossa, Rhatsa26X, Lartoven, S paw1, Spradh01, NuclearWarfare, Ce-narium, Jotterbot, Sbfw, Pewaichha, Dn9ahx, Salty1984, JamieS93, Esimal, RusskiDan, Rabindra Baral, Nafis ru, BOTarate, Nsodgurl,EgraS, Anishfun, Pogozachy1010, Dlawbailey, Tired time, Npvsus, Apaudel, Rainbow87, Samantha555, Ranjithsutari, Compower, Smark-flea, Sudip Regmi, Nishadh Shrestha, DumZiBoT, Jpople, Ramsonwiki, MsTreetippitak, Editorofthewiki, Anju273, Khola123, AlanM1,Reshammagar, XLinkBot, Flumda, Sac1891, Bikashdai, Oc rocker, Mitsube, Stickee, Larno Man, Dthomsen8, Ajcheema, Snowmon-ster, Awalktm, Kedarg, Toldaside, Armm1, SilvonenBot, AlexNebraska, Prabhasyadav, JinJian, TigersRus, Kumarans10, Good Olfactory,Synvermin, Gggh, Kapil kalpana, Manyjoin, Chanchaltam, Ajay22308, Ekadev, MatthewVanitas, Jhendin, Bazj, Shreaayu, Taigaroamer,ElatedGuru, Narayansg, Altetendekrabbe, AnonyLog, Jamisonhalliwell, Mabdul, Tcncv, Lal Salaam, Metagraph, Nepaliboi, Ashishloho-rung, Jyao2, Nepal-Forum-USA, Vishnava, Sirprabin, Cognatus, Mac Dreamstate, Jubiline, Mnmazur, Padma1000, Bnp46, AntiWar001,Prakriti1, LeeAmir, Aramsharan, NepalPatriot, SapnaMadheshi, Debresser, Rajpoot91, Padman101, Ginosbot, Encyclopedia1742, Snkr,Tassedethe, Sanawon, Numbo3-bot, Sangam Mulmi, Brazilburn116, Lightbot, Berks911, Sarahlouisegalbraith, Dogralokesh, Rastranayak,A class Dobbins, Ketabtoon, Bricklayer, Sujayssa, WikiHendrik, BlueMario1016, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Dipzone7, Yobot, Editor2423,Yuri Karlov, Mauler90, Amirobot, Voice99, Kshitijp, NepaliBoy7, Jai Madhesh!, Bonne Nuit Bijou, Ajh16, Nallimbot, Heropadaimazero,Prabeshdhaubaji, Againme, Xaajjaax, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Angry bee, Nepali7, Chau87, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Uttampaudel, Zoom-zoom316, Keithbob, Infovisitingnepal, AdjustShift, Blackknight12, LlywelynII, Knowledgekid87, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Cita-tion bot, Nebraska3, ArthurBot, Thulasi12345, LilHelpa, Itzmerabin, Tatarian, Xqbot, Berganus, Timir2, Ulysses elias, TheP1990, TheMagnificent Clean-keeper, Gilo1969, Anna Frodesiak, Achlochan, Mykjoseph, J04n, Kostpolt, GrouchoBot, Thulungdanesh, Alumnum,ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Lalit Jagannath, RibotBOT, Shattered Gnome, Moxy, Chongkian, HarshithBhat, Shadowjams, We-bCiteBOT, Justpeace, Khalidshou, A robustus, FrescoBot, Anna Roy, Tobby72, VividTara, Mistakefinder, Bruno Ishiai, A Werewolf,VoodooIsland, Bambuway, Pranjalghimire, BenzolBot, SargentIV, Thapa.laxman, Airborne84, Lunamdocs, PigFlu Oink, Lady Lotus,AstaBOTh15, Nepaliaashish, WQUlrich, Deswaali, Elockid, Hariboneagle927, LiquidOcelot24, King Zebu, P.4.P. No. 1, Nahnite, ShivaKhanal, Hoo man, Arzun, Plasticspork, Reconsider the static, Terissn, Iokerapid, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, TobeBot, Gangol, WilhelmKlave, Lotje, Dhilung, Pras.kota, Aoidh, Petronius2, Diannaa, Underlying lk, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Deshbhakta69, Soewin-han, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot, Generalboss3, Ripchip Bot, Jimtaip, DASHBot, Shabidoo, Mrsurajsubedi, EmausBot, Wiki-tanvirBot, Milkunderwood, Ghostofnemo, Dadaist6174, Dewritech, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Mesgul82, Heljqfy, Tatiraju.rishabh, Kkm010,HiW-Bot, Ida Shaw, Illegitimate Barrister, Ashowmega, Inhakito, Thargor Orlando, Kamalmonami, Ladokhau, Ganesh Paudel, AvicAWB,Eken7, H3llBot, DBSSURFER, SporkBot, Monterey Bay, Shmilyshy, NeelAbodh, Laurelenril, Tolly4bolly, Highvale, Sadeeshbala, City ofDestruction, L Kensington, Jahangir23, Shrigley, TheFoxdonut, Donner60, Shashakura, Rahul kaushik, Madalu, H31331603, Arysov, Zekefoxon, Hazard-Bot, ChuispastonBot, Anupkaphle, Hisagar123, FeatherPluma, Amanhanda, Cielbleu, Sheela koirala, Rohith goura, ClueBotNG, Krizpo, LogX, K1eyboard, Gilderien, Suraz03, SumerianPrince, Another n00b, XXPowerMexicoXx, Kman665, Karrattul, Frietjes,Delusion23, Dansong22, Hazhk, Monsoon Waves, Troglopedetes, Widr, Comonline, Hisham, Prashantk23, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058,2001:db8, BG19bot, The Banner Turbo, Mminneman, Northamerica1000, Waterbuck, Niteshpradhans, PhnomPencil, HIDECCHI001,StevenJ81, Philpm930, Dodshe, Official Spokesman, Mark Arsten, Compfreak7, Jarinnp, OttawaAC, Cadiomals, AnwarInsaan, Ankit Ri-mal, Sadan1994, Manoguru, Enredados, Illuminatihacker, Shredder2012, RudolfRed, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Arundhungel, MahdiBot,Cyberbot II, DBSSHASPER, HasperHunter, Bitthalr1, Thapamagar2012, Spnepal, IceBrotherhood, Packer1028, Sms.dang, Jaro88slav,Mkg just4u, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Zulufive, Andrew C. W. Dodson, Webclient101, Sikkimmadurai, Mogism, Retrospector87, Cerabot,Ssbbplayer, Samudrakula, Frosty, SFK2, Jamesx12345, Nepalmandal, Google9999, Ashim nep, MWMKdu, Abhisek365, Masterpasa,Jonathan.yap, PinkAmpersand, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Rajudawadi, CsDix, Ruby Murray, BreakfastJr, AmericanLemming, Androdin,Jakec, Advocatejake, EvergreenFir, AnuSingh855, Budhathokyp, Abcrg2, SupernovaeIA, Flat Out, ServiceGhost, ,1عراقي My name is not

24 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

dave, Sam Sailor, Paudelpanchayat, SujanDon, Yoonadue, Blondeguynative, Amrit Ghimire Ranjit, Mr.neel, Bladesmulti, Elatestnews,SigdelVinay, Khijee2, Animal720, Wikiamitmalla, Navyo.eller, Bijayabuddha, Signedbo, Bishal258, Jacstha, Star7899, Sushant Rijal,Akash Simkhada, Theparties, Arjanpara, Spiritclaymore, Naver.np, Rabindahal, Orangoottan, Owais Khursheed, Monopoly31121993,Dirgahyu, Ayuan1110, Romanriwaj, Ditttti, Dangerdipesh, Ascii002, Pajiyarrc, Ojha.dinesh4u, Azkord, Krishna418, Nepalhero, Noxboy,WikiImprovment78 and Anonymous: 1317

16.2 Images• File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_

projection%29.svg License: ? Contributors: Map by SsolbergjAquarius.geomar.deOriginal artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)

• File:Basantapurpalace.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Basantapurpalace.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Jalo. Original artist: Original uploader was Arthaat en.wikipedia

• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Nepal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Coat_of_arms_of_Nepal.svg License:Public domain Contributors:Original artist: Defined by the Government of Nepal as the National emblem.

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Dalbath.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Dalbath.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:ja: : ( ) ( ).jpg Original artist: ja:User:

• File:Dasarath_Rangasala_Stadium.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Dasarath_Rangasala_Stadium.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Piterpan

• File:Everest_North_Face_toward_Base_Camp_Tibet_Luca_Galuzzi_2006.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Everest_North_Face_toward_Base_Camp_Tibet_Luca_Galuzzi_2006.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: Phototaken by (Luca Galuzzi) * http://www.galuzzi.it Original artist: Luca Galuzzi (Lucag)

• File:Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: Cropped and scaled down from Image:Everest kalapatthar.jpg. Original artist: Photo by Pavel Novak

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• File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domainContributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)

• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domainContributors: Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.htmlOriginal artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Maldives.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion

• File:Flag_of_Mauritius.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown

• File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domainContributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag design byFrederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users

• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines(Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

16.2 Images 25

• File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: SLS 693 - National flag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: ?Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flickr_-_don_macauley_-_House_in_Nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flickr_-_don_macauley_-_House_in_Nepal.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.0 Contributors: Flickr: IMG_3669 Original artist: Donald Macauley

• File:Himalaya_sud_avion.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Himalaya_sud_avion.JPG License: CC0Contributors: Own work Original artist:This illustration was made byMichel Royon (User:Royonx) and released under the license(s) stated above. You are free to use it for anypurpose as long as you credit me and follow the terms of the license.

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• File:Kathmandu_street.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Kathmandu_street.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Kukri,_karda_&_chakmak.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Kukri%2C_karda_%26_chakmak.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Kunde_Hospital_IMG_1688a.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Kunde_Hospital_IMG_1688a.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_1688a Original artist: simonsimages

• File:Lake_Phoksundo_in_Dolpo,_Nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Lake_Phoksundo_in_Dolpo%2C_Nepal.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/heema/7180116543/in/photostream Original artist:Heema Rai

• File:Lumbini_4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Lumbini_4.jpg License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:Captured by uploader. Original artist:ผู้สร้างสรรค์ผลงาน/ส่งข้อมูลเก็บในคลังข้อมูลเสรีวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ - เทวประภาส มากคล้าย

• File:Marsyangdi_valley_near_Pisang_(4518299825).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Marsyangdi_valley_near_Pisang_%284518299825%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.0 Contributors: Marsyangdi valley near Pisang Original artist: GregWillis from Denver, CO, usa

• File:Momo101.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Momo101.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:en:Image:Momo101.jpg Original artist: en:Spartathreehundred

• File:NASA_Landsat_7_Nepal.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/NASA_Landsat_7_Nepal.png Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Originally uploaded on en.wikipediaOriginal artist: Originally uploaded by Tatiraju.rishabh (Transferredby Okino)

• File:Nepal_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Nepal_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: ? Contributors: Based on File:India_(orthographic_projection).svg by user:Ssolbergj Original artist: ShahidParvez. Based on a file by en:User:Ssolbergj

• File:Nepal_landscape_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Nepal_landscape_1.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/apr01/k9388-14.htm Original artist: U.S. Department of Agriculture

• File:Nepal_zones.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Nepal_zones.svg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: en:image:Nepal_zones.png Original artist: w:en:user:summitraj, w:en:user:RaviC

• File:Nepalese_school.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Nepalese_school.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmitry A. Mottl

• File:Padlock-silver.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg License: CC0 Contributors:http://openclipart.org/people/Anonymous/padlock_aj_ashton_01.svg Original artist: This image file was created by AJ Ashton. Uploadedfrom English WP by User:Eleassar. Converted by User:AzaToth to a silver color.

• File:Pashupatinath_Temple,_Kathmandu.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Pashupatinath_Temple%2C_Kathmandu.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu Originalartist: Laxman Thapa

• File:Patan_temples.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Patan_temples.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contrib-utors: flickr Original artist: Kit Hartford

• File:Phulchowki_Hill.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Phulchowki_Hill.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ashishlohorung

26 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Population_density_map_of_nepal.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f5/Population_density_map_of_nepal.png License: PD Contributors:I made it myself manually with data provided based on a 1990 survey by the GovernmentOriginal artist:Sudip Regmi

• File:Prachanda.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Prachanda.jpg License: CC-BY-2.5 Contributors: enWikipedia Original artist: en:User:Nhorning

• File:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/RaniOfNepal1920.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Royalpalacektm2006.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Royalpalacektm2006.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:SAFF_Championship_2013_(3).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/SAFF_Championship_2013_%283%29.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krish Dulal

• File:Sayaun_Thunga_Phool_Ka.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Sayaun_Thunga_Phool_Ka.oggLicense: CC0 Contributors: The government of Nepal has officially provided this through their website.Previously published: http://sanjaal.com/ganthan/44/inepal/national-anthem-of-nepal/ Original artist: Achlochan

• File:Seto_Gumba_Panorama_view.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Seto_Gumba_Panorama_view.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ashishlohorung

• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong

• File:Steady2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Steady2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Tomchen1989

• File:Teej.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Teej.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferredfrom ne.wikipedia Original artist: Ganesh Paudel at ne.wikipedia

• File:TeleNepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/TeleNepal.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors:Originally uploaded to Flickr as Man hand-making satellite dish, Nepal Original artist: Futureatlas.com

• File:Terai_nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Terai_nepal.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: Barunkhanal

• File:Thakuri_village_near_Khartuwa_2013.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Thakuri_village_near_Khartuwa_2013.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ashishlohorung

• File:The_trading_of_wool_Nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/The_trading_of_wool_Nepal.jpgLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Peter van der Sluijs

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• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded bySimon.

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Wind_erosion_Kalopani_Nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Wind_erosion_Kalopani_Nepal.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Till Niermann

• File:Yak_Nepal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Yak_Nepal.jpg License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Krish Dulal

16.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

• User:Zscout370• File based on the specification given at [1].