May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 1

Australian Grain: P.O. Box 766, Toowoomba, 4350. Phone: 07 4659 3555. Fax: 07 4638 4520 Email: grain@greenmountpress.com.auDELIVERIES TO: 120 Herries Street, Toowoomba, Qld. 4350

EDITOR: Lloyd O’Connell PRODUCTION MANAGER: Mick Allan OFFICE MANAGER: Catherine O’ConnellASSOCIATE EDITOR: David Dowling GROUP SALES MANAGER: Norm Neeld ADVERTISING: Norm Neeld, phone 07 5450 1720, fax 07 5450 1102, mobile 0428 794 801.CONTENTS OF ADVERTISEMENTS are the responsibility of the advertisers. All statements and opinions expressed in Australian Grain are published after due consideration of information gained from sources believed to be authentic. The following of advice given is at the reader’s own risk, and no responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of the matter published herein. No portion in whole or part may be reproduced without permission of the publisher. Copyright 2010Published by Berekua Pty. Ltd., 40 Creek Street, Brisbane. Printing by Peninsula Colour, 26 Virginia St, Virginia Q 4014, Ph. 07 3633 0566.Registered by Australia Post Publication No. PP 424022/1581. ISSN 1449–2970.PUBLISHED BI–MONTHLY. GRAIN YEARBOOK PUBLISHED IN MARCH.

FEATURES 4 Locusts – what have we learnt and what can we expect

around harvest? 8 CSIRO develops highest yielding salt tolerant wheat 9 Barley rust razing crops on four continents 10 Watch crops closely this winter 14 Algae – a mean, green cleaning machine 16 Better Oilseeds:

Monitor for mice now 18 Answers sought on profitability of long-term, no-till systems 23 A legendary career in tractor designMARKETING 25 World grain outlook 26 Always the right time to invest 27 It’s not fundamentals… just the funds 28 Domestic grain outlook 29 Wheat price components and how to manage them 31 A closer look at forward cash contracts 32 Opportunities to feed the hungry Chinese Dragon some

meatnutrition & disease feature 34 Getting the most bang for your phosphorus buck 39 The importance of analysis 43 Stubble and soil practices focus of new research

REGULAR SECTIONS 2 Editorial 12 International Research Review:

Wheat stripe rust research breakthrough on the domestic and global scenes

20 Classic Tractor Tales: John Deere – the facts!

40 Modern Machinery Matters: Your tractor: From drawing board to delivery

42 News & New Products 44 District Reports

May–June 2010

FRONT COVERPLAGUE LOCUST EGGS AND PLUG

This winter cropping season is shaping up to be the worst for many years for plague locust damage. Victoria’s Mallee is currently under severe locust pressure and will be under threat again in spring. The Birchip Cropping Group offers some invaluable locust management advice.See article page 4.Opportunities

to feed the hungry Chinese Dragon

Locusts – Coming to a field near you?IN

SID

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Print Post Approved Publication No. PP 424022/1581

MAY–JUNE, 2010Volume 20, No. 1 — $6.60

Monitor for mice now

FOCUS SECTIONSSOUTHERN AUSTRALIA FOCUS

COVERING CROPPING SYSTEMS OF SOUTHERN NSW, VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA & TASMANIA

i Consultants’ Corner:Biochar and agricultural opportunities

v Genetic solutions for pulse problems vi Strong academic ties vii Steep rise in chickpea plantings tipped in WA viii Crop Doctor – Improved nutrient efficiency is the aim of

new research

NORTHERN FOCUS

COVERING NORTHERN NSW AND QUEENSLAND

i Consultants’ Corner:Sorghum stalk rot is a sneaky disease

iv 2cm GPS without buying your own base station –is that possible?

v Aiming for the best R&D investment in the north vi New Prime Hard to provide extra value for growers and

customers vii Genetic solutions for pulse problems

2 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Editorial…�

QUIRINDI GRAIN & PRODUCETrading all agricultural commodities, fertilisers and

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Contact Rob & John Webster Ph: (02) 6746 1911 – Fax: (02) 6746 1277

For all advertising enquiries please contact Group Sales Manager

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Locusts – what have we learnt and can expect at harvest?Plague locusts arrived in the northern Mallee of Victoria in early April. They made their way slowly south and were in huge numbers in the southern Mallee around mid-April. Whilst feeding they caused extensive damage to early sown wheat and oats. See article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4

Algae – a mean, green cleaning machineIt sounds like a late-night infomercial pitch – a plant that grows at a monstrous pace in polluted water, soaks up CO2, and cleans up manure runoff.See article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14

Wheat price components and how to manage themOver the past 10 years an extensive range of products from the simple to the complex have been introduced to aid Australian grain growers to market their crop. Some of these products are ageless while others are transitory due to the changing market environment.See article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 29

John Deere – The facts!I have not checked the statistics recently in order to establish precise figures, but one doesn’t require a degree in agricultural economics to be aware that John Deere tractors enjoy a very healthy share of the total tractor market in Australia. It is impossible to motor through any of our broadacre farming districts without sighting at least a few of these green and gold machines toiling away.See article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 20

In this issue...Where you have fertile and produc-tive agricultural lands – and valu-able commodities under it – there

will always be a tense interface between farming communities and the mining/ex-traction industries. And right at the moment these tensions have never been higher, par-ticularly in magnificent farming areas such as the Liverpool Plains of New South Wales and the Darling Downs of southern Queensland.

Open cut mining has its all too obvious impact on the farming landscape and the quality of life of nearby communities. And no matter how much spin is put on the promised rehabilitation of the site when the mining is finished, highly productive farming country is essentially lost forever.

Coal seam gas (CSG) extraction might appear to be a more benign industry in terms of impact on the landscape – but is it? And that’s the point. No-one yet seems to have a firm handle on what affect there is on the quality and quantity of the invaluable groundwater reserves of the Liverpool Plains, the Darling Downs or in the bigger picture – the Great Artesian Basin. We’re not even sure about how much water is involved, or how we best handle the largely unknown quantities of salt or heavy metal residues from water brought to the surface and subsequently treated for agricul-tural or industrial purposes. The localised and applied science is still out on most, if not all, of these questions.

Maybe there is a path to a profitable and reasonably harmoni-ous coexistence of mining/CSG and farming, but we simply don’t know enough about the science just yet to find that path. And until we do have the facts to make rational decisions in the best long-term interests of farmers, miners, rural communities and the environment, the current frenetic pace of development and explo-ration is the wrong road to take.

Coal Seam Gas, Yellowstone Park and Big FarmsThe Australian Grain farm study tour to the US in mid-Au-

gust will be spending time in the Powder River Valley of Wyo-ming where we will learn how the CSG and farming industries have managed to get along for several decades. CSG companies providing “free” treated irrigation water to farmers and aquifer recharge injection systems are all part of this very interesting story.

If you are keen to join our intrepid off-the-beaten-track travel-lers to explore the farms and sights of southern and eastern USA, including the bears and other wonders of Yellowstone or the ‘Big Farms’ of Eastern Europe taking in Russia, Ukraine and Romania – please contact our office. You will find itineraries inserted with this issue.

I hope everyone is enjoying some timely rain.

Lloyd O’Connell

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P lague locusts arrived in the north-ern Mallee of Victoria in early April. They made their way slowly south

and were in huge numbers in the south-ern Mallee (in a long band from Sea Lake to Kerang) around mid-April. Throughout this time they were laying eggs. Whilst feeding they caused extensive damage to early sown wheat and oats. Wheat seemed to be preferred. Pastures of self sown ce-reals were also badly affected.

There are reports that canola and vetch were also severely knocked back and some crops are unlikely to recover. Anecdotal evidence is that crops treated with seed dressings containing imidacloprid were af-fected to a lesser extent – the locusts didn’t prefer these crops and when eating them, died or became sick quickly. Many crops were sprayed but the success of that has been very mixed – the spraying gener-ally killed the locusts in the paddock but

the next swarm often ate out the crop – sprayed or not sprayed – it made little dif-ference.

An early sown crop (April 16, 2010) of Yitpi wheat was looking magnificent and reached 2½ leaf stage on May 1. The crop was sprayed twice to keep locust numbers down but on May 2 a huge swarm arrived from the north and ate out the lot (see photos below).

The locusts ate the wheat right down to ground level. To see whether the crop is likely to recover, a few metres of row were hand watered, but a week later there has been no sign of recovery. The seed is empty and we think because there is no green showing at all that the plant will not have enough energy to push a leaf out of the ground – the little wheat plant stumps are just sitting there and not growing at all. It looks like a re-sowing job.

The locusts which arrived in April are

4 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

This winter cropping season is shaping up to be the worst for many years for plague locust damage. Victoria’s Mallee is currently under severe locust pressure and will be under threat again in spring. The Birchip Cropping

Group offers the following locust management tips but regionalised advice should be sought.

Locusts – what have we learnt and what can we expect around harvest?

Key MeSSaGeS…• Record where the egg beds are on

your farm and roadside reserves etc. (contact the aPLC, via their website, and report the infestation on your farm)

• Start sowing again if locusts have gone or are at the end of their life cycle

• Be prepared to spray locusts hatchings in October (in some areas hatchings could start in late September)

LEFT: This Yitpi wheat crop was photographed on April 24, 2010. The crop was sown on April 16 and by May 1 – after two locust sprays – the crop was magnificent. RIGHT: Photo taken of the same crop on May 2. A huge swarm arrived from the north on May 2

and ate the lot.

Swarming locusts were in huge numbers in the southern Mallee by mid-April.

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now at the end of their life cycle and will decrease in number. Cooler temperatures will assist in this decline. The females have deposited three sets of egg pods (you will notice the egg laying beds with numerous small round holes drilled into the soil) – each egg pod contains around 30 to 60 eggs.

The egg pods deposited over the past month will now enter a period of winter diapause and will not hatch until October.

As a guide, eggs deposited on April 16 will hatch around October 16. Note that if temperatures are consistently warmer in September and October (as they have been over the past four years), then hatch-ing can occur in early October.

Because the females have laid eggs over an extended period we can expect hatch-ings to be extended. Ground temperature and moisture is important for the exact timing of the hatching – warm ground (bare ground – such as roadsides) will hatch before covered ground (for example in cropped paddocks with cover).

When the locust nymphs hatch and crawl out of the ground they are only around 3 mm long. But they grow quickly and the development of growth stages (called instars) is rapid (see growth stages chart).

It takes about 20 to 25 days for a nymph to grow to the 5th instar – prior to this stage they are unable to fly. When they reach instar three they will form bands of hoppers and become voracious eaters. When they reach adult stage they

accumulate fat and often migrate over large distances (usually heading south) in search of green feed.

If it’s a dry spring with little green feed, many adults do not develop properly and do not migrate.

According to the Australian Plague Lo-cust Commission (APLC), the likelihood of a widespread infestation of nymph locusts in October and November is high for north west Victoria.

The optimum time for control is when they form bands (3rd instar) and these need to be controlled with sprays to pre-vent widespread migration and crop damage. But the number of egg beds (on private and public land) are numerous and the area is very large. Therefore a very concerted effort between private and pub-lic land managers will have to take place

6 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

NYMPHAL GROwTH STAGES

1st instar nymph

Real size

2nd instar nymph

3rd instar nymph

4th instar nymph

5th instar nymph

Egg bed showing numerous holes. A cross-section of locust eggs and plug.

Emerging nymphs are about three mm long but growth is rapid.

and be planned for, if there is going to be adequate control to avoid a plague in spring/early summer.

wHAT TO DO NOw?• If there are still locusts on your farm

(or immediately to the north of you), try to get an idea of the age of locusts – catch a few and select females only (male locusts are about 3 cm long and have a rounded tip to their abdomen, whilst females are 4 cm long and have a jagged end to their abdomen). If the females have tattered wings and a dark abdomen they are reaching the end of their life cycle. You can also pull away their abdomen from the main body part. If it contains lots of yellow fat and eggs (these look like grains of rice) the locust may be about to lay. If empty, they have either laid or have not yet mated. If they are empty at this time of the year they are likely to be at the end of their life-cycle. At this time of the year, female locusts will lay eggs every 10 to 12 days (for three cycles after which she dies).

• If the majority of female locusts are get-ting towards the end of their life cycle it should be relatively safe to start sowing again (the locusts should be dying off by the time your crop emerges). If you are

finding locusts with eggs then they are still active – you will have to wait until they fly away from your farm or wait un-til they have laid those last eggs.

• Plan for an early harvest (it will be criti-cal to get the crop off before infesta-tions with hoppers).

• Consider hay as an option rather than taking the whole crop to harvest.

• Desiccation is possibly an option (talk to your agronomist about registrations for Reglone), this will also reduce seed-set of ryegrass.

• Early season varieties can be harvested earlier – sow these now.

• Make a list of where you have seen locusts lay eggs – this will be useful in spring when you need to look for young locusts.

• Plan for spraying hoppers when bands form in October/November.

• When they start to hatch and move, it will be important to put a border spray, with a residual insecticide around all your paddocks (at least one boom width wide). This will deter flightless hoppers from invading paddocks.In the first instance, you should notify

the APLC where the egg beds are on your farm. If the APLC receives plenty of noti-

fication it will assist in the co-ordination of control practices in spring/early summer.

You can notify the APLC on their web-site (see footnote) and click on Report Lo-custs. Alternatively, contact you local state agricultural department.

APLC: http://www.daff.gov.au/animal-plant-health/locustsVIC DPI: http://new.dpi.vic.gov.au/home (under current issues, go to locusts)WA DPI: http://www.agric.wa.gov.au (go to locusts under the Index)

Photos were taken from the APLC website, and by John Ferrier and DeAnne Price. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 7

BCG GRAINS RESEARCH ExPO

BCG encourages everyone to learn more about locust management at the BCG Grains Research Expo on

the Thursday, July 2 at the Birchip P-12 School.

A free breakfast will commence at 8.30 am and entry into the Expo is also

free of charge.

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In a major breakthrough for wheat farmers in salt-affected areas, CSIRO researchers have developed a salt toler-

ant durum wheat that yields 25 per cent more grain than the parent variety in sa-line soils.

Recent field trials in northern New South Wales proved that durum wheat va-rieties containing new salt tolerant genes outperformed the other varieties in saline soils.

The breakthrough will enable wheat farmers to achieve higher yields of du-rum wheat in saline soils. Although durum wheat is less salt tolerant than bread wheat it attracts a premium price because of its superior pasta making qualities.

“By planting the new salt tolerant durum wheats in different levels of salinity and comparing their yield with other durum wheats, we’ve demonstrated an impressive 25 per cent yield advantage under saline soil conditions,” says CSIRO scientist, Dr Richard James.

The CSIRO Plant Industry research team responsible for the breakthrough recently isolated two salt tolerance genes (Nax1 and Nax2) derived from the old wheat relative Triticum monococcum.

“Both genes work by excluding sodium, which is potentially toxic, from the leaves by limiting its passage from the roots to the shoots,” says the leader of the project, Dr Rana Munns.

Through traditional, non-GM breeding

methods aided by molecular markers, the team was able to introduce the salt exclu-sion genes into durum wheat lines.

Salinity, a major environmental issue af-fecting much of Australia’s prime wheat-growing areas, often prevents farmers from growing durum wheat.

This research is a collaborative project between the CSIRO, the NSW Depart-

ment of Primary Industries, the University of Adelaide and the Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics. It is supported by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC).

Further Information: Dr Rana Munns, CSIRO Plant Industry, Ph: 02 6246 5280, E: Rana.Munns@csiro.au Dr Richard James, CSIRO Plant Industry, Ph: 02 6246 5259, E: Richard.James@csiro.au n

8 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

CSIRO develops highest yielding salt tolerant wheat

A field of salt tolerant durum wheat grown in northern New South Wales as part of a CSIRO field trial. (PHOTO: Dr Richard James, CSIRO)

Breakthrough CSIRO research will enable wheat farmers operating in salt-affected areas to achieve higher yields of durum wheat which is favoured for its superior pasta making qualities. (PHOTO: Carl Davies, CSIRO)

Barley rust razing crops on

four continents

Australia’s coastal borders may be no match for barley stripe rust, which is already found on four continents and has the potential to cause serious crop losses in barley.

Dr Rohan Rainbow, Grains Research and Development Cor-poration (GRDC) crop protection manager says barley stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. hordei) would have a serious economic impact if it established in Australia.

“It is estimated that more than 80 per cent of the barley varie-ties grown here are very susceptible to the fungus,” Rohan says.

“Damage to barley plants varies depending on the stage of growth, but crop losses due to barley stripe rust can be up to 70 per cent.”

He says growers should consider themselves the frontline de-fence and be diligent about farm biosecurity, which includes ensur-ing farm hygiene and monitoring vehicles and visitors.

To provide information on farm biosecurity measures, a Grain Farm Biosecurity Manual has been developed through the Grain Farm Biosecurity Program, run by Plant Health Australia.

Rohan advises growers to treat seriously the development of stripe rust symptoms on any barley plants or ‘hot spots’ of disease within a crop.

He says barley stripe rust occurs in Asia, Europe, Central Africa and North, Central and South America and could easily spread to Australian farms via international travellers.

He says farm biosecurity is also important for farmers travelling overseas, particularly if they are visiting cropping regions and farms.

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 9

An estimated 80 per cent of Australian barley varieties are very susceptible to the barley stripe rust fungus which is already present on four continents.

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He advises thoroughly washing or even dis-carding clothing before returning home.

“Rust spores are small, light and may survive for several days,” he says.

“They can be spread over large distances by wind, and they can move around the world and between farms and regions by at-taching to clothing, machinery and tools.”

The fungus produces stripes of rust pus-tules between the veins of leaves, and can also form on barley heads. In barley, the pustules may be more yellow than orange, and hence the disease is sometimes re-ferred to as yellow rust.

Barley stripe rust can build up rapidly if conditions are cool and wet, and infection is often first noticed as ‘hot spots’ within the crop.

Can be confused with other rustsRohan says the disease could be con-

fused with barley grass stripe rust, which is present in the eastern states of Australia, and occasionally wheat stripe rust, which can infect barley to a limited extent.

But any barley plants showing stripe rust symptoms should be sent for further testing as identification of barley stripe rust requires laboratory testing, he says.

Dr Colin Wellings, University of Sydney, Plant Breeding Institute (seconded from In-dustry & Investment NSW) says research-ers are working towards resistant varieties but prevention of barley stripe rust via farm biosecurity and surveillance remains easier than a ‘cure’.

“Barley stripe rust has been a damag-ing disease in the Americas since it spread there from Europe in 1975,” Colin says.

The barley breeding program at the In-ternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Mexico has taken a lead role in the testing and breeding of stripe rust-resistant commercial varieties.

Colin says the occurrence and signifi-cance of barley stripe rust in the Americas led to a plan to test Australian barleys at CIMMYT.

“The initial data was concerning – more than 80 per cent of current varieties were very susceptible,” he says.

If you see anything unusual on your property call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 or the Emergency Animal Disease Watch Hotline on 1800 675 888.For more information on biosecurity risks visit www.grdc.com.au/biosecuritylinks or www.farmbiosecurity.com.au.To download a copy of the Grains Farm Biosecurity Manual or to contact a Grains Biosecurity Officer, visit www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/biosecurity/grains.For more information on rust management visit www.grdc.com.au/rustlinks n

10 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

G rain growers are being urged to closely monitor winter crops this season for signs of cereal rust,

particularly on rust-resistant varieties.Plant Heath Australia (PHA) Queens-

land grains biosecurity officer Kim McIn-tyre says Australia’s growers play a vital part in farm biosecurity and should make crop monitoring a regular part of farm management.

Kim says established cereal rust strains and virulent strains – such as Ug99 rust and barley stripe rust which have not yet reached Australia’s shores – are ever-present threats.

A stripe rust incursion in 2002 is esti-mated to have cost Australian wheat grow-ers $40–90 million a year in control costs.

“Ensure you are familiar with what rust looks like and be on the lookout for any signs of disease, especially on varieties which are supposed to be resistant – these are vital biosecurity measures,” Kim says.

She says growers travelling overseas or hosting international visitors should ensure clothing and footwear is, at the very least, washed thoroughly before and after visit-ing farms.

More information on farm biosecurity measures can be obtained through PHAs Grain Farm Biosecurity Program, which has Grains Biosecurity Officers based in Western Australia, South Australia, Victo-ria, New South Wales and Queensland.

Professor Robert Park, University of Sydney Australian Cereal Rust Program, was recently involved in the first hands-on-capacity building program on wheat rust surveillance and monitoring in India.

Robert says biosecurity and breeding (to incorporate resistance genes in varieties) are the keys to protecting the Australian cereal industry.

He says stem rust and leaf rust epidem-ics have caused serious damage in Aus-tralia since European settlement.

“Estimates of national losses range from $100–200 million due to the 1973 stem rust epidemic, and an estimated $8 mil-lion cost of chemical application for stripe rust control in NSW during the 1983 epi-demic.”

“An analysis of losses due to a range of wheat diseases in Australia estimates that the annual value of control strategies for stem, stripe and leaf rust is $124m,

$139m and $26m respectively.“These represent the annual national

benefits derived primarily from resistance breeding activities directed towards the control of wheat rusts,” Robert says.

Individual crop losses are also stagger-ing with estimates of yield losses varying from 30 per cent in leaf rust susceptible cultivars to 55 per cent in wheats suscepti-ble to both stem and leaf rust.

A widespread leaf rust epidemic in Western Australia in 1992 caused yield losses of up to 37 per cent in susceptible cultivars with average losses of 15 per cent across many paddocks.

Australian researchers have taken up the mantle of renowned US scientist, the late Dr Norman Bourlag, and are working at the frontline defence against the Ug99 stem rust pathogen.

Australian grower and government funds are working to halt the spread of rust and via the GRDC-supported CIMMYT re-search collaboration abroad and Australian Cereal Rust Control Program at home.For more information on biosecurity, visit www.farmbiosecurity.com.au to download a copy of the Grains Farm Biosecurity Manual visit www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/biosecurity/grains n

Watch crops closely this winter

Ug99 is a race of the stem rust pathogen that can overcome the resistance genes in many modern wheat cultivars. Stem rust (pictured) can cause total crop failure in susceptible varieties.

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 11

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12 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

International Research ReviewTo help our grain industry remain targeted and competitive Australian Grain, with the assistance of the GRDC, investigates recent advances in international grains R&D.

The stripe rust pathogen was first described formally in 1827. In the ensuing years, research confirmed that the pathogen appeared to be microcyclic (only three spore stages) and population studies in regions such as australia suggested that the pathogen was clonal – in other words there was no evidence for sexual recombination where the pathogen’s set of genes is a shuffling of the genetic make-up of the two parents.

But international studies have in recent years gathered increasing evidence for recombination in stripe rust pathogen populations in some regions of the world, and this led to a resurgence in speculation for the possible existence of a sexual host.

The publication of the stripe rust sexual host by uS researchers in May 2010 has now confirmed this, and opened the door to new opportunities in understanding the genetic nature of the pathogen.

The wheat stripe rust pathogen has a 30 year history in australia, and over this time we have seen the pathogen adapt through a series of newly emerging pathotypes. Several of these have had specific adaptation to certain wheat and triticale varieties, and in some instances have caused significant economic losses.

The source of new pathotype variation has been principally new mutations in the existing pathogen population and, more rarely, the introduction of a new pathotype from overseas.

The former can be predicted to a limited extent, based on knowledge of the current pathogen population and an understanding oif resistance genes present in commercial wheat varieties.

But a pathotype incursion from overseas is by nature unpredictable in its potential to cause crop losses.

WheAt strIPe rust reseArch breAkthrouGh oN the domestIc ANd GlobAl sceNes

by colin Wellings, the university of sydney, Plant breeding Institute

In BRIef…• There have been several recent developments that have

improved our understanding of the wheat stripe rust pathogen. Colleagues in the uS have published for the first time the occurrence of a sexual stage in the stripe rust life cycle.

• This is a very important development in our understanding of the biology of this pathogen, and unlocks a mystery that has remained unanswered for more than a century.

• at a more local level, isolates of the stripe rust pathogen collected in eastern australia in 2009 have recently been identified as potentially significant to certain wheat and triticale varieties.

FIGURE 1: Paired leaves of triticale cultivars Tobruk and Endeavour compared to the susceptible Jackie, inoculated with the ‘Jackie’ pathotype (A) and ‘Tobruk’ pathotype (B)

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 13

International Research Review

Rust diseases of cereals and grasses may have a complete life cycle, including up to five spore stages, or variations with fewer spore stages. The complete life cycle in a macrocyclic cereal rust fungus will include spore stages on the grass host and also on a herbaceous dicot plant.

This latter stage of the life cycle typically aids the pathogen to survive between crop seasons and permits the pathogen to undergo a sexual stage with the possibility of genetic recombination.

The significance of the sexual stage lies not only in pathogen survival but importantly in the potential for recombination of virulence and the emergence of pathotypes with greater capacity to cause crop damage.

a typical macrocyclic rust pathogen is Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici (pathogen causing wheat stem rust), and great effort and expense was focused in the uS during the mid to latter twentieth century in identifying and removing the herbaceous sexual host.

from an australian perspective, the discovery of the sexual host on a species of ornamental Berberis (common name Barberry) is likely to have no significance in expanding the capability of the pathogen population. The main reason is that the Berberis species of concern are rare or unreported in australia, and so we can expect that the reproductive behaviour of the stripe rust pathogen will remain clonal.

RECENT DEvELOPMENTS IN THE STRIPE RUST POPULATION IN AUSTRALIA

The stripe rust pathogen survey for 2009 was largely completed and sample results reported to cooperators by December. a season summary was presented in Cereal Rust Report Volume 7, Issue 11 December 2009. unusual observations from the field in 2009 have been the subject of further investigation using isolates collected from certain varieties.

Isolates from Tobruk triticale in 2009 unexpected severe symptom development on Tobruk triticale was

reported in november 2009. Initial work confirmed that the ‘Jackie’ pathotype was frequently associated with these affected crops, but this was expected and did not explain the severe rusting of Tobruk in the field.

Recent experiments have confirmed that isolates collected from Tobruk are capable of causing more severe infection on Tobruk in adult plants compared to the ‘Jackie’ pathotype in greenhouse tests.

This is compelling evidence for new pathogenic variation caused by the ‘Tobruk’ pathotype, and must in large part be responsible for the poor performance of Tobruk in 2009. figure 1 shows the contrast in infection types between the ‘Jackie’ and ‘Tobruk’ pathotypes on Tobruk and endeavour triticale.

The implications of the ‘Tobruk’ pathotype for varietal responses in triticale for the 2010 cropping season will remain uncertain until the nature and extent of disease responses in field plot studies are completed.

Isolates collected from Lincoln and Bolac wheat in 2009

Isolates collected from these varieties across several locations in 2009 yielded the usual pathotype spectrum. Preliminary observations noted in november 2009 also suggested evidence for the presence of an older pathotype among these isolates.

Recent research has confirmed the identity of these isolates as

a pathotype first detected in 1998 and which remained rarely isolated over the following seasons. Comparative studies between this pathotype and the ‘Jackie’ pathotype indicate that Lincoln and Bolac are more vulnerable to this old pathotype in adult plants at Growth Stage 32 (second node).

But the extent and nature of stripe rust response in these varieties to this pathotype in commercial agriculture will not be known until further greenhouse and field work is completed in the 2010 season. Therefore Lincoln and Bolac remain unchanged at their current RMR response to stripe rust.Rust reports in 2010

Several rust samples have been received from cooperators at the Cereal Rust Laboratory. Leaf rust on Phalaris tuberosa has been received from a wide range of locations in eastern australia. The samples will be tested on cereal genotypes, but it is not expected to yield a cereal rust pathogen. Phalaris is a pasture grass with several cultivars released for pasture improvement and has in past seasons been affected by leaf rust in autumn.

Wheat stem rust has been received from a summer nursery location in northern nSW.

There have been no stripe rust samples received to date, despite above average conditions for green bridge survival in large areas of eastern australia.For further information contact Colin Wellings, Ph: 02 9351 8826, E: colin.wellings@sydney.edu.au n

To help our grain industry remain targeted and competitive Australian Grain, with the assistance of the GRDC, investigates recent advances in international grains R&D.

Colin Wellings (pictured) says the recent breakthrough by US researchers will help us build a better understanding of stripe rust in Australia.

I t sounds like a late-night infomercial pitch – a plant that grows at a mon-strous pace in polluted water, soaks up

CO2, and cleans up manure runoff.Agricultural Research Service micro-

biologist Walter Mulbry has been finding out there’s more to algae than just stringy masses that muck up streams and ponds. Though some scientists believe algae might be the next best thing in biofuel pro-duction, Walter thinks it can be used right now to reduce the nitrogen and phospho-rus in livestock manure – and then dried and sold as a slow-release fertiliser.

Livestock manure is used as a cheap and abundant field-crop fertiliser because it contains large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, which are both essential plant nutrients. But some of the nitrogen and phosphorus that isn’t used by the crops can be washed into nearby waterways.

Like cultivated field crops, aquatic plants grow and flourish when nitrogen and phos-phorus are plentiful. When these plants die, their decomposition robs the waterway of oxygen, which in turn harms other aquatic life. A 2005 report by the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, whose motto is ‘Save the Bay,’ estimated that animal manure con-tributes 18 per cent of the nitrogen and 27 per cent of the phosphorus that drain into the Chesapeake Bay every year.

“Other researchers have looked at using algae-based systems to clean up municipal wastewater and other types of polluted wa-ter,” says Walter, who is with the ARS En-vironmental Management and Byproduct Utilisation Research Laboratory in Belts-ville, Maryland.

“So we built on that concept and fo-cused on tracking manure nitrogen and phosphorus through the treatment system. Nutrient recovery values – comparison of the amounts of manure nitrogen and phosphorus that are added to the system with the amounts of algal nitrogen and phosphorus removed from the system – are surprisingly difficult to measure in the field because of frequent changes in ma-nure characteristics.”

In 2003, Walter set up four algal turf scrubber (ATS) raceways outside dairy barns at the ARS Henry A. Wallace Belts-ville Agricultural Research Center.

The shallow, 30 metre-long raceways were covered with nylon netting on which the algae grew.

Then for the next three years, from April until December, submerged water pumps at one end of the raceways cir-culated a mix of fresh water and raw or anaerobically digested dairy manure efflu-ent over the algae.

Just add water and stirWithin two to three weeks after the ATS

system was started up each spring, the raceways supported thriving colonies of green filamentous algae, including Rhizo-clonium hieroglyphicum – the most abundant algae species, and Microspora willeana, Ulothrix ozonata, and Oedogo-nium sp.

Algae growth was highest in the spring and declined during the summer months in part because of the higher water tem-peratures and also because the raceways provided snails and midge larvae ample opportunity to graze on the algae.

Working with postdoctoral researcher Elizabeth Kedebe-Westhead and others, Walter harvested wet algae every four to 12 days, dried it, and then analysed it for nitrogen and phosphorus levels. Results indicate that the ATS system recovered 60 to 90 per cent of the nitrogen and 70 to 100 per cent of the phosphorus from the manure effluents.

“When we use ATS management, we are able to remove the nutrients com-pletely,” Walter says. But he also notes that, unlike other management practices, ATS systems have high capital costs and require people onsite to harvest the algae.

Even so, Walter calculated that the cost for this capture was comparable to other

14 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Algae – a mean, green cleaning machine

By Ann Perry, Agricultural Research Service – USDA

University of Maryland ecologist Pat Kangas (left) and ARS microbiologist Walter Mulbry examine algae growing on a shallow raceway at the BARC Dairy Research Unit. Walter estimates that each acre of raceway could remove the nutrients from the manure of about 20 cows. (PHOTO: Edwin Remsburg)

Close-up of algae growing on an algal turf scrubber. Although the types of algae that grow in algal turf scrubbers are dominated by only one or two species of filamentous green algae, the biomass contains dozens of native algal species. Since different native strains of algae are adapted to thrive in all types of fresh, brackish, and salt water, algal turf scrubbers could potentially be used in a range of settings. (PHOTO: Edwin Remsburg)

manure-management practices – around US$10 to 12 for each kg of recovered nitrogen and around $50 for each kg of recovered phosphorus.

The potential benefits don’t stop with nutrient capture. Walter also studied whether the dried algae had potential as an organic fertiliser. He found that corn and cucumber seedlings grown in algae-amended potting mixes performed as well as those grown with commercial fertilisers.

“It’s possible that farmers using ATS management could sell the dried algae as an organic fertiliser for use by urban and suburban residents. It’s a ready-made ‘Save the Bay’ fertiliser,” Walter says.

The not-so-distant shoreNow Walter is partnering with Univer-

sity of Maryland scientist Patrick Kangas and researchers from the State of Mary-land and Caroline County on a study un-der way on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. They want to see whether farmers there who use poultry litter for fertiliser can also use ATS systems to clean up nitrogen and phosphorus runoff in field ditches.

Maryland’s Eastern Shore – where five counties are among the leaders of broiler production in the US – has hundreds of km of managed drainage ditches and in-

field connectors crisscrossing thousands of hectares of cropland. In 1999, the Pub-lic Drainage Task Force in Maryland was charged with developing recommenda-tions for changing public-drainage man-agement, which would help reduce the amount of agricultural pollutants flowing into the Chesapeake Bay.

Walter is contributing to the study of different ATS systems to identify the most important factors in designing a cost-effective approach to their use in ditch management. “We’re looking at several approaches,” he says. “How do we make this as cheap as possible? How does it compare, cost-wise, with other manage-ment practices? And what would a busi-

ness plan look like to the service provider and to the farmer?”

Walter also conducted a study to see how effective ATS systems are at removing nitrogen and phosphorus from three estu-aries that drain into the Chesapeake Bay.

“We started out treating manure on the farm to prevent pollutants from enter-ing the watershed,” he says. “Now we’re looking at ways to capture pollutants after they’ve left the farm and are on their way to the bay.”

Walter Mulbry is in the USDA-ARS Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilisation Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Bldg. 306, Beltsville, MD 20705; (301) 504-6417. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 15

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Analysis of air-dried algae (shown above) from an algal turf scrubber showed that the algae captured most of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the manure. With additional processing, the dried algae could be sold as a slow-release organic fertiliser or as an animal-feed supplement. (PHOTO: Edwin Remsburg)

mouse numbers appear to be on the rise and growers are urged to monitor their activity to deter-

mine if baiting of paddocks is warranted.Linton Staples, director of zinc phos-

phide bait manufacturing company Animal Control Technologies, said mouse activity was a ‘big issue’ this season with reports of high mouse numbers in parts of South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria.

“Growers need to be vigilant. There is no method of mouse management more valuable than farmers individually moni-toring their own paddocks when mice threaten crops,” he said.

He said mouse populations will vary considerably from site to site and are un-stable at present. Mice can breed rapidly in summer, but populations may crash once their food runs out, so until now, it has been too early for most growers to bait.

“Decision time is rapidly approaching,” said Linton. “A crop can rapidly suffer

damage from residual mouse population at planting time.”

All newly-sown crop types are at risk, although damage from mice generally causes bigger financial losses during the podding stage for canola crops.

He said the cost of baiting with a ground-spreader is about $9 a hectare, a fraction of the cost of re-sowing – and zinc phosphide carries no environmental risk.

Linton said monitoring can also justify not spending the money on bait, and cited an example of a grower who saved thou-sands of dollars by first determining that the threatening holes were inactive prior to applying the bait.

He said ‘hotspots’ are present in South Australia in the western Eyre Peninsula from Kimba to Penong and down to Streaky Bay. He said central Eyre Penin-sula was ‘quiet’.

“We are also having increasing reports in SA in the Upper Yorke Peninsula, north

from Maitland, including Kadina and as far north as Crystal Brook. We are also keep a watching brief in the Mallee and southeast SA,” he said.

According to Linton, crops in the Ger-aldton and Northampton areas of West-ern Australia are potentially at more risk than last year when $100 million worth of crops were saved.

CSIRO research scientist Peter Brown said mice have not been a major problem in crops in Australia for over 10 years due to drought, and efforts to keep an eye on numbers have dropped away.

Off the radar“Monitoring has gone off the radar be-

cause of the drought, so we really don’t know how widespread the mouse activity is, or the numbers of mice,” he said.

“We normally get a peak in mouse ac-tivity at this time of year. Growers need to monitor each paddock to make an in-formed decision on whether it is worth-while baiting. Sometimes mouse damage occurs in small pockets in a paddock and the grower may decide to re-sow that area,” Peter said.

One of the most effective and easy methods of monitoring is to walk a 100 metre strip in a paddock and cover over mouse burrows with loose soil, straw or paper. If the covering is disturbed the next day, it indicates fresh mouse activity. Tal-cum powder poured around burrows can also indicate mouse activity where tracks become evident the following day.

16 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

better oIlseeds

Monitor for mice nowBy Felicity Pritchard, Better Oilseeds joint project coordinator

This article has been compiled as part of the national Better Oilseeds project, an initiative funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation and the australian Oilseeds federation.

The Better Oilseeds project is addressing the urgent and critical need to lift the productivity of oilseed crops within australia to ensure critical mass and consistency of production and to improve the quality of grain produced. The project began in 2006 and aims to increase the value of the australian oilseeds industry through enhancing productivity and value. It initially covered canola, sunflower and soybeans and more recently safflower.

Monitoring cards, which are squares of paper soaked in canola oil and pegged into the ground, can also be used to indi-cate mouse activity.

Bait stations, snap-back traps along fencelines and in paddocks and simple observations also give clues about mouse activity.

Peter said research has shown sowing some pulses and cereals slightly deeper can help reduce mouse damage by mak-

ing it more difficult for mice to find newly-sown seed.

Vertebrate Pest Control researcher, Glen Saunders, of NSW Industry and In-vestment, said the rise in mouse numbers is no surprise.

“It has been over 10 years since the last mouse plague in south-eastern Australia. We’ve been expecting this, but it’s come at a time when growers can least afford it,” Glen said.

“While no damage reports have been received from NSW as yet, the situation further south suggests growers need to be monitoring their crops.”

The NSW DI&I has excellent information on mouse monitoring for grain growers in the Agfact Mouse monitoring and baiting, available on its website.

Animal Control Technologies also have a free 32-page booklet and DVD on managing mice in crops, produced with support from the GRDC. n

Grain growers are urged to monitor mouse activity in their paddocks as numbers have built up in many grain growing districts.(PHOTOS: Courtesy CSIRO)

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A new Grains Research and De-velopment Corporation (GRDC) funded project in Western Aus-

tralia aims to uncover answers surround-ing the long-term profitability of no-tillage farming systems.

Trial work under the project will look to determine the long-term effects of high stubble residue, no-tillage systems.

Research so far has shown flexible crop rotations – determined annually and sub-ject to change according to seasonal and economic factors – to be the most prof-itable no-tillage system in the short-term, followed by rotations of a winter cereal fol-lowed by another winter cereal and then a winter legume.

The ‘long-term no-tillage farming sys-tems’ project involves the University of WA (UWA) and the Western Australian No-Till-age Farmers Association (WANTFA).

An associated project, also funded by the GRDC and involving CSIRO re-searcher Phil Ward, is studying the impact of stubble residues on water retention on these long-term no-tillage sites.

Preliminary data from this trial has shown crop residues greater than three to four tonnes per hectare can reduce evaporation from the soil surface during summer.

WANTFA scientific collaborator from UWA, Dr Ken Flower, believes the ‘long-term no-tillage farming systems’ project is quite unique in investigating all the differ-ent components of no-tillage systems over a long time – with plans to continue this work over the next 12 years.

“The Australian grains industry still needs to know how much residue is suf-ficient to maximise the long-term benefits of no-tillage systems,” he said.

“The GRDC funded project is a farming systems trial pulling together all the differ-ent components of the no-tillage system to find out if the different systems are profit-able in the long-term, store more soil car-bon and use water more efficiently.”

The project is managed by WANTFA’s Neil Cordingley and incorporates two long-term paddock trials – one on heavy soil at the Cunderdin College of Agriculture and the other on sandplain soil on farmer Ian Broad’s property 40 km from Mingenew.

WANTFA manages the Cunderdin site and the Mingenew Irwin Group manages the Mingenew site.

Both of these sites include plots with four treatments based on the different no-till philosophies including:• Maximum carbon retention (maximum

residue retention with a rotation of win-ter cereal/ winter cereal/ winter cereal);

• Maximum diversity (maximum residue retention with a rotation of winter ce-real/ winter legume/ winter brassica);

• Maximum flexibility (maximum residue with the crop determined each year by a management team); and,

• Maximum profit (local no-till practice where possible with a rotation of winter cereal/ winter cereal/ winter legume).“The key to the success and adoption of

these systems will be the economics over time,” Ken said.

“The treatments using cover crops will have one phase in the rotation with a nega-tive income so will take longer to show any

18 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Answers sought on profitability of long-term, no-till systems

WANTFA project manager Neil Cordingley in a knife rolled vetch/oat cover crop at the Cunderdin trial site.

WANTFA scientific collaborator, Ken Flower, addresses local growers at the Cunderdin trial site.

economic benefits – for this reason the cover crops will only be used once every six years.

“WANTFA will assess the long-term soil moisture, nitrogen and weed control ben-efits of including cover crops.”

Highest gross marginsPrevious work at Cunderdin indicated

that the continuous wheat grown in the maximum flexibility treatment had the highest mean gross margin over three years at $287 per hectare per annum fol-lowed by the maximum profit treatment at $182 per hectare per annum.

At Mingenew, the maximum profit philosophy had the highest mean gross margin at $194 per hectare per annum, followed by the maximum flexibility treat-ment at $148 per hectare per annum

“These gross margins must be viewed with caution because livestock are not used to add value to the permanent pasture and grazing barley treatments,” Ken said.

“Annual gross margins are also greatly influenced by price changes in commodity and input costs which can go up or down.

“Nonetheless, the gross margins do indicate the immediate financial cost of growing less profitable crops and cover crops in the rotation, which in the long-term must be balanced against any future yield improvements, weed control, or ni-

trogen fixing benefits from using cover crops once every five to six years.”

Ken said crop rotations had a big impact on ryegrass numbers at the Mingenew site where weed numbers were high at the start of the trial.

“The crop sequences that have the low-est ryegrass numbers are those with either a pasture or cover crop following the fal-low 2006,” he said.

Ken said this year’s trials would investi-gate the effects of ‘occasional tillage’ (once every six years) in the maximum profit treatment.

“This is to determine if there are signifi-cant weed control benefits of an infrequent or one-off tillage and if this practice will impact on any of the benefits of long-term no-tillage, like sequestration of soil car-bon,” he said. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 19

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Mingenew grower Ian Broad, left, and WANTFA board member Toll Temby, of Bodallin, at the Mingenew trial site.

20 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

LOGICI have not checked the statistics recently

in order to establish precise figures, but one doesn’t require a degree in agricul-tural economics to be aware that John Deere tractors enjoy a very healthy share of the total tractor market in Australia. It is impossible to motor through any of our broadacre farming districts without sight-ing at least a few of these green and gold machines toiling away.

Having personally owned and farmed with John Deere tractors, I can understand the reason for their popularity. But I must hasten to add, I do not intend this article to be a promotional advertisement for Deere and Co! I mean to say – all tractors are pretty good today. Well, aren’t they?

I am merely thinking that as there are so many J.Ds. around, it therefore logi-cally follows that legions of farmers own them, and according to my somewhat paroxysmal syllogistic reasoning (phew) it is justifiable to assume that a significant percentage of these said owners would at least be mildly interested in becoming acquainted, that is assuming they are not already so, with precise and accurate in-formation relating to the origins of John Deere tractors, upon which they could contemplate during their ensconcement within the air conditioned confines of their tractor cabins, as they diligently navigate the big machines around the workings of their respective paddocks.

Gee – did I write that?

(Before proceeding, please note – I was not involved in the script writing of Sir Humphrey’s lines in ‘Yes Minister’!)

MISINFORMATION BY ALLEGED ‘ExPERTS’

At the risk of being labelled a ‘smarty’, believe me when I state categorically that the majority of tractor scribes get it wrong, when explaining the genesis of John Deere tractors. The frequent misconcep-tion is that Deere and Co of Moline, de-signed its first tractor in 1918 and named it Waterloo Boy.

Not so!So how come I should know better and

what makes me right?

Simple really. Back in the 1990s I was invited to spend as much time as I wished, exploring the Deere and Co archives. These were housed in a climate controlled sanctuary, which occupied a complete up-per floor of the vast JD harvester assembly building in East Moline, perched on the banks of the Mississippi.

Les J Stegh, the company’s senior ar-chivist and his dedicated staff, had filed and computerised tonnes of records, many of which dated back to the mid 1800s, all of which were made available for my perusal.

During the visit, my endless requests for information and the inspection of specific documents, were greeted with extreme tol-

John Deere – the facts!By Ian M Johnston

CLASSIC TRACTOR TALES

A historic photo of The Big Four operating at the beginning of the twentieth century in the Parkes district. Note the three horse ploughs which the big tractor would have hauled effortlessly. John Deere entered the world of farm tractors with a marketing arrangement of

the Big Four with the Transit Thresher Company of Minneapolis which, during that period, manufactured The Big Four. (PHOTO: Courtesy Pioneer Park Museum, Parkes, NSW)

Pictured is the very first tractor designed and manufactured by Deere and Co in 1914. The complicated three-wheel design proved to be inefficient and unreliable and was not developed beyond the prototype stage. (PHOTO: Courtesy Deere and Co archives)

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 21

erance and good humour. I am grateful to Les J Stegh and his competent staff for their warmth and cooperation.

So there you have it! The reason for being virtuously confident of my facts, is that I performed indepth research into my subject, instead of cobbling information from other’s writings, as regrettably is the custom of many ‘modern’ alleged tractor historians and writers.

Egotistical! Who me? Guilty as charged m’ Lud.

Now for the serious bit.

THE TRUE FACTSDuring the first decade of the 20th cen-

tury, the Deere and Co management team observed with some anxiety that a number of their farm machinery competitors were becoming involved with tractors. They were particularly concerned that brands such as International Harvester, Sawyer Massey, Hart Parr, Rumely, Minneapolis and Case would expand, to the detriment of John Deere, which at that time had not entered the tractor arena, and thus would be left behind with the new technology.

Accordingly, in 1910 the company negotiated an arrangement with the Gas Traction Company of Minneapolis, to dis-tribute its tractor known as The Big Four.

The mammoth tractor, weighing around 10 tons, was designed by D. M. Hartsough and had been successfully marketed since 1904. It was so named as it was claimed to be the first American tractor powered by a four cylinder engine. But Deere’s asso-ciation with The Big Four failed to return the profits anticipated and the agreement endured only for a short period.

A studio photo of a Waterloo Boy Model R. Note the ring gear drive in the rear wheel and the crude chain steering. (PHOTO: Courtesy Deere and Co archives)

Deere and Co released its second in-house designed tractor in 1916. Note the three-wheel drive configuration. Although a reasonable performer, the cost of production rendered it uncompetitive and only around 200 units were manufactured. At least one example remains in the US and is insured for a figure in excess of one million US dollars. (PHOTO: Courtesy Deere and Co archives)

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22 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

As a consequence, in 1912 the Presi-dent of Deere and Co, William But-terworth, gave approval to his senior engineer, C. H. Melvin, to proceed with all due haste, the design and production of a medium-weight tractor. The project took two years and despite the incorporation of many engineering innovations, was finally abandoned, to the dismay of manage-ment, following unsuccessful attempts to overcome mechanical problems with the three-wheeled prototype.

The Vice President, Joseph Dain, took it upon himself to pursue the tractor project and succeeded in convincing the board to allocate the substantial funding required for the commencement of an entirely dif-ferent tractor design.

In 1916 Dain’s all-wheel-drive John Deere tractor went into production. The first of these three-wheeled machines proved to be underpowered and subse-quent units were equipped with a Mac Vickers designed four cylinder engine, which produced 24 belt hp resulting in a satisfactory 3000 pounds drawbar pull (at an unstated speed). The tractor was equipped with a complicated two-speed transmission, which could be changed on the move under full power.

But still there were problems. The price of the Dain John Deere three-wheeled trac-tor proved uncompetitive, largely owing to

the complexities of the all-wheel-drive de-sign. Only an estimated 200 units were pro-duced before the project was discontinued.

With a degree of urgency the board looked around for an alternative tractor to market. They focused their attention upon the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company, which had been manufacturing Waterloo Boy tractors at its plant in Waterloo, Iowa, since 1913. H. W. Leavit, the firm’s chief engineer, originally designed a tractor named the Big Chief for a rival company.

Upon joining the Waterloo Gasoline En-gine Company, Leavit simply redesigned the Big Chief, but with numerous improve-ments, and thus created the Waterloo Boy.

In 1918 Deere and Co purchased the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company, to-gether with the Waterloo Boy tractor and the services of H. W. Leavit. By this time over 8000 Model R and N twin-cylinder Waterloo Boy tractors had been purchased by farmers around the world, who were more than pleased with their new tractor.

Some were exported to Britain, where they were marketed as the Overtime Model N. (Interestingly, Ulsterman Harry Fergu-son became their distributor in Ireland.)

Despite the Deere and Co acquisition of the Waterloo Boy design, it was decided to continue to sell the tractor under the brand name of Waterloo Boy until 1923, when the all new John Deere Model D was re-

leased. Significantly, around six years had elapsed since Dain’s three-wheeled tractor went out of production.

The twin-cylinder John Deere Model D became a legend. It was commercially one of the most successful tractors of all time. It also had the longest production life of any model of any tractor. Including several upgrades, it was produced from 1923 until 1953. During this period, nearly 200,000 were manufactured.

Throughout the 30-year production life of the Model D, and up to 1960, a comprehensive range of other twin cyl-inder John Deere tractors was produced. Included were row crop, broadacre and or-chard tractors, also crawlers and industrial units, plus diesel variations.

In recent years, twin cylinder John Deere tractors have become greatly treas-ured by collectors and museums around the world. n

Ian’S MySTeRy TRaCTOR QuIZ

Question: This is the dashboard and control centre of which tractor?Clue: It was made in Moline, Illinois.Degree of Difficulty: Only REAL tractormen will pick this one! Although the clue is revealing!Answer: See page 48.

A studio photo of a 1920 Model N Waterloo Boy tractor. Note the later design Ackerman steering. (PHOTO: Courtesy Deere and Co archives)

Photo shows an early example of a John Deere Model D. Note the spoked flywheel, which proved extremely hazardous to the operator, when pulling the flywheel over to start the engine. (PHOTO: Courtesy Bart Cushing, New Hampshire, US)

A historic photo of an early Waterloo Boy hauling a set of disc harrows in Iowa. (PHOTO: Courtesy Deere and Co archives)

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 23

Legendary tractor designer Harold Brock’s career started at age 15 when he entered ford Motor Company’s Trade and apprentice School in 1927 under the guidance of Henry ford. He worked as an engineer in the ford automotive division, then joined the ford tractor division where he eventually became chief engineer – a position he held for nearly 20 years.

at age 25, Harold was given the challenge of designing a tractor to replace work animals on the farm.

“Mr ford, having been raised on a farm, developed an insatiable desire to replace animal power with machinery,” Harold says. “elimination of the horse and buggy would permit extended transportation and have a great impact in developing the uS.

“He was most successful in developing the Model T car. It could go anywhere a horse and buggy could go. This resulted in putting the country on wheels because his car sold for $250 instead of for $800 to $1200 like hundreds of other early car designs.”

Harold says Henry ford’s second attempt to replace animals came during World War I when he had Gene farkas design the fordson tractor. It cost half the price of competitive tractors, and ford sold millions of them, primarily to farmers in england and the uS that had farm labourers off to WWI.

During the 1930s, Gene farkas and Howard Simpson continued to explore new concepts of tractor designs to replace animal power. according to Harold, the fordson replaced animals for drawbar operations, but did not replace animals for planting, cultivating and other ‘chore activities’ around the farm. none of these experimental designs fulfilled ford’s objectives.

The emergence of three point linkageThe development of the three point linkage concept emerged

during the 1930s and gave tractors much more functionality. In 1939. Harold was put in charge of a small design team whose challenge was to further reduce animal power.

Henry ford indicated to the group that there were still 19 million animals used for farm work, and the new tractor concept should be designed to replace those animals.

“ford’s challenge to our small group of engineers was to design a tractor that could sell for no more than the combined cost of a

team of horses or mules, a harness set and the 10 acres of land to grow food for the animals – a total of $580,” Harold says.

Henry ford directed Harold to measure a boxcar. “When I came back, Mr ford told me to design the tractor so we can put 14 in a boxcar and ship them for $5 instead of $100,” Harold says. “That was a challenge to get the tractor condensed to fit in crosswise.”

To meet the specifications insisted on by Henry ford, the small design team developed the unique ford 9n tractor.

“Henry ford and his mentor Thomas edison were both skeptical about the limited science of book learning of the period. They had to prove their ideas would work and not be limited by what books of the period said were impossible. ford taught me early on to think out of the box.”

By 1957, the patent for the ford tractor and three-point hitch expired, and the rest of the industry jumped on the opportunity to incorporate the features in their products. Harold was recruited two years later by Deere and Company’s Waterloo Product engineering Center to help redesign the Deere two-cylinder tractors. Harold says Deere engineers started with a clean sheet of paper and made substantial advances in the basic concept created by ford.

Harold became Deere’s first worldwide director of tractor design in 1962. His staff developed a family of tractors with similar design features so they could be produced worldwide. The model 4020 tractor became a worldwide benchmark.

Harold and his staff developed the first air conditioned, quiet and safe rollover cab. The cab was completely isolated from the tractor chassis to reduce noise level. Harold says it was a first for the industry, and sales of tractors with cabs quickly increased to 50 per cent.

Rapid advances rationalised the industryThe tractor industry has matured and has advanced farming

practices worldwide.Dozens of tractor designs were already on the market in 1939

when Harold became involved in developing the ford 9n. Harold says that accelerated advances of the farm equipment industry have brought about a degree of maturity, resulting in only a few major companies now in existence offering products that have great similarity of design. However, those few companies are making continued advances to improve operator comfort and productivity.

“The industry should be proud of its many contributions,” Harold says. “Production of one manpower and a horse has advanced to where today one manpower or womanpower and 500-plus horsepower is providing large quantities of high quality foodstuff available at reasonable prices.”Learn more about Harold Brock and his ground-breaking engineering and design exploits in his book The Fords in My Past, published by The (US) Society of Automotive Engineers.

Source: Implement & Tractor

a LeGenDaRy CaReeR In TRaCTOR DeSIGn

Harold Brock

The John Deere 4020 is widely regarded as the most copied tractor in the world.

Cutaway of the Fordson 9N. Many historians regard the Fordson N series as the model that most significantly advanced state-of-the-art tractor design.

24 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Eastern Europe Big Farms

• Departs July 28

• 22 day tour

• $13,450 per person twin share

The Eastern Europe study tour will check-out the new wave of agriculture which is sweeping the magnificently fertile steppes of countries like Russia, Ukraine and Romania.

There are privately operated farms in southern Russia in excess of one million hectares – and all of this area is being cropped. Farms of an enormous scale can also be found in Ukraine – a region with some of the world’s most fertile soils.

Our Eastern European Big Farms Tour will visit all of these areas plus other ‘must see’ sights including:• Bucharest and the Danube Delta;• Moscow and St Petersburg;• Magnificent, medieval Transylvania – the home of Dracula.

Visit www.greenmounttravel.com.au or call 07 4659 3555 for the full itinerary and booking form

United States• Departs August 15

• 23 day tour

• $12,750 per person twin shareThe 2010 tour to the US will take in some of the major areas for

cropping and livestock production in the US, including the Texas Panhandle, Tennessee and Mississippi. We will meet with researchers and farm organisations in Memphis, Washington and New York and cover topics as diverse as biofuels, precision ag, organic farming, beef feedlots, coal seam gas and more.

We will also take in some iconic destinations such as:• Las Vegas; • The Grand Canyon; • Memphis (Beale Street and Graceland); • Nashville (think Grand ‘Ole Opry); • Washington; • New York; • Yellowstone National Park and more.

As with all of our farm study tours, flexibility is the key.

THE ITINERARY IN BRIEF…DAY 1: Wed, Jul 28 Depart Australia

DAYS 2-4: St Petersburg, the “Venice of the North” with its palace-lined waterways

DAY 5: Arrive Moscow by train. Visit Red Square, the Kremlin and Bolshoi theatre.

DAY 6: Moscow Austrade briefing and free time to explore the city.

DAY 7: Volgograd (formerly Stalingrad) a vast agricultural area and scene of WWII’s most important battle.

DAY 8: Farm visits in the mighty Volga and Don River Valleys as we journey by charter coach to Rostov-on-Don.

DAY 9: Visit some big grain farms on the way to Krasnodar. Inspect the new Claas combine factory.

DAYS 10, 11: Cross the border (by ferry) to Kerch, Ukraine and on to Fedosia.

DAYS 12, 13: Travel north through the heart of Ukraine’s vast southern agricultural region, inspecting farms, the sights and meeting with local growers.

DAYS 14, 15: Onto Odessa, the jewell of the Black Sea.

DAY 16: Coach to Romania. Visit a huge multi-commodity farm on the Danube.

DAYS 17, 18: Travel to Bucharest.

DAY 19: Onto Brasov – the medieval gateway to Transylvania.

DAY 20: Continue through to Sighisoara in the heart of Transylvania. Then on to Sibiu.

DAY 21: Train to romantic Vienna.

DAY 22: Wed, Aug 18 Depart for Australia

THE ITINERARY IN BRIEF…DAY 1: Sun, Aug 15

Depart Australia (option to leave earlier, for extra time in the US or Canada). Arrive Las Vegas

DAY 2: Fly across the incredible Hoover Dam to vist the spectacular Grand Canyon.

DAY 3: Fly to Amarillo in the Texas Panhandle, a major sorghum and ethanol production area.

DAYS 4, 5: Farm visits on the way to Lubbock, home to big ag research centres.

DAY 6: Quick stop in Dallas then on to College Station, home of the famous Texas A&M University.

DAY 7: Tour of Texas Coastal Bend and the famous King Ranch then overnight Corpus Christi.

DAYS 8, 9: Catch a flight to Houston then to New Orleans, Louisiana – the ‘big easy.’

DAY 10: Travel up the Mississippi Delta with sugar, cotton, soybean and maize cropping.

DAYS 11, 12: Farm and catfish farm visits on the way to Memphis, Tennessee. Elvis fans rejoice.

DAY 13: Visit Milan, the centre of no-till farming in the US then on to Nashville. Think Grand Ole Opry.

DAYS 14, 15: Fly to Washington DC to meet with Australian trade officials then free time to visit the sites and monuments.

DAY 16: Big day with visits to the USDA at Beltsville, Maryland, tour of the Amish country then on to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

DAYS 17, 18: Train to New York City for a city tour and free time in the Big Apple.

DAY 19: Fly to Wyoming, one of the biggest grain and beef producers in the US. Coal seam gas/farm visits – is there a happy co-existance?

DAY 20: Grain farm visits on the way to Cody, Wyoming.

DAYS 21, 22:

The drive from Cody into Yellowstone National Park is one of the most scenic in the US.

DAY 23: Mon, Sep 6

Depart for Australia, or optional add-ons such as Rocky Mountaineer train or Alaska cruise

FOR FULL DETAILS SEE INSERT INSIDE MAGAZINE

Sorghum is a significant part of crop rotations in the Northern Region and in some areas has become the

dominant crop. A major production area is the Liverpool Plains and growers and consultants there have seen fungal stalk rots – such as the fusarium stalk rots and charcoal rot – in their fields and know that in some seasons these can cause yield loss through lodging.

Research questions raised to the North-ern Grower Alliance (NGA) in autumn 2009 included: “Can these pathogens cause yield loss in the absence of lodging?” and “Is there a link between spray-out of sorghum with glyphosate and lodging?”

After consultation with Mal Ryley and Lisa Keller of Agri-Science Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (DEEDI) and with seed companies Pacific Seeds and Pioneer, NGA commenced some ‘pilot’ trial work with two trials conducted by Clare Felton-Taylor and Alan Bowring, NSW Industry and Investment during the 2009–10 summer season.

In the trials there were a total of four varieties each with different combinations of inoculum source – natural background level versus infected grain versus infected stubble x spray out with glyphosate versus no spray out.

Adopting an inoculated plot technique similar to that developed by DEEDI and In-dustry and Investment NSW I&I winter ce-

real pathologists to investigate crown rot, Lisa and Mal were able to grow sorghum infecting fusarium strains onto pearl millet grain. This was then placed in the planting furrow at sowing.

Additionally, fusarium infected sorghum stubble was mulched then placed over the planting rows as a second method of artifi-cially infecting plots.

Site selectionSites near Bellata and Mullaley with little

history of sorghum were selected for the trials to minimise the risk of background infections of sorghum stalk rot pathogens.

The sites were sown in early Novem-ber and both experienced very tough dry conditions until Christmas then mild wet

conditions through to harvest. The DEEDI team provided the critical pathology ex-pertise and was able to collect samples

May–June 2010 NORTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain — i

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Consultants’CornerConsultants’ Corner is an initiative by Australian Grain highlighting current GRDC-funded research with a particular focus on the commercial implications of adopting cutting-edge research.

Sorghum stalk rot is a sneaky diseaseBy Lawrie Price, Northern Grower Alliance

TABLE 1: Fusarium stalk rot in adult plants averaged across the four varieties

Average number of nodes with discolouration

Treatment Bellata MullaleyNil 0.2 0.1Inoculum 0.2 0Stubble 0 0Glyphosate 8.6 6.9Lawrie Price, Northern Grower Alliance, Lisa Keller and Malcolm Ryley, Agri-Science Qld, DEEDI

from both sites at the seedling stage and again at harvest to determine what patho-gens are present and infection levels.

At Bellata the mulched stubble treatment reduced establishment and reduced the number of heads per metre of row. This could be due to physical factors and/or un-known pathogens. But there was no effect

on yield on any of the four varieties in the trial. All varieties yielded over 7.5 tonnes per hectare with no lodging apparent.

At Mullaley there were no significant differences in establishment. There was a trend towards increased head number and increased yield where stubble had been laid over the planting row.

At the seedling stage, 20 plants from each treatment were inspected for the presence of fusarium, which was indicated by plants showing red root discolouration.

Fusarium was detected in all treatments at the seedling stage, suggesting that there was a background level already present in the soil at both sites, despite sorghum not being grown there in recent years.

There were no distinct differences in rela-tive resistance of the hybrids to the disease at the seedling stage. Thirty fusarium isolates were collected from seedlings displaying red discolouration, and were predominantly identified as F. thapsinum and F. andiyazi.

At plant maturity, 10 plants from each plot were again visually assessed for the presence and severity of fusarium stalk rot. Presumably due to less favourable weather conditions for disease development, fusar-

ii — Australian Grain NORTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

NORTHERN FOCUS

Plant infected with fusarium stalk rot from a glyphosate treatment beside a healthy plant from an un-sprayed treatment. Plants infected with fusarium stalk rot have distinct internal red discolouration.

wi…STALK ROT IN SORGHUM

As consultants monitoring sorghum on the Liverpool Plains, stalk rot or lodging associated with fusarium may not be a problem we encounter in every season but fusarium symptoms in sorghum are not hard to locate on a year-to-year basis.

With the trend over time of increasing average sorghum yields (improved nutritional/agronomic management), and the value of sorghum as a rotational tool for crown rot (F. pseudograminearum) management in our winter cereals, we are seeing an increase in sorghum frequency on the Plains and an increase in post harvest sorghum residue.

Unlike the majority of crops grown in these systems, there is no conclusive data to suggest that a rotation of sorghum on sorghum or multiples of this rotation has a high risk of disease carryover for the next sorghum crop.

But there is increasing awareness of fusarium presence in non lodging crops and increased interest in the role that sorghum stubble may be playing in the head blight (F. graminearum) lifecycle and inter-seasonal continuity.

Currently on the Liverpool Plains we are monitoring non-lodging sorghum crops that are displaying high levels of symptoms often associated with fusarium including:• Chalkiness;• Shredding;• Off white inner stalk tissue;• Dark coffee colour stained lower tiller nodes;• Premature senescence and drooping of the rachis and spikelets;• Weakening of tiller structural integrity at crown or at any of the

tiller nodes;

• Proliferation of pink or cream coloured spores at lower/mid nodes on stem tissue under leaf sheaths and darkened; and,

• Decomposing central stem tissue.The most significant concern with these symptoms, other than

“when will my sorghum start to fall over”, is the possible yield loss we are incurring long before we see lodging.

Many other questions arise from here including the impact of glyphosate desiccation sprays on the lodging severity in fusarium infected crops, varietal susceptibility, nutrient availability and its relationship with late carbohydrate remobilisation and the effect of time of sowing.

Population isolation work also indicates that there are as many as 19 different types of fusarium present in sorghum grown in north west NSW, which raises the question – Is one strain more attributable to plant tissue breakdown than another?

Regardless, it would be difficult to argue that – if the plant vascular tissue is being compromised to the point of tillers breaking off abnormally – there had been no disruption at all to phloem or xylem tissue functionality and resultant yield potential.

The final piece to the puzzle, if you believe we are losing yield, is how to control fusarium accumulation in our sorghum crops.

If we see fusarium at low levels in crops every year, what triggers the progression from sub clinical infection to 10 per cent lodging? Will we need to monitor fusarium levels in-crop or in-stubble as a rotation decision making tool or can we control its build up with in-furrow and foliar fungicide applications?

One thing is certain, as we look for our next five per cent average yield increase from sorghum crops, fusarium will receive more attention.

FUSARIUM IN SORghUM – DO We UNDeRSTAND ALL OF The LOSSeS?By Derek Gunn, Agromax Consulting

…ivs

May–June 2010 NORTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain — iii

NORTHERN FOCUS

Sorghum stalk rots are a continual and increasing threat to Australian sorghum producers. A number of pathogens can cause stalk rots in sorghum, with Macrophomina phaseolina (the cause of charcoal rot) and several fusarium species (the causal agents of fusarium stalk rot) being the most important in Australia. Both diseases occur late in the season and may be associated with plant lodging.

In Kansas, US, average annual losses due to sorghum stalk rots are estimated at 4 per cent, with up to 50 per cent in some areas, and incidence as high as 100 per cent in individual paddocks. It is likely that similar losses would occur in Australia. In the 2008–09 cropping season there was a high incidence of stalk rotting fungi found in all of the sorghum growing regions from the Liverpool Plains to Central Queensland.

The first symptomsLodging is often the first sign of stalk rot, but in most plants

infected with fusarium stalk rot there is a brown-reddish purple discolouration of the stem. When the stem is split, the pith and outer tissues have an orange-red colour, often concentrated at the nodes.

Charcoal rot infection results in the stem immediately above ground level turning spongy, and when the stems are split, small black resting bodies (microsclerotes) will be seen adhering to strands of the water/nutrient conducting tissues.

The fusarium and charcoal rot pathogens can survive between crops in stubble or on other hosts. Macrophomina phaseolina has a very wide host range, including all major summer field crops and many common summer and winter weeds. By contrast, the dominant fusarium species which attack grain sorghum, F. thapsinum and F. andiyazi, are not known to infect other field crops.

Zero/minimal tillage tends to favour their survival in stubble, and successive sorghum crops will gradually build up the level of these pathogens in the soil.

There is good evidence that the fusarium species and Macrophomina phaseolina associated with sorghum stalk rot infect and grow slowly in the roots and/or crown of sorghum plants while they are alive and actively growing. The onset of stress from moisture deficit or desiccation results in a rapid growth and invasion of the stem, which can ultimately result in stalk rot and lodging.

Previously, Fusarium moniliforme was known as the causal agent of fusarium stalk rot, but this species has now been sub-divided into a number of different species.

Breeding for resistance to fusarium stalk rot has been a relatively slow and difficult process, perhaps due to the number of different species involved. A recent study in New South Wales on a few selected paddocks revealed 19 fusarium species to be associated with stalk rot, with five species commonly recovered. As found overseas, F. thapsinum and F. andiyazi were the dominant species recovered from stalk rot-infected plants in these paddocks, and their relative abundance changed from the Liverpool Plains to the goondiwindi region.

As part of the gRDC-funded project, Northern Integrated Disease Management, surveys are being undertaken in the sorghum growing regions throughout Queensland over the next few cropping seasons to collect and identify the fusarium species associated with stalk rot, determine their relative importance and distribution, and assess their role in lodging.

To date, a total of 230 fusarium isolates have been collected from fusarium stalk rot-infected plants grown throughout Queensland and northern New South Wales during the 2008–09 and 2009–10 cropping seasons. Approximately half of these isolates have been identified, and results to date suggest that F. thapsinum and F. andiyazi are the two major species associated with fusarium stalk rot in the Northern Region, with F. thapsinum being the dominant species. Collection of diseased stalks will continue over the next few growing seasons.

Future R&D activities will focus on developing integrated disease management packages which will incorporate resistance and agronomic practices to minimise the influence of stalk rotting pathogens on sorghum stalk rot and lodging in the Northern Region.

RESEARCH VIEWFUSARIUM STALK ROT OF SORghUM IN The NORTheRN RegION

By Mal Ryley and Lisa Keller, Agri-Science Queensland, DEEDI

Characteristic internal reddening of stem tissue, caused by fusarium stalk rot.Lodged plants caused by fusarium stalk rot.

Plants with charcoal rot, caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, typically have spongy stems, and when spit open have small black resting bodies (microsclerotes) adhering to shredded pith tissue.

ium stalk rot was only detected in a few treatments.

Fusarium stalk rot was detected in close to 100 per cent of plants sprayed with glyphosate, compared to less than one per cent infection in the remaining un-sprayed treatments. This demonstrates the signifi-cant role plant stress plays in disease de-velopment.

All varieties were susceptible to the dis-ease, and it was difficult to determine any major differences between them.

Another significant finding from the tri-als was the presence of fusarium stalk rot in the control treatments, despite no sor-ghum being grown at the Bellata site for five years, and no sorghum ever grown at the Mullaley site.

We know from experience with crown rot of wheat that yield impacts are very low

in years with a soft finish – such as we have experienced – and these trials suggests a similar effect may occur with fusarium stalk rot of sorghum. But different fusarium spe-cies are active on sorghum and we do not yet know how they respond to seasonal conditions.

Three major conclusions can be made from these initial field trials:• Fusarium stalk rot was detected in the

Mullaley site where sorghum has never been grown, at levels similar to those detected at the Bellata site, where sor-ghum has not been grown for five years. The fusarium species that cause sor-ghum stalk rot are not known to infect other crops, so their presence in these paddocks may suggest possible survival on grasses, or movement in soil or wa-ter from infected paddocks.

• Fusarium stalk rot developed rapidly in plants sprayed with glyphosate. In sea-sons with a hard finish, when stress occurs in the late vegetative and/or early seed fill stages, a glyphosate application prior to harvest could result in severely diseased stalks, and possibly lodged plants.

• In these trials, characterised by a soft finish, no lodging occurred and there were no differences in yield between treatments. n

iv — Australian Grain NORTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

NORTHERN FOCUS

Fusarium stalk rot was detected in fields with no recent sorghum history which suggests the disease inoculum can survive on grasses or be ‘transported’ by soil or water.

wii…STALK ROT IN SORGHUM

I f you farm in southern Queensland, you can now obtain a highly accurate Real Time Kinematic (RTK) correction signal

for your tractor auto-steer system without the need to buy your own base station.

This is achieved by the recent roll-out of what’s called a CORS network, which stands for Continually Operating Refer-ence Stations.

The CORS network provides real time corrections in an open, standard format. This means that almost any type of RTK receiver can connect in. Currently, manu-facturers deliberately scramble their signal in several ways to prevent use by other people.

“There has been massive over capitali-sation in the agricultural industry with RTK base stations, with an estimated 5000 base stations now operating in Australia

alone,” says Tim Neale of PrecisionAgri-culture.com.au.

Normally, a GPS auto-steer system re-lies on a base station in close proximity to keep the tractor on-line. CORS now ena-bles connection of a tractor to a network of base stations, which are strategically lo-cated approximately 70 km apart.

Tim says “because the CORS network is using up to six base stations around the district to provide a correction for you, if one fails, then you can still continue work-ing the paddock.”

“It also means that you can travel across southern Queensland and still get high ac-curacy signal without taking a base station with you, thereby reducing your set-up times, and ensuring repeatable accuracy.

“As you don’t need to buy your own base station, CORS reduces the up-front

cost by up to around 90 per cent. There are fees to access the CORS network; but these have been priced in line with market expectations,” Tim said.

“CORS is being operated through a public/private partnership, so you can be assured that accuracy and reliability are of paramount importance.

“Surveyors have been using this tech-nology for years, but it has now only be-come available to rural areas.”

Commercial application of CORS in southern Queensland has been tested on Trimble and Leica mojoRTK systems.

“We are keen to hear from anyone that wants to test other types of RTK auto-steer as well,” Tim said.

Contact: Tim Neale, Mob: 0428157208, E: tim@precisionagriculture.com.au n

2cm GPS without buying your own base station – is that possible?

May–June 2010 NORTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain — v

NORTHERN FOCUS

S tate and federal agencies have rec-ognised the need for a coordinated approach to R,D&E delivery for the

grains industry via the Primary Industries Standing Committee (PISC) process of de-veloping sectoral plans. The process has included some industry consultation.

A recently released paper is intended to stimulate further discussion at the industry level and to identify the keys to delivering R,D&E outcomes that underpin productiv-ity, sustainability and, importantly, future profitability of the grains sector in the Northern Region.

The paper and ensuing industry dis-cussion will identify critical R,D&E infra-structure and capability required to deliver ongoing R,D&E outcomes.

The paper recognises that issues affect-ing production and sustainability in the region today are different to those of the past and are unlikely to be the same as those in the future. Any plan for the future needs to be flexible enough to address cur-

rent and emerging issues underpinned by core R,D&E capacity.

This discussion document presents a proposed model of how core R,D&E ca-pacity could be co-ordinated in the North-ern Region. It outlines a system by which centres of national and regional research could deliver outputs and findings to the region, and how centres of regional devel-opment, together with regional farming systems groups, will regionalise and fur-ther develop these findings.

These regional developments can then be localised by grower groups’ agrono-mists and consultants and extended to growers.

Verifying issuesImportantly, this document also pro-

vides a framework for ‘issue’ identification and resolution.

The critical outcome is that the North-ern Region grains industry needs to be involved in determining what core R,D&E capability and capacity is required to sup-port the grains industry in the future.

This discussion document is supported by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC), AgForce and NSW Farmers Association (NSWFA). To download the document go to www.grdc.com.au/northernrdestrategy n

Aiming for the best R&D investment in the north

BIggeR BANg FOR gRAINS ReSeARCh BUCKThe northern grains industry is positioning itself for a future that features lean but relevant

research programs and rapid uptake of technology and adoption of solutions.The region’s peak industry bodies, AgForce and NSW Farmers Association (NSWFA)

have thrown their support behind a draft discussion paper recently launched by the grains Research and Development Corporation (gRDC).

James Clark, gRDC northern panel chair says the paper, “Optimising Investment in R,D&e for the Northern grains Region,” is part of ongoing consultation with research providers, growers and industry that began 18 months ago.

“For the northern grains industry to move forward we need to aim for the best possible solutions for RD&e in terms of where key facilities are located and what production problems are tackled,” James said.

“growers through gRDC provided $89.1 million in 2008–09 towards the total RD&e national investment.

“A shared vision for the future needs frank and open dialogue between research providers, growers and other industry players.

“We need to make sure the industry is set up to be able to answer R&D questions for the next 10 or 20 years and has a long term vision for the future.”

gRDC has been in high level talks with research providers including agricultural departments, universities and federal research organisations for 18 months.

The process runs parallel with the Primary Industries Standing Committee (PISC) process where state and federal agencies are working towards a coordinated approach to avoid duplication of RD&e delivery.

James says RD&e must focus on reducing production limitations and maximising profitability, sustainability and productivity.GRDC welcomes the support of NSWFA and AgForce and urges growers to download the document from: www.grdc.com.au/northernrdestrategy and contact GRDC with feedback via email to: discussionpaper@grdc.com.au.

The Northern Region grains industry needs a coordinated and inclusive approach to determine the best strategy for future R,D&E.

SUMMARy…The grains industry is characterised by

a remarkable ability to adapt to change and respond to pressures from natural and market phenomena.

The next challenge is to underpin efficient and effective delivery of critical R,D&e. This must be achieved within an environment characterised by:• Ongoing budgetary pressure at both

government and farm levels;• Transition of some services previously

provided by the public sector to the private sector;

• A declining rural population (especially in more remote rural locations); and;

• The ongoing need for agriculture to compete with other industries and services for investment of public and private resources.

T ight restrictions and discounts for ex-isting Australian Prime Hard wheat varieties have been topical of late but

a new and unique variety may be just the solution for frustrated farmers.

The Asian sponge and dough market has to date been exclusively serviced by Canada and the US but now Australia has an APH variety to offer the burgeoning market, and a price premium of $15 a tonne (net on APH) is available to growers this season.

Austgrains, based at Moree in north west NSW, supplies added-value seeds, grains and natural, non-genetically modi-fied ingredients to the global food industry, and its newest recruit is the highprotein wheat, EGA Kidman – bred and released by the Queensland Department of Primary

Industries (now Department of Employ-ment, Economic Development and Inno-vation, DEEDI).

Austgrains general manager, Peter Vaughan, said there were hectare con-tracts available to produce and market 50,000 tonnes this year, in what would be the variety’s first season of full production.

Target 13–15 per cent proteinFarms west of the Newell Highway and

north of Dubbo – in the high protein APH belt – were most suited to grow the new mid-season variety. Agronomically, it was comparable to well-known varieties Bax-ter, Gregory and Sunvale, with protein tar-gets of 13 to 15 per cent.

“Based on National Variety Trial (NVT)

results, the premiums, and closeness of Asia, Kidman has significant potential to add value to the APH-producing regions of the post deregulation Australian wheat industry,” Peter said.

“The Asian sponge and dough market is estimated at US$1 billion per annum and is right at our back door.

“Austgrains holds the exclusive licence for commercialisation of EGA Kidman. The company has invested in developing the do-mestic and export market, and with planned freight savings, Austgrains intends to win a share of this significant and growing market for Australian APH wheat growers.

“Commercial trials over the past three years have shown that the cultivar is gross margin competitive, and it has a sustain-able commercial application against the Canadian varieties – the export competitor with the lion’s share of this Asian sponge and dough market.

“EGA Kidman is offered as a variety-specific, supply chain, hectare contract with attractive grade-spread premiums and flexibility on specification – practically al-lowing out to 10 per cent screenings for APH2. So the immediate future for Kid-man is fantastic.”

Peter said wheat breeding in Australia has been challenged by the corporatisation of plant breeding followed by deregula-tion of statutory marketing. The country’s wheat industry has struggled – and contin-ues to struggle – to find its value proposi-tion in a highly-competitive international wheat market.

“EGA Kidman has stepped outside this situation and while Kidman may be seen by some as a niche market variety, it is competitive and the cultivar provides func-tionality and value for end-users and grow-ers,” he said.

“Exports could easily climb to 500,000 tonnes annually, making it a significant niche market product. Kidman could also take a large chunk of the traditional APH production in the Northern Region.”

Benefit as a hedging productIndependent consultant/broker, Peter

Knight from Thallon in southern Queens-land, said the financial return from Kidman was comparable to other Prime Hard varie-ties but the real benefit was as an alternative hedging product, using hectare contracts.

vi — Australian Grain NORTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

NORTHERN FOCUS

New Prime Hard to provide extra value for growers and customers

FIGURE 1: NVT results Kidman yield comparison southern Qld

FIGURE 2: NVT results Kidman yield comparison northern NSW

“Looking at APH2 wheat on an on-farm basis, using an ASX price of $205.50 a tonne and a multigrade price of $230 per tonne Brisbane track for Prime Hard, Kid-man looks to return me $570 hectare at a yield of 2.95 tonnes per hectare, which would be comparable to other leading APH varieties,” he said.

“I could go and sell 1000 hectares and have no production risk, whereas if I have a multi-grade contract I’ve got to find the grain.

“Kidman is going to return me a simi-lar price but I can add value to some of my grain stored on-farm through a hectare contract, and based on that, Kidman is cer-tainly something to try,” Peter said.

Moree farmer, Sandy Munro, “Weebol-labolla”, said he was encouraged about the prospects for Kidman, especially after grow-ing it himself last year.

“On the back of deregulation, I’m ex-cited that someone in the industry is look-ing at developing and commercialising cultivars more specific to end user require-ments,” he said.

“I believe the Austgrains model of pre-serving the identity of the cultivar through the production side of grain, and present-ing functional foods to end users, is the way of the future.

“We need to establish cultivars, control the processes and deliver a product of val-ue – in my opinion, the old days of tipping wheat into the bulk handling system are gone. I believe Kidman will deliver some of the new functions that the food industry is demanding,” Sandy said.

For more information, visit www.austgrains.com.au or contact 02 6752 2300. n

May–June 2010 NORTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain — vii

NORTHERN FOCUS

EGA Kidman grower, Sandy Munro.

The common bean – which includes pinto, great northern, navy, black, kidney, and snap beans – is consid-

ered by many nutritionists to be a nearly perfect food because of its high protein content and low cost. But it is also sus-ceptible to many diseases that reduce seed and pod quality and yields. Agricultural Re-search Service scientists from labs across the US are playing major roles in finding solutions to what ails these legumes.

Combating rust pathogensARS plant pathologist Talo Pastor-Cor-

ralles, throughout his career, has traveled to 21 countries in the Americas and 11 in Africa studying bean diseases and search-ing for bean varieties that contain special traits – particularly disease resistance – that could be used to improve common beans.

In the Soybean Genomics and Improve-ment Research Unit in Beltsville, Mary-land, Talo specialises in genetic resistance of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) to various diseases.

He’s also the lead scientist in a project that aims to discover and breed genes into P. vulgaris for resistance to common bean rust and the newly arrived Asian soybean rust pathogen into the US, which also in-fects the common bean.

The fungus that causes bean rust is very aggressive and exists as many different strains called “races.” Talo says, “When new races appear, they can infect bean varieties that were previously resistant to rust.” Further complicating matters is the fact that races present in a field can vary from one year to another.

Of major concern is the loss of effec-tiveness of the Ur-3 rust-resistance gene in beans, which has been very effective in controlling bean rust in the US, especially in North Dakota and Michigan, the two largest producers of dry beans in the US.

But in recent years, rust has developed on these once-rust-resistant bean varieties, and there is concern that the new races will spread to other Northern Plains states, such as Colorado and Nebraska.

In 2008 and 2009, Talo and his project team were credited with developing new

dry bean cultivars resistant to the rust pathogen. Talo collaborated with scientists from the University of Nebraska and Colo-rado State University.

The new cultivars contain two or more rust-resistance genes and most also have the Ur-11 gene, considered the most ef-fective rust-resistance gene in the world.

Beans that can take the heatAt test plots in southern Puerto Rico,

ARS plant geneticist Tim Porch’s beans are feeling the heat. As part of collabo-rative breeding efforts with Cornell Uni-versity, the University of Nebraska, and the University of Puerto Rico, Tim and colleagues have been testing new bean germplasm for heat and drought tolerance and disease resistance. So far, their efforts have proved fruitful.

Tim is in the process of releasing two new kidney bean varieties with heat toler-ance. These germplasm releases, named “TARS HT-1” and “TARS HT-2,” were

Genetic solutions for pulse problems

By Marcia Wood, Agricultural Research Service – USDA

…viiis

Plant pathologist Talo Pastor-Corralles examines a bean cultivar that is a new source of genes for resistance to a hyper-virulent pathogen that causes rust disease of dry and snap beans. (Photo: Peggy Greb)

initiated by ARS plant geneticist Rusty Smith, now with the ARS laboratory in Stoneville, Mississippi. TARS HT-1 does well under the stress of high day and high night temperatures, whereas TARS HT-2 does well under the stress of high day and moderate night temperatures.

Also in the works is new black bean germplasm with heat and drought toler-ance and resistance to common bacterial blight, a seedborne disease – spread by splashed water – that mainly attacks the plant’s leaves and pods. Tim crossed tropi-cal black and red beans to produce these germplasm lines, which are adapted to temperate areas and will help to increase the diversity of US bean germplasm. Field tests in Nebraska show that the lines yield well in addition to having tolerance to heat, drought, and disease.

“The beans we are testing have broad adaptation,” says Tim, who is with ARS’s Tropical Agriculture Research Station (TARS) in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. “Our lines do well in the short days common to Puerto Rico and the long days found in Nebraska.” Tim is testing other bean types – red, pinto, great northern, and navy – that are drought tolerant, and some also have heat tolerance and disease resistance.

“My goal is to pyramid multiple resist-ances to generate lines with broad adapta-tion and genetic diversity.”

Tim is also involved in bean-improve-ment efforts in Angola, a country that is beginning to recover from many years of civil war. The project, funded by USAID and led by the University of Puerto Rico, supports Angola’s common bean breeding program.

Tim and university colleagues conduct breeding and pathology training sessions, host Angolan scientists to train them in the laboratory, and help the scientists breed for traits of importance, such as resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, and bean common mosaic virus.

Chickpeas and beet armywormReducing insecticide use – and safe-

guarding the environment – was also the goal of a project that entomologist Stephen Clement recently completed at ARS’s Plant Germplasm Introduction and Testing Research Unit in Pullman, Wash-ington.

There, as part of a three-year project supported by the US Agency for Interna-tional Development, Stephen led develop-

ment of chickpea germplasm lines offering beet armyworm resistance. The moth’s caterpillar stage attacks many crops, but is especially problematic in chickpeas in In-dia, which produced 6.6 million tonnes of the high-fibre, vitamin-rich crop in 2005.

Stephen collaborated on the project with scientists at Washington State Uni-versity-Pullman and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Ar-

id Tropics (ICRISAT) in Patancheru, India. In US trials, 28 to 62 per cent of beet

armyworms that fed on the leaves of re-sistant chickpeas died within a few days. Those that survived were smaller and shorter than usual.

Now, ICRISAT entomologist Hari Shar-ma is conducting field trials to evaluate the resistant chickpeas’ potential to forestall insecticide use. n

viii — Australian Grain NORTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

NORTHERN FOCUS

wvii…GENETIC SOLUTIONS

BeTTeR BeANS MeAN BeTTeR heALThWhether it’s a side of beans for a hearty breakfast, an extra-spicy chili at lunch, or

an elegant, chilled black bean soup at dinner, beans can add pleasing colour and texture to any meal. And, importantly, beans provide iron, an essential nutrient needed in comparatively small, or “micro,” amounts.

In Ithaca, New york, ARS physiologist Raymond glahn, ARS research associate elad Tako, Cornell University analytical chemist Michael Rutzke, and others conduct research that may help plant breeders develop new and improved beans that are even better sources of iron.

Their research would especially benefit the more-than-2-billion people around the globe who are deficient in iron. Iron deficiency is, in fact, the world’s number-one micronutrient deficiency.

Some of these investigations are designed to determine how to boost beans’ iron bioavailability – the amount of iron our bodies can absorb and use from beans. That might be done in a number of ways, all using plant breeding.

One way, of course, would be to increase the level of iron in these legumes. Another approach would be to increase the effects of certain natural compounds that

enhance iron bioavailability. A third tactic – decrease the effects of natural compounds that make iron less

absorbable.To discover more about the availability of iron in beans – or in other foods and

food components – Ray glahn developed a laboratory test in 1998 that uses Caco-2 (pronounced KAy-coe) human intestinal cells to give an indication of how our digestive system would treat beans and nutrients from beans.

Ray says follow-up tests with lab animals “are an important intermediate step between the Caco-2 tests and costly studies with human volunteers.” In recent years, Ray and coresearchers at the ARS Robert W. holley Center for Agriculture and health, on the Cornell University campus at Ithaca, have shown that chickens “have promise as an animal model for iron absorption studies.”

In research published this year in the journal Poultry Science, the scientists report that chickens are sensitive to iron deficiency and that at least a half-dozen different indicators of this deficiency, used in studies with other animals, are also valid for research with chickens.

The team’s tests with chickens confirmed their Caco-2 findings, namely, that iron in red beans was less bioavailable to the animals than iron in white beans.

Notes Ray, “This is the first time this disparity in bean-iron bioavailability has been shown in an animal study. It has implications for human nutrition.”

The investigation underscores the contribution that findings from Caco-2 and poultry-based assays might have in helping reverse iron deficiency worldwide.

Beans are one of the staple crops that feed people all over the world. (PhoTo: Peggy Greb)

Research funded by the Grains Re-search and Development Corpora-tion (GRDC) is shedding new light

on the potential use of ‘biochar’ in the Australian grains industry.

Biochar is a stable form of carbon, simi-lar to charcoal, produced from manure or plant matter under controlled, high tem-perature, low-oxygen conditions – a proc-ess called pyrolysis.

While it is used to improve soils in some other parts of the world including the Am-azon and Japan, less is known about its potential use in Australian broadacre ag-riculture.

But a three-year GRDC funded project ‘A fundamental understanding of biochar – implications and opportunities for the grains industry’ aims to provide some an-swers about how the material can improve long-term profitability of broadacre crops on low fertility soils.

The research project has been running for about a year and involves CSIRO Land and Water in Adelaide, the University of Western Australia (UWA) Institute of Agri-culture and the Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (DAFWA).

The South Australian component of the

Covering Cropping systems of southern nsW, viCtoria, tasmania, south australia & Western australia

SOuTHERN AusTRaliaFOCus

May–June 2010 SOUTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain – i

The ReseaRch view

Biochar and agricultural opportunitiesBy Nathalie Lee

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WESTFIELDConsultants’CornerConsultants’ Corner is an initiative by Australian Grain highlighting current GRDC-funded research with a particular focus on the commercial implications of adopting cutting-edge research.

…iis

Wheat in this trial was grown in sand to which biochar and extra nitrogen had been added. UWA researcher Daniel Dempster obtained some unexpected results.

GRDC project is coordinated by Evelyn Krull, of CSIRO Land and Water.

GRDC’s project complements the Na-tional Biochar Initiative funded by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF).

Research areas under the National Bio-char Initiative include:• Analysing the effects of biochar produc-

tion and source materials on properties;

• Biochar’s carbon sequestration potential and application rates in different soils;

• Its effects on greenhouse gas emissions; and,

• A full lifecycle assessment of biochar production and use. Evelyn also leads the DAFF biochar ini-

tiative.The UWA Institute of Agriculture As-

sociate Professor Daniel Murphy, who is leading the WA work in the GRDC project, said the research will help farmers

make informed decisions about the use of biochar and its potential to increase crop productivity and address soil nutrient defi-ciencies.

“Specifically, we aim to provide infor-mation on how to optimise fertiliser use through the combination of biochar appli-cation and conventional fertilisers,” he said.

“A range of biochars is being selected and specific effects on nutrient availability and soil health are being assessed.

“The CSIRO team in Adelaide will be re-

ii – Australian Grain SOUTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

A microscopic image taken by UWA PhD student Noraini MD Jaafer showing the surface of biochar covered with a fungal network. Noraini’s research is investigating biochar as a habitat for microorganisms in soil.

A microscopic image showing the variation in surfaces of biochar derived from the same source of organic matter. The different surfaces of the biochar affect its properties. (PHOTO: Noraini MD Jaafar)

A DAFWA trial, conducted prior to the GRDC biochar project, on the property of Nigel and Tanya Moffat of Walkaway, WA. Different rates of biochar and fertiliser were applied to the wheat crop in the trial. The research provided initial results which justified further

research into biochar.

wi…BIOCHAR

sponsible for assembling, characterising and archiving the different types of biochars.

“One of the outcomes of the research will be the production of a ‘calculator’ which farmers and consultants can use to assess the effect of biochar on crop pro-ductivity.”

Effects on nitrogen and soil biologyThe GRDC project includes a PhD study

by Daniel Dempster, of UWA investigating the impact of biochar on nitrogen cycle processes, and its biological impact on soils.

Daniel, who is from a WA grain and sheep farm at Southern Brook, east of Northam, said farmers and researchers are interested in biochar for various reasons.

“There is particular interest in the po-tential of biochar to increase soil fertility,” he said.

“Also, the method of producing bio-char, called pyrolysis, produces energy and, particularly for farmers growing oil mallees, biochar production using mal-lees as a source material could be another source of income.

“There is also the potential to use trash which comes out of the header to produce biochar. This may be useful to farmers with weed resistance problems as weed seeds in the trash are destroyed by pyrolysis.

“As well as producing energy, biochar could be put back on to the soil and the weed seed bank reduced.”

Unexpected resultsBut Daniel said a pot trial he conducted

produced unexpected results, with biochar actually decreasing nitrogen availability and microbial biomass in the soil.

“These early results highlight that cau-tion needs to be shown when looking at biochar,” he said.

“If research isn’t done well and prop-erly, its application to soils could lead to potentially negative impacts.

“But more research is needed to get a true picture of how biochar might influ-ence soil fertility.”

Daniel’s pot trial examined the interac-tion between soil microbes and nitrogen mineralisation after biochar was added to soil.

Biochar made from Jarrah wood was added at rates of five tonnes per hectare and 25 tonnes per hectare to coarse-tex-tured sand.

Organic and inorganic nitrogen were

May–June 2010 SOUTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain – iii

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

Biochar – a type of carbon similar to charcoal created by heating organic materials – is attracting growing interest due to its potential for carbon sequestration, improving soil health and energy production.

Western Australian grain grower Ian Stanley supports the GRDC biochar project and says the material warrants more research.

“Ongoing research on all levels – in laboratories and in the field – is needed to investigate biochar’s potential to increase Australian crop productivity and address soil nutrient deficiencies,” Ian said.

“But my gut feeling is that biochar has an important role to play in improving our production.”

Ian farms 22,500 hectares at Kalannie in WA’s central wheatbelt with wife Robyn, son Travis and wife Carmen, and son Clint and partner Morwenna.

He is also a shareholder in Rainbow Bee Eater, a company whose biochar plant will start production later this year, initially on a small scale using about 500 kg of wheat straw per hour.

The company is establishing a demonstration plant on Ian’s farm to produce biochar and energy using wheat straw and some biomass from oil mallees.

Other Rainbow Bee Eater shareholders include Professor Syd Shea, of Notre Dame University, WA, and Melbourne engineer and businessman Peter Burgess.

“Although on a commercial scale, it is very much a demonstration research project,” Ian said.

Most of the straw will be sourced initially from his farm, but as production increases straw and oil mallee biomass will be sourced from surrounding areas.

In addition to the Rainbow Bee Eater project, Ian has in recent years hosted on-farm biochar trials in cooperation with DAFWA.

The trials, also held at Wongan Hills, investigated the effect of biochar when used as a soil ameliorate.

“These trial results, which are still being analysed, are slightly encouraging but inconclusive,” Ian said.

He said the initial intention of Rainbow Bee Eater was to produce biochar using oil mallees, to help add value to the 1.2 million trees planted on his property over the past 15 years to address land degradation and for oil production.

“But we realised it would be quite a while before there would be enough mallee biomass available to make that proposition commercially viable,” Ian said.

“So we have decided to use predominantly straw in the initial stages.”

The plant will produce biochar and ‘biogas’ which will be used to generate electricity with the intention of supplying power to the local grid by mid–2011.

Ian said the production of biochar on his farm would also sequester carbon and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by using straw which might otherwise be burnt.

He said biochar is a complex material which behaves differently in different environmental circumstances.

“It is possible that application rates may need to be quite high and the return on investment may be – as for lime – experienced over a period of time,” he said.

The faRmeR’s viewTHE BENEFITS OF BIOCHAR

Ian Stanley with his sons Travis (left) and Clint. A demonstration plant is being built on their WA central wheatbelt farm to produce biochar and energy using wheat straw and oil mallees.

…ivs

also added to the sand in which wheat was then grown.

“We hypothesised the addition of bio-char to the sand would provide a habitat for microbes and because of this increase in microbial biomass there would be a greater turnover of nitrogen and an in-crease in soil inorganic nitrogen,” Daniel said.

“But the outcome was the opposite of what we expected.

“Then we thought that because the bi-ochar was fresh, it might have absorbed nitrogen, so we did a follow-up study to look at that.

“But we didn’t find any significant ab-sorption of nitrogen by biochar incorpo-rated into soil when nitrogen was applied at paddock applicable rates.”

Daniel is continuing his research on bio-char.

WA fiELd triALsAs part of the GRDC funded project,

WA field trials will be conducted from this year, in which different types and rates of biochar will be applied to paddocks.

These trials will be carried out on the Irwin property of Carl and Rochelle For-ward and managed by DAFWA senior re-search officer Paul Blackwell.

“The trials will examine if biochar can reduce the requirement for starter fertiliser – diammonium phosphates (DAP),” Paul said.

“DAFWA is also running experiments using lysimeters – large containers to grow plants which can be used to collect and measure nutrients leached.

“These lysimeter experiments will help establish whether biochar changes the way soil adsorbs and releases nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphates, and some her-bicides.

“We have evidence from previous DAFWA trials that biochar can reduce the amount of fertiliser needed in poor soils, and this could have the added benefit of reducing pollution in water bodies.

“But in some soils and conditions bio-char made no difference to leaching of nutrients.”

Paul said biochar is a complex material with a big range of properties and can be rich or poor in nutrients

“Also, its effect in the field seems to de-pend on the soil nutrition status, how the soil biology is operating and the season – biochar seems to be more beneficial in dri-er seasons than wetter seasons,” he said.

“We hope the larger suite of experi-ments being conducted under the GRDC project will result in more sound advice on how to use biochar.”

Paul said there are many potential uses for biochar including as a renewable en-ergy source, for carbon sequestration and for animal health.

“The GRDC project is trying to bring into focus just one sector where biochar may be used.”

Paul said complementary research work by DAFF into how biochar can be used in soil sequestration is also potentially benefi-cial to farmers.

“Part of the economic incentive to use biochar in agriculture is its potential use in carbon trading and the material will be far more viable if farmers can sell it into the carbon market,” he said.

Biochar and simazineAlso being studied in the GRDC project

is the impact of biochar on pesticides. This work is part of an international collabora-tion with Professor Davey Jones at Bangor University, Wales.

Associate Professor Murphy has helped investigate the effect of biochar type, dose rate and particle size on the adsorption, biodegradation and leaching of the pre-emergent herbicide simazine in agricultural soils.

“Our results showed that typical appli-cation rates of biochar (10–100 tonnes per hectare) suppressed the breakdown of simazine and markedly reduced leaching,” he said.

“Studies indicated these responses were probably caused by a rapid and strong sorption of simazine to the biochar.

“We concluded that while biochar may reduce pesticide leaching in the soil, it may also lead to a concentrated accumulation of pesticide in the soil.

“This could be a problem if soil organ-isms, like earthworms, consume biochar with simazine adsorbed to it.

“But if the grains of biochar are large, organisms would be unable to consume it.

“Also, with large grains, biochar would still be storing carbon in the soil.

“But large grains have a lower surface area and lower adsorption of pesticides so there are advantages to small grain sizes too.” n

iv – Australian Grain SOUTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

A diagram demonstrating the effect of biochar, shown as black in the upper pictures, on the leaching of simazine in soil. The lower pictures show that simazine, illustrated in black, was most effectively prevented from leaching when biochar was applied as a ‘band’ in the soil (C and F).

wiii…BIOCHAR

The common bean – which includes pinto, great northern, navy, black, kidney, and snap beans – is consid-

ered by many nutritionists to be a nearly perfect food because of its high protein content and low cost. But it is also sus-ceptible to many diseases that reduce seed and pod quality and yields. Agricultural Re-search Service scientists from labs across the US are playing major roles in finding solutions to what ails these legumes.

Combating rust pathogensARS plant pathologist Talo Pastor-Cor-

ralles, throughout his career, has traveled to 21 countries in the Americas and 11 in Africa studying bean diseases and search-ing for bean varieties that contain special traits – particularly disease resistance – that could be used to improve common beans.

In the Soybean Genomics and Improve-ment Research Unit in Beltsville, Mary-land, Talo specialises in genetic resistance of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) to various diseases.

He’s also the lead scientist in a project that aims to discover and breed genes into P. vulgaris for resistance to common bean rust and the newly arrived Asian soybean rust pathogen into the US, which also in-fects the common bean.

The fungus that causes bean rust is very aggressive and exists as many different strains called “races.” Talo says, “When new races appear, they can infect bean varieties that were previously resistant to rust.” Further complicating matters is the fact that races present in a field can vary from one year to another.

Of major concern is the loss of effec-tiveness of the Ur-3 rust-resistance gene in beans, which has been very effective in controlling bean rust in the US, especially in North Dakota and Michigan, the two largest producers of dry beans in the US.

But in recent years, rust has developed on these once-rust-resistant bean varieties, and there is concern that the new races will spread to other Northern Plains states, such as Colorado and Nebraska.

In 2008 and 2009, Talo and his project team were credited with developing new dry bean cultivars resistant to the rust pathogen. Talo collaborated with scientists

from the University of Nebraska and Colo-rado State University.

The new cultivars contain two or more rust-resistance genes and most also have the Ur-11 gene, considered the most ef-fective rust-resistance gene in the world.

Beans that can take the heatAt test plots in southern Puerto Rico,

ARS plant geneticist Tim Porch’s beans are feeling the heat. As part of collabo-rative breeding efforts with Cornell Uni-versity, the University of Nebraska, and the University of Puerto Rico, Tim and colleagues have been testing new bean germplasm for heat and drought tolerance and disease resistance. So far, their efforts have proved fruitful.

Tim is in the process of releasing two new kidney bean varieties with heat toler-ance. These germplasm releases, named “TARS HT-1” and “TARS HT-2,” were initiated by ARS plant geneticist Rusty Smith, now with the ARS laboratory in Stoneville, Mississippi. TARS HT-1 does well under the stress of high day and high night temperatures, whereas TARS HT-2

does well under the stress of high day and moderate night temperatures.

Also in the works is new black bean germplasm with heat and drought toler-ance and resistance to common bacterial blight, a seedborne disease – spread by splashed water – that mainly attacks the plant’s leaves and pods. Tim crossed tropi-cal black and red beans to produce these germplasm lines, which are adapted to temperate areas and will help to increase the diversity of US bean germplasm. Field tests in Nebraska show that the lines yield well in addition to having tolerance to heat, drought, and disease.

“The beans we are testing have broad adaptation,” says Tim, who is with ARS’s Tropical Agriculture Research Station (TARS) in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. “Our lines do well in the short days common to Puerto Rico and the long days found in Nebraska.” Tim is testing other bean types – red, pinto, great northern, and navy – that are drought tolerant, and some also have heat tolerance and disease resistance.

“My goal is to pyramid multiple resist-ances to generate lines with broad adapta-tion and genetic diversity.”

Tim is also involved in bean-improve-ment efforts in Angola, a country that is be-ginning to recover from many years of civil war. The project, funded by USAID and led by the University of Puerto Rico, supports Angola’s common bean breeding program.

Tim and university colleagues conduct breeding and pathology training sessions, host Angolan scientists to train them in the laboratory, and help the scientists breed for traits of importance, such as resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, and bean common mosaic virus.

Chickpeas and beet armywormReducing insecticide use – and safe-

guarding the environment – was also the goal of a project that entomologist Stephen Clement recently completed at ARS’s Plant Germplasm Introduction and Testing Research Unit in Pullman, Washington.

There, as part of a three-year project supported by the US Agency for Interna-tional Development, Stephen led develop-ment of chickpea germplasm lines offering beet armyworm resistance. The moth’s

May–June 2010 SOUTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain – v

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

…vis

Genetic solutions for pulse problemsBy Marcia Wood, Agricultural research service – UsdA

Plant pathologist Talo Pastor-Corralles examines a bean cultivar that is a new source of genes for resistance to a hyper-virulent pathogen that causes rust disease of dry and snap beans. (Photo: Peggy Greb)

caterpillar stage attacks many crops, but is especially problematic in chickpeas in In-dia, which produced 6.6 million tonnes of the high-fibre, vitamin-rich crop in 2005.

Stephen collaborated on the project with scientists at Washington State Uni-versity-Pullman and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Ar-

id Tropics (ICRISAT) in Patancheru, India. In US trials, 28 to 62 per cent of beet

armyworms that fed on the leaves of re-sistant chickpeas died within a few days. Those that survived were smaller and shorter than usual.

Now, ICRISAT entomologist Hari Shar-ma is conducting field trials to evaluate the resistant chickpeas’ potential to forestall insecticide use. n

vi – Australian Grain SOUTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

wv…GENETIC SOLUTIONS FOR PULSES Strong academic

ties

T ies between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and The University of West-ern Australia have been strengthened

by a recent collaboration between UWA’s Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sci-ences and Saudi Arabia’s King Saud Uni-versity’s College of Food and Agricultural Sciences.

A joint memorandum of understanding will develop academic and cultural inter-changes in teaching, research and other activities and foster exchanges of staff and students.

UWA’s Chair in Agriculture and Direc-tor of UWA Institute of Agriculture, Win-throp Professor Kadambot Siddique, was recently appointed as a visiting Professor (in Crop Science) at King Saud University (KSU).

While there, Professor Siddique devel-oped a joint research project proposal: Mo-lecular breeding in faba bean for improved adaptation to drought and enhanced water use in water-limited environments.

CollaborationThere is also likely to be collaboration in

animal production, and cereal (wheat and barley) heat and drought tolerance and the possibility of establishing a joint centre of excellence in sustainable agriculture.

“There is growing recognition of the need to develop rapid crop-breeding and animal production skills to help Australia and other nations adapt to climate change and to secure the world’s food supplies,” Professor Siddique said.

“It is exciting that our two countries, which share similar environmental chal-lenges, can cooperate in advancing agri-culture.”

Furthering the relationship, students from Saudi Arabia are among the fastest-growing cohort at UWA, with about 80 Saudi students enrolled in various schools and faculties. This year’s enrolments are up from almost five per cent in 2009–10.

The growth of the Saudi cohort is ri-valled only by students from China, whose numbers have increased by almost 60 per cent over the past year. There are now al-most 470 students from China at UWA. n

BETTER BEANS MEAN BETTER HEAlTHWhether it’s a side of beans for a hearty breakfast, an extra-spicy chili at lunch, or

an elegant, chilled black bean soup at dinner, beans can add pleasing colour and texture to any meal. And, importantly, beans provide iron, an essential nutrient needed in comparatively small, or “micro,” amounts.

In Ithaca, New York, ARS physiologist Raymond Glahn, ARS research associate Elad Tako, Cornell University analytical chemist Michael Rutzke, and others conduct research that may help plant breeders develop new and improved beans that are even better sources of iron.

Their research would especially benefit the more-than-2-billion people around the globe who are deficient in iron. Iron deficiency is, in fact, the world’s number-one micronutrient deficiency.

Some of these investigations are designed to determine how to boost beans’ iron bioavailability – the amount of iron our bodies can absorb and use from beans. That might be done in a number of ways, all using plant breeding.

One way, of course, would be to increase the level of iron in these legumes. Another approach would be to increase the effects of certain natural compounds that

enhance iron bioavailability. A third tactic – decrease the effects of natural compounds that make iron less

absorbable.To discover more about the availability of iron in beans – or in other foods and

food components – Ray Glahn developed a laboratory test in 1998 that uses Caco-2 (pronounced KAY-coe) human intestinal cells to give an indication of how our digestive system would treat beans and nutrients from beans.

Ray says follow-up tests with lab animals “are an important intermediate step between the Caco-2 tests and costly studies with human volunteers.” In recent years, Ray and coresearchers at the ARS Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, on the Cornell University campus at Ithaca, have shown that chickens “have promise as an animal model for iron absorption studies.”

In research published this year in the journal poultry science, the scientists report that chickens are sensitive to iron deficiency and that at least a half-dozen different indicators of this deficiency, used in studies with other animals, are also valid for research with chickens.

The team’s tests with chickens confirmed their Caco-2 findings, namely, that iron in red beans was less bioavailable to the animals than iron in white beans.

Notes Ray, “This is the first time this disparity in bean-iron bioavailability has been shown in an animal study. It has implications for human nutrition.”

The investigation underscores the contribution that findings from Caco-2 and poultry-based assays might have in helping reverse iron deficiency worldwide.

Beans are one of the staple crops that feed people all over the world. (PHOTO: Peggy Greb)

The Western Australian chickpea in-dustry is experiencing a rebirth, with plantings expected to increase six-fold

this season compared with the past year.This is thanks largely to Grains Re-

search and Development Corporation (GRDC) supported research which has produced varieties with enhanced resist-ance to the devastating fungal disease as-cochyta blight.

Alan Meldrum, WA industry develop-ment manager for Pulse Australia, which is supported by the GRDC and broader pulse industry, said about 8000 hectares of chickpeas would be planted in the WA grainbelt this year.

“This compares with about 1500 hec-tares or less a year over the preceding 10 years,” he said.

Alan said the expectation of the in-creased area planted to chickpeas is sup-ported by sales of seed and inoculants.

“In 1999, WA growers planted about 70,000 hectares of chickpeas, but asco-chyta blight then virtually wiped out the industry for several years,” he said.

“But WA growers are now benefiting from 10 years of GRDC supported plant breeding which has delivered varieties with increased resistance to the fungal disease.

“If the 2010 season allows chickpeas to be generally successful, we may get back to 1999 levels sooner rather than later.

Lower cost disease control“Fungicide control of ascochyta blight

is now down to one or two sprays, which from a cost of production point of view is very low.

“Due to the availability of varieties with enhanced disease resistance and effective fungicide control, the risk of production losses from ascochyta blight is negligible.

“The use of fungicides is mainly to pro-tect grain quality and reduce seed trans-mission of ascochyta blight,” Alan said.

PBA Slasher was developed by the GRDC supported Pulse Breeding Australia chickpea breeding program and released last year.

The PBA chickpea program, led by Industry & Investment (I&I) New South Wales and based in Tamworth, conducts extensive national evaluation of material.

PBA Slasher is one of the ascochyta blight resistant chickpea varieties now available to WA growers, who are bulking it up for seed this season.

It is a desi variety combining ascochyta blight resistance with high yield and good seed quality.

“PBA Slasher has all the agronomic traits suitable to WA, especially the north-ern region,” Alan said.

He said a major reason for the resurgence in WA chickpea plantings is the crop’s dual status as a cash crop and break crop on heavy land in the northern grainbelt.

“Low gross margins for cereals are helping to drive the increase in chickpea plantings,” Alan said.

“Also, growers now have access to a good chemical regime – not available 10 years ago – for the control of wild radish in chickpea crops.”

Alan said chickpea plantings would probably have increased about three years ago if not for the recent series of droughts in the northern grainbelt where the crop is most suited. n

May–June 2010 SOUTHERN FOCUS Australian Grain – vii

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

Steep rise in chickpea plantings tipped in WA

Compared to 10 years ago there are now chickpea varieties available with higher disease resistance and better regional adaptation.

The Western Australian chickpea crop is undergoing a resurgence.

viii – Australian Grain SOUTHERN FOCUS May–June 2010

SOuTHERN AusTRalia FOCus

A new Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) project may help growers reduce nitrogen use if studies confirm nitrate is stored in the sub-soil and is accessible to crop roots.

The Nutrients in Space and Time project, launched recently in Western Australia, is investigating the variation in nutrient supply and demand in crops, including nutrient distribution within the soil profile.

Researchers from Murdoch University, CSIRO and the Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (DAFWA) are undertaking the research.

The three-year project was among research discussed at the GRDC’s recent ‘More Profit from Crop Nutrition’ workshop in Adelaide.

GRDC western panel member Fran Hoyle was among those at the workshop which reviewed progress within GRDC crop nutrition projects, discussed plans for the future and improved communication between researchers from different projects and regions.

intensified researchNutrients in Time and Space project leader Richard Bell,

Professor in Sustainable land Management at Murdoch University, said high fertiliser prices had intensified research efforts into using nutrients more efficiently.

“Farmers’ profit margins will be increased if you can increase yields using the same amount of fertiliser, or reduce fertiliser use while maintaining yields,” Richard said.

He said while nutrients in the top soil have the biggest effect on crop performance, more needs to be known about the value of nutrients in the sub-soil.

“In particular, the project is looking at the significance of potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen in the sub-soil for supply of crop nutrient demand,” he said.

The GRDC funded project is building on previous work by CSIRO which demonstrated that acid sub-soils in the WA grainbelt can potentially retain nitrate.

“It has been long known that soils have a strong capacity to hold onto phosphate and in some soils, sulphates and molybdates,” Richard said.

“But we have tended to believe soils don’t hold onto nitrate, which we thought leached freely from soils.

“But there may be a pool of nitrogen in the sub-soil which is accessible to plant roots and isn’t being accounted for in fertiliser decisions.

Lower N applications“Soil tests in WA don’t test for nitrate levels in the sub-soil, but

if the new research confirms plant roots can access nitrate in the sub-soil, farmers may be able to account for this and cut back on nitrogen applications.”

CSIRO principal research scientist Mike Wong will investigate how strongly soils hold onto nitrate, the factors which affect its retention, how much is in the sub-soil and how readily plant roots can access it.

Richard said one of the challenges is that acid soils also have a high aluminium content, which inhibits the ability of roots to access nitrate.

Another aim of the GRDC funded project is to add capacity to the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) model and investigate potassium’s effect on crop performance.

APSIM is software commonly used in Australia and overseas to predict crop performance under different conditions.

“APSIM currently simulates crop performance in relation to nitrogen and phosphorus, but not potassium,” Richard said.

“Potassium deficiency is reasonably widespread in WA and therefore we need to understand more about how it influences grain quality and yield.

“DAFWA researcher Craig Scanlan is leading this work.”Peter Reading is the Managing Director of the Grains Research and Development Corporation, phone (02) 6166 4500. n

SOUTH

At the GRDC’s More Profit from Crop Nutrition workshop this year were, from left, CSIRO principal research scientist Mike Wong, GRDC western panel member Fran Hoyle and workshop organiser and CSIRO research group leader Ian Fillery.

IMPROvED NUTRIENT EFFICIENCY IS THE AIM OF NEW RESEARCH

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 25

dollar-denominated grain and oilseed prices mostly declined during the past month, largely attributable to

the strength of the US currency, especially against the euro. Global purchasing activ-ity was quite robust, especially for maize, although some buyers were awaiting the outcome of upcoming northern hemi-sphere winter grain harvests, for which the outlook remained broadly favourable.

While US wheat prices succumbed to the bearish domestic and international supply outlook, local values in the EU drew strength from some tightening in old crop market supplies, concerns about the im-pact of a dry spell on the next harvest and the weakening euro.

Black Sea region quotations were little changed, but those in Argentina moved up as old crop availabilities dwindled.

Despite a generally good outlook for the next crop and the rising dollar, the US maize market at the Gulf responded bullishly to the latest strong export sales figures.

These included a number of purchases by China, where local prices have contin-ued to firm despite substantial releases of official stocks.

There was heavy demand for maize in Argentina, which was set to make avail-able some three million tonnes of new export licences, while traders in Brazil awaited a decision on export subsidies.

Global oilseed prices, despite early strength, followed US soybean values lower, reflecting large South American supplies, the increasingly favourable 2010–11 supply outlook for the US, the higher dollar and falling crude oil markets.

After the steep decline since the begin-ning of the year, with Thai export quota-tions having reached their lowest in more than two years, Asian rice prices appeared to have bottomed. But international de-mand stayed sluggish.

Ocean freight rates for grains increased in May in response to solid chartering ac-tivity for minerals, grains and oilseeds and a recent surge in the Capesize sector.

wHEAT & COARSE GRAINSGlobal grain production prospects for

2010–11 improved significantly in May, especially for maize. The total is placed at 1777 mt, down from last year’s 1784 mil-lion but some 15 million tonnes more than a month ago following upward revisions for several countries, especially the US.

marketing

The world grain marketBy the International Grains Council

IGC global grain estimates (million tonnes) – May 20, 2010

2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 est.

2010–11 forecast May 20, 2010

WheatProduction 598 609 686 676 660Trade 111 110 136 120 120Consumption 610 613 639 647 654Stocks Year/year change Five major exporters**

124–1340

121–331

167+4647

195+2851

201+650

MaizeProduction 709 795 794 807 822Trade 87 101 84 84 87Consumption 725 775 779 812 826Stocks Year/year change

117–16

136+19

151+15

146–5

142–4

Total grains*Production 1588 1697 1796 1784 1777Trade 222 239 248 229 233Consumption 1628 1685 1723 1755 1777

Stocks Year/year change Five major exporters**

281–41102

293+1297

366+73124

396+30137

396–

136

*Wheat and coarse grains **Argentina, Australia, Canada, EU, United States

FIGURE 1: Export grain prices

26 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Falls in wheat and barley output are expected to outweigh a marked upturn in maize, projected at a record 822 mt.

Consumption projections are lifted for several countries, partly to reflect in-creased crop forecasts – the higher total of 1,777 mt is mostly due to upward revi-sions for industrial uses, especially ethanol in the US.

Global industrial use is set to rise by 12 mt, to 280 million, six million more than projected a month earlier.

On the basis of current crop forecasts, production and consumption of grains are projected to be in broad balance in 2010–11, with closing stocks therefore set to remain at this year’s 396 mt, five million more than first projected in April.

The outlook for trade in 2010–11 is for a moderate upturn, to 233 mt, principally because of increased imports forecast in Latin America and North Africa.

world wheat productionThe forecast of world wheat production

is increased by two mt, to 660 million. Conditions in the northern hemisphere remained mostly beneficial, but the crop forecast for the EU is trimmed.

World wheat consumption is forecast to grow by one per cent, to a record 654 mt, unchanged from last month. Food and industrial use is projected to rise but not feed.

The forecast of global stocks is raised by two mt, to a nine-year high of 201 million, with much of the increase in China and India. Combined stocks in the five majors are forecast to show little change, at 50 mt. Stocks in the US are projected at a 23-year high, but stocks are expected to fall in the EU and Canada.

World trade in wheat is forecast at 120 mt, similar to the year before, with in-creased shipments of milling wheat offset by a decline in feed. A modest rebound in US exports is forecast, while a larger crop could double Argentina’s shipments.

Exports by Ukraine are set to fall, but shipments by Kazakhstan and Russia will likely be close to 2009–10 levels.

Maize productionWorld maize production in 2010–11

is forecast at a record 822 mt – 15 mil-lion more than last year and up 13 million from a month ago.

In the US output is now expected to reach a new record.

Forecasts for increased industrial and food demand lift total consumption to 826 mt, up two per cent from 2009–10.

Feed maize demand continues to rise in Asia and Latin America, but little growth is expected elsewhere.

Industrial use will show the strongest annual growth but, at a projected four per cent, the year-on-year rise will be the smallest in 10 years.

The global closing stocks forecast is lifted by two mt from April, to 142 million, but down four million from last year.

Due to greater feed demand in Asia, trade is forecast to increase by almost three mt, to 87 million, China has re-turned to the world market, with up to one mt of reported purchases to date.

world riceWorld rice production in 2009–10 is

estimated to decline for the first time in seven years, by one per cent, to 442 mt, mostly reflecting a reduced main crop in India.

At 442 mt, rice consumption will ex-pand by one per cent, in line with the glo-bal population trend.

With production and consumption closely balanced, world closing stocks at the end of 2009–10 are forecast at 90 mt, near-unchanged from last year.

Inventories in China are expected to rise, but those in India and the five leading exporters are forecast to decrease.

World trade in calendar 2010 is pro-jected to recover by five per cent, to 29.9 mt, underpinned by larger shipments to Far East Asian markets. n

marketing

National Australia Bank (NAB) Agribusiness is encouraging pri-mary producers to consider the

benefits of Farm Management Deposits (FMDs) as a way to deal with seasonal fluc-tuations in cashflow.

NAB’s General Man-ager of Agribusiness, Khan Horne, says the highest proportion of deposits occur before the end of the financial year.

“FMDs are a tool for primary producers to manage fluctuations in income through good and bad years and can provide significant tax savings by deferring income from one year to another,” Khan said.

“May and June are the ideal time to re-view income and expenditure for the next 12 months to gauge the potential benefit from investing funds in an FMD, so you can act before June 30 if necessary.

“The value of FMDs is capped, so some farmers approaching the limit may need to consider alternative investment and tax strategies.”

Khan says farmers approaching retire-ment should also be considering when to redeem their FMDs to ensure they aren’t hit with a big tax burden.

“Many retiring farmers can receive sig-nificant payments from the sale of prop-

erty and assets. What they may not realise is that any FMDs also have to be redeemed at this time.

“Well before retirement, it’s a good idea to talk to a financial planning expert about succession planning. Contributing to su-perannuation rather than adding to FMDs may be a more tax-effective long term op-tion for older farmers,” Khan said.

Any good financial planner will look at your current position, talk to you about what you would like to do in your retire-ment and discuss any fees involved in pre-paring a written strategy.

NAB offers a complimentary first visit to a specialist agribusiness financial planner for NAB Agribusiness customers.

“Farmers who have excess cashflow through the year should think about mak-ing regular deposits to FMDs to give them greater flexibility to make withdrawals,” Khan said.

“FMDs have to be in place for 12 months to receive the full tax benefit and a greater number of smaller deposits at dif-ferent times will provide more opportuni-ties to access the cash when it’s needed.

“This in turn will reduce farm financ-ing costs by doing away with the need for overdrafts and other short term loans,” he said.

According to the Department of Agricul-ture, Fisheries and Forestry, at December 31, 2009 there were 36,396 FMD hold-ers with almost $2483 million invested. n

Always the right time to invest

Khan Horne.

s ince bottoming in early April, wheat swaps (our preferred hedging instru-ment) recovered by around A$25

per tonne to peak early in May at around A$230 per tonne.

For those who don’t use swaps to hedge, new crop multi-grade wheat con-tracts followed pretty much the same path, with basis (difference between Australian prices and US futures prices adjusted for the $A) close to neutral.

The recovery in grain prices was initially sparked by news that China was buying US corn.

Reports continue of corn sales out of Chinese government stocks to key corn production areas.

Domestic Chinese corn prices are said to be trading between $7–$8 per bushel (almost double the import price). If the Chinese government runs out of corn this could lead to further buying out of the US – and would provide a huge fundamental boost for the grains market.

Funds flow favours wheat and corn

But early in May, the biggest catalyst for the upward movement was the divergence in movements in the $A and those in the grains market.

For the past couple of years, move-ments in the $A have essentially mirrored grain price movements. But recently, as global equity markets have got the jitters, the $A has come under pressure.

So, while we searched and hoped to find a fundamental driver for this rally, it was just a change in the patterns of global capital flows.

Essentially, all we have seen is invest-ment money flow out of equities, oil and the $A and into defensive assets such as wheat and corn. As global economic con-cerns eased, money flowed back into equi-ties, oil and the $A and out of wheat and corn.

Until there are some new fundamentals

factors for the market to trade off, it seems wheat and corn will remain at the mercy of global capital flows. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 27

It’s not fundamentals… just the fundsBy Profarmer Australia

The markets absorbed the May 11 uSDa reports as well as can be expected.

Most of the uSDa numbers were below expectations, nonetheless, across all grains they forecast rising global and uS stocks.

It seems that the uSDa has taken a conservative view on yields and we can probably brace ourselves for further upward revisions if growing season conditions remain favourable.

Global wheat production is expected to fall only one per cent, despite lower plantings.

This would make it the third largest crop on record and the third successive year when supply has outstripped expected consumption. Consumption is expected to rise by two per cent, mainly owing to increased wheat feeding in the Black Sea.

uS corn futures held firm after the uSDa indicated that stockpiles

would grow less than expected due to rising demand for the grain.This is amid a pickup in ethanol production (corn for ethanol use up four per cent, three per cent lift in exports, flat feeding demand) and the possibility of more Chinese purchases.

The uSDa was conservative on further Chinese corn imports and will await confirmation of further imports before increasing Chinese corn import numbers and uS corn exports. Despite the record planting pace, uSDa puts corn yields below last year.

for corn, the uSDa raised its Chinese import outlook by 200,000 tonnes for the current season but forecast 2010–11 imports at a modest 100,000 tonnes and left its 2009 Chinese corn estimate at 155 million tonnest (down from 166 mt last year).

Many analysts had expected uSDa to project bigger corn imports given China’s recent interest in uS corn. Late in april, China bought 115,000 tonnes of uS, its first buy in four years.

uSDa PuTS OuT GenTLe nuMBeRS

marketing

Recent grain price movements are linked more to international capital flows than market fundamentals.

28 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Supplied May 20 by Profarmer Australia. Information available at www.profarmer.com.au or call 1300 302 143

Domestic grain outlook

Canola – faLLInG $a HeLPS OffSeT WeaKneSS In CanOLa fuTuReSThe oilseed slide continued this week in line

with outside pressure from the macro markets and the corn pit. The large overhanging South american crop continues to keep buyers content, but this week it was not a major factor with south american farmers retreating from the market on the selloff.

With soybean prices now pushing back under 950uSc/bu we have seen a strong pickup in demand internationally from the Chinese. But the main issue that is preventing us from rebounding from here is the macro picture that continues to be filled with uncertainty.

If we can find some stability in the wider global economic picture, we will no doubt see buyers more willing to engage at these lower levels and provide some price support. new crop bean plantings continue to move along at around average pace, giving up some of the head start they had early in the piece after a run of wetter weather – which is expected to dissipate in the coming weeks and allow planting progress to increase again.

across the border to Canada, we have seen a similar situation, with solid planting conditions pressuring markets lower. after trading a Ca$10/t range in futures for more than a month we have seen a breakout to the downside on the back of global uncertainty, technical selling and a lack of general bullish enthusiasm.

But at the same time the a$/Ca$ has fallen from 94Cac to 89Cac which has helped mitigate most, if not all, of the move lower in futures. We have also seen a pickup in demand, albeit sporadic, from Pakistan as they look to fill their requirements prior to the ukrainian harvest. new crop swaps sit at a$435/t, still below our a$450/t target.

Wheat – GLOBaL unCeRTaInTy COnTInueS TO DOMInaTe

Wheat futures this week were again at the mercy of continued uncertainty in macro markets that is dogging confidence across the global economy.

news of the eu’s Greek bailout package only provided very short-term relief and since then we have seen a de-risking theme across the markets. as strange as it may sound, this de-risking has allowed wheat to stabilise somewhat in the past couple of days. Currently all the speculative funds hold their risk in the form of short positions and as they decide to de-risk, they need to buy.

But with a strengthening uS$ and bearish fundamentals, the path of least resistance is lower. July’10 CBOT futures now sit just above the contract lows made at the start of april – this will remain a key level for the market.

The positive coming out of the recent change in global sentiment for australian exporters is the impact it has had on the $a. The $a has fallen from 93uSc to under 85uSc (9%) since the start of the month, to its lowest level since february. The fall has added around $a15 per tonne to our swap prices, offsetting the fall in futures. new season March 2011 swaps now sit at around $a235/t and at levels north of $a240/t and certainly at $a250/t it is worth starting to take some coverage. With the objective of returning a positive basis, this would leg our way into a final port price of +$a240-–250/t.

Hedge limits should be set to around 30–35% of your average yield in order to allow participation in further market volatility over the next 9–12 months and protect against over exposure to production risk.

marketing

over the past 10 years an exten-sive range of products from the simple to the complex have been

introduced to aid Australian grain growers to market their crop. Some of these prod-ucts are ageless while others are transitory due to the changing market environment.

The main product types include:• Forward contracts;• Futures and options;• Commodity swaps;• Basis style contracts; and,• Pools

To put these products into perspective you need to understand the key determi-nants or components of Australian wheat prices.

Once you understand this concept you can more readily understand the pros and cons of each product type.

Some of the hedging products available

to Australian growers have been designed to more effectively manage each of the key components.

Any Australian wheat price can be bro-ken down into its three components be-ing: CBOT wheat futures; $A/$US; and, ‘basis’.

So for example a 2010–11 APW multi-grade price of $220 per tonne re - presents: • A CBOT Dec ’10 wheat futures value of

540 USc/bu;• $A/$US Dec ’10 forward exchange

rate of 87.58 USc; and,• A calculated or derived component

called ‘basis’.Basis is calculated by converting the for-

ward contract price into USc/bu and com-paring it to the reference futures price (in this case CBOT Dec ’10 wheat futures).

To convert A$220/t into USc/bu:

ii(i) Convert A$/t into $US/t by multiply-ing by the forward exchange rate ie. 220 x 0.8758 = US$193/t

i(ii) Convert US$/t into USc/bu by divid-ing by 0.3674371 (193/0.3674371) = 525 USc/bu

(iii) Deduct forward contract price (in USc/bu) from the reference futures contract CBOT Dec ‘10 wheat futures = 525 –540 = –15 USc/bu

Each of the three components of pricing can move independently of each other, so there can be a significant benefit in manag-ing each of these components separately.

In coming issues of Australian Grain we will explain this concept in greater detail when we look at different product types.

Forward cash contracts (fixed grade, multi-grade)

These are the simplest and easiest to use of the products available to Australian

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 29

marketing

Wheat price components and how to manage them

By Profarmer Australia

Jaylon produces quality tarpaulins for harsh environments

Telephone: 08 9249 2088Facsimile: 08 9249 3690Email: graincovers@jaylon.com.au

Jaylon has fabricated tarpaulins for 60 years and is Australia’s leading manufacturer of hay and grain covers —

supplied throughout Australia and around the world!

As well as heavy-duty long-life tarpaulins supplied to major grain handlers, Jaylon is also able to supply grain storage bags, wall liners, ground sheeting

and economy tarpaulins to meet individual storage requirements.

With manufacturing facilities in both Perth and Brisbane…

J a y l o n h a s g o t a u s t r a l i a c o v e r e d!

growers. But a key drawback is that they are also the least flexible.

When entering into a forward contract you effectively fix (lock in) all three pric-ing components at the same time, whilst taking on a commitment to deliver a cer-tain tonnage, at that price, within a certain time period (taking on production and de-livery risk).

Multi-grade contracts partly reduce the quality risk by allowing a number of grades to be delivered.

The major risk in using these products is production failure. Forward contracts are notoriously difficult to ‘washout’ or in other words extinguish your production and delivery commitment if you fail to pro-duce enough grain to fulfil your contract.

Often this comes at a significant cost (above and beyond a mark-to-market value) and is the reason why many grain management advisors avoid these con-tracts.

There are variations to these contracts, with volume tolerances or contracts based on area planted (area contracts).

More detail about forward cash con-tracts is presented on the next page.

Futures and optionsThe most relevant futures markets are

the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX), the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) and for canola the Winnipeg Commodity Ex-change (ICE).

Futures contracts are essentially stand-ardised forward contracts that are traded on an exchange. Exchanges offer many benefits. The most important are; trans-parency, liquidity and the elimination of

counterparty risk (risk that the counter-party to your contract defaults).

International futures (CBOT/ICE), only allow you to manage the futures compo-nent of grain prices, leaving you to man-age currency and basis risk.

Local ASX futures allow you to also manage currency risk as they are traded in $A. They also significantly lower basis risk for many Australian producers.

We will cover the mechanics of futures markets and explain options in greater de-tail in an upcoming article.

Commodity or wheat SwapsThe term “Swap” is simply jargon. Es-

sentially it means swapping a floating price for a fixed price. Swaps are non-exchange traded products that essentially replicate international futures markets, but are priced in terms that are more relevant for Australian growers (that is US$/t, CA$/t or $A/t).

Swaps are ‘farmer friendly’ – they are traded by a local intermediary (Australian

banks), in local trading hours and in terms that are more relevant to Australian grow-ers (that is, $A per tonne).

Basis style contractsThese are forward contracts offered

by traders that allow you to set the three pricing components (futures, A$, basis) separately. Fixed basis contracts mean the basis component is fixed first. Other con-tract styles allow you to fix futures, basis and A$ in any order. Some of these are deliverable contracts and some will allow a cash out.

PoolsGrowers can now choose pools accord-

ing to preferences of price, risk profile, payment terms, financing options and a myriad of other elements.

Recently, early commitment pools/bo-nuses have been introduced. These allow the pool manager to start managing the individual price components on behalf of pool participants once a commitment has been made to supply the pool. n

30 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

PRODUCT RISK PROFILEPrice components

Product type Production risk Quality risk Basis A$ FuturesFixed grade contract Yes Yes Fixed Fixed FixedMulti-grade contract Yes Partly Fixed Fixed FixedInternational futures Indirectly Indirectly No No FixedLocal futures Indirectly Indirectly Fixed Fixed FixedSwaps ($A/t) Indirectly Indirectly No Fixed FixedBasis contracts Indirectly Indirectly Self managed

Pools Only with commitment pools No Managed by pool manager

NOTES: 1. To establish a final return all price components must be fixed. 2. Indirect production & quality risk means that you may have some liability if you do not produce the

required tonnage and quality specified in these contracts.

marketing

Chicago Board of Trade (pictured) and the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) are the most relevant futures market for Australian wheat growers.

forward cash contracts – in the majority of pre-season contracts, will be written in terms of a delivered port or fIS port price.

The delivery option to a destination up country is derived from a freight cost deducted from the port price. freight costs can be either an industry standard value (set annually by Grain Trade australia) or set by the buyer.

you should ensure you know which freight rate the contract specifies and whether it is the industry or the buyer rate as significant advantages/disadvantages do exist between locations and buyers.

FIxED GRADE CONTRACTSThese are by far the simplest and, outside of wheat pricing, the

most commonly used forward grain contract. These are mostly used post harvest when quality is known.

a fixed grade contract is a commitment to deliver to the buyer an agreed tonnage of a certain quality (these may be variety specific) during a specified period to a certain location all at a known price.

The key advantages of fixed grade products is they are simple and the key contract elements are “known” but the major risk is producing the tonnage and quality.

Key advantages• Price – the producer will usually receive a higher price to

compensate for taking on the risk of supplying a specific quality. Currently fixed grade contracts are generally priced around $5/t higher than multi-grade contracts.

• Known price – once you have locked in the price you have certainty over the return on that tonnage.

• Simple – the price is generally quoted in a$ and is fixed, regardless of what the market does afterward.

Key risks• Production risk – if a producer is unable to supply the contracted

tonnage then the producer must either buy that tonnage in from a third party or organise a financial settlement (“washout”) with the buyer. Producers would normally forward sell only a small amount of expected production on fixed grade forward contracts to limit this risk. This is the key reason why fixed grade contracts are more commonly used postharvest when production is known.

• Quality risk – if the producer is unable to supply the contracted quality then the producer may need to buy in grain that meets the contract specifications or arrange with the buyer a financial settlement based on the quality the producer can provide.

• Price – the main price risk is opportunity cost. If the market moves higher once the tonnage is contracted then that tonnage receives no benefit of the higher price.

• The ‘basis’ inherent in forward contract prices can often be weak, particularly early in the season.

Key questions before entering a fixed grade forward contract• Does the price warrant taking production risk?• Is the price premium enough to commit to fixed grade over multi-

grade?• What premiums/discounts apply?• Is there a set wash out fee or option to wash out and under what

conditions?

CASH AT SILOanother form of a fixed grade contract is the “Cash at Silo” price

posted at the local delivery point during harvest. In this instance

quantity and quality are known as is the price with the transaction taking place there and then.

Cash at Silo prices are set the evening before and may not take into account overnight price fluctuations in international markets. Buyers in most instances will be conservative when setting the Cash at Silo price and may have a higher contract price if prices move up overnight. Conversely, buyers may withdraw Cash at Silo prices if they are above where they consider the price should be. In more recent times, deliveries are warehoused by the seller and sold or allocated at a later time against forward contracts.

AREA CONTRACTSarea Based Contracts are usually for limited volume or specialty

type grains and maybe only available in a specific region, which is in proximity to the processing facility.

Soft, noodle and durum wheats are frequent candidates for these contracts. The buyer’s look to make them as attractive as possible to ensure they acquire sufficient quantity to satisfy anticipated needs.

These contracts are usually offered by the domestic market, which prefer domestic grown product to meet their customer’s needs. These contracts will take the same form as a multi-grade with the volume replaced with either area, or a maximum volume or volume to be established before harvest.

In most cases they will be for milling grade qualities (wheat). If the buyer has limited capacity for using a lower grade grain than that specified in the contract, then the discounts maybe large and outweigh the premium for the quality grain.

MULTI-GRADE CONTRACTSThese are most commonly used where grain quality impacts on

end product use. These contracts are used mostly for barley and wheat where industry standards (GTa) quantify physical measurable quality characteristics into segregations with relevance to end product uses.

a multi-grade contract is a commitment to deliver to the buyer an agreed tonnage during a specified period to a certain location all at a known price with the grade fixed once the delivered quality is known.

Multi-grade contracts will tend to offer a discount to fixed grade as the buyer is taking on the quality risk.

Multi-grade contracts establish a base price (aPW) and have a set schedule of grade spreads. The typical multi-grade contract will include the major deliverable grades with grade spreads to other grades negotiable with the counterparty.

a variation to the multi- grade is the milling multi- grade, where the buyer only wants to buy milling quality wheat. These should offer an additional premium as additional risk is taken.

Important to note, fixed and multi- grade contracts can differ markedly between buyers. Some offer a higher base price and larger discounts, or smaller premiums, or both, on contracted grades. you need to look closely at the final price so that you can accurately compare prices across the range of buyers.

ensure you have flexibility in load allocations to the contract to allow you to maximise your advantage as the grade spreads or your harvest quality may change during the harvest.

Key advantages• Quality flexibility.• Known price.• Simple – the price is fixed and generally quoted in a$.

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 31

marketing

a CLOSeR LOOK aT fORWaRD CaSH COnTRaCTS

there are good opportunities for Aus-tralia’s sheep and beef export indus-tries in feeding ‘the hungry dragon’

of China and this could have very positive ramifications for our feed grains industry. But growth in the Chinese market is likely to be relatively restrained for at least the next decade.

Feeding the dragon: Opportunities for Australian meat in China, is a report by leading food and agribusiness bank Ra-bobank which says China has grown to become one of the world’s largest markets for meat – including beef and sheepmeat – and demand is expected to continue rising over the next 10 years.

But growth is likely to be reasonably modest, with Australia facing competition from a range of other suppliers as well as potential for changes in access to the Chi-nese market.

Report author, Rabobank senior analyst Wendy Voss says Australian sheepmeat, high-value beef cuts and offal stand to have the greatest export opportunities in the Chi-nese meat market over the next decade.

But China is likely to remain a relatively minor part of overall exports sales for Aus-tralian beef.

“For Australian beef producers and ex-porters, it is important to recognise that while the Chinese meat market will con-tinue to grow in importance, it will not be another Japan – at least not within the next decade,” she says.

A dragon increasingly hungry for meat

The report says China’s massive popula-tion, surging income, rapid urbanisation and westernisation has resulted in the country becoming a giant consumer of a range of agricultural products, including meat.

It is now the world’s largest market for sheepmeat (as well as pork and seafood) and the fourth largest for beef.

But Wendy says, beef and sheepmeat are still niche products in China and, com-bined, make up only 14 per cent of per capita meat consumption. This compares with pork at 65 per cent and poultry at 20 per cent.

“The smaller share of the ‘meat pie’ held by beef and sheepmeat is due to a combination of cultural and price factors,” she says.

“For example, cattle have tradition-ally been used in agricultural production, ploughing fields, and were considered too valuable to slaughter for beef production, though with increased mechanisation of farming, there has been a shift towards raising cattle for beef production.

“For Chinese consumers, beef and sheepmeat have also been less affordable than pork and poultry. And unlike pork, which is more often cooked at home, beef and sheepmeat tend to be consumed when dining out. Given their high price and niche position in Chinese cuisine, beef and sheepmeat are generally considered more a special occasion item.”

But despite the relatively minor share of beef and sheepmeat in Chinese diets, total consumption of both has surged in recent decades, driven by a combination of increased population and a rise in per capita consumption of meat in general.

“Chinese consumers have grown in-creasingly carnivorous over recent dec-ades, consuming more of all meats,” Wendy says.

“A major factor driving this consump-tion growth has been the increased pur-chasing power of the Chinese consumer, with the rise in incomes in recent years. As incomes increase, Chinese consumers are significantly increasing their spending

on meat – including beef and sheepmeat. This is due to both the perceived positive nutritional attributes of meat and the pure enjoyment of eating it.”

Chinese domestic production Total consumption of beef and sheep-

meat in China surged 2.5 million tonnes and two million tonnes respectively be-tween 1996 and 2008.

But much of this increased consumption was met by growth in local supply, driven in large part by government support of the domestic meat industries, including tax exemptions, input subsidies, import tariffs and access to finance.

“During that time, China grew to be-come the world’s largest producer of sheepmeat and one of the largest for beef, dwarfing Australia’s production in those commodities,” Wendy says.

“But in recent years, much of the gov-ernment support that had been provided to cattle and sheep producers during the 1990s was removed by the Chinese gov-ernment and producers faced downward pressure on margins.

“The combination of reduced govern-ment support, uncertain markets and ris-ing input prices has seen cattle and sheep production becoming increasingly unat-tractive in China compared to other op-tions such as grains or intensive livestock, and has resulted in a decline in both herd and flock numbers.”

Export opportunities Wendy says the fall in livestock numbers

has led to lower production in recent years, an increase in net imports for sheepmeat and a fall in China’s already small export surplus for beef.

This, combined with increased demand, is leading to increased opportunities for Australian exporters.

Sales of Australian beef and sheepmeat (including offal) to China have already grown rapidly since 2007, taking place at both the high and low ends of the market.

“With production growth slowing and demand continuing to rise, China is likely to increase its levels of beef imports over the upcoming years,” Wendy says.

“Sheepmeat offers good prospects for growth in China with consumption ex-pected to continue to rise beyond local production capabilities. Offals will continue

32 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

Opportunities to feed the hungry Chinese Dragon some meat

Rabobank senior analyst Wendy Voss.

to offer some of the greatest potential for growth in exports to China, with demand expected to rise for beef, sheep, pork and poultry offals. As Australia already exports significant volumes of offal into China, it should be relatively well-placed to take ad-vantage of this expected demand growth.”

Challenges ahead But the report warns, while Australia is

reasonably well placed to supply beef and sheepmeat to the Chinese market, it is cer-tainly not in the driving seat and will face competition from a range of countries, as well as possible volatility in the market, particularly through changes in market ac-cess conditions.

“Australia will not have this market all to itself, with a range of suppliers in other countries already granted access to the Chinese market, or expected to gain or re-gain access in the short to medium-term,” Wendy says. “This includes suppliers at both ends of the price spectrum, such as Brazil (low cost) and the US (higher cost).”

And it is not only the actions of com-peting suppliers which could impact Aus-tralian meat sales to the Chinese market. Government policy in China also has the power to make or break opportuni-ties for exporters – Australian or other-

wise – through changes in market access conditions.

“The Australian government will be one of the most important players in help-ing support the country’s position in the

market, through the successful negotiation of an FTA with China and the continued management of trade and market access issues that may arise in this complex mar-ket,” Wendy says. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 33

Sales of Australian sheepmeat to China have grown strongly since 2007.

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due to the combination of drought and highly vola-tile fertiliser prices many growers within the Central West region of NSW have started to explore the use

of alternative fertiliser sources and nutritional programs. Traditionally in the Central West growers have banded

all their granular hi-analysis phosphorus (P) fertiliser (such as MAP and DAP) upfront with seed that has been treated with a fungicide to control diseases such as bunts, smuts and stripe rust.

It is generally accepted that around 20 to 30 per cent of fertiliser P banded at sowing is available for the current season’s crop, 20 to 30 per cent becomes available over the next three to five years and the remaining 50 per cent is locked up (sorbed) for the long term.

The exact ratio of how much P gets locked up will vary depending on soil characteristics such as texture and pH as well as aluminum (Al), iron (Fe) and calcium (Ca) levels.

The potential of a soil to lock up P is estimated by the phosphorus buffer index (PBI).

The majority of soil types within the Central West have low PBI values indicating that much of the applied P will become plant available over time. The combination of paddock history, sowing date (early or late sown) and soil test results (interpreted with local calibration results) have proven to be beneficial tools in predicting individual paddock responsiveness to fertiliser P.

As a result of the prolonged drought many intensive cropping paddocks across the Central West have high P levels (greater than 50 ppm Colwell) due to fertiliser inputs exceeding outputs. This has enabled a safe reduc-tion in fertiliser rates as these soils are comfortably above the local benchmark of 35 ppm (Colwell).

Growers and advisors are now being challenged by claims that further fertiliser efficiencies can be gained for Central West NSW.

Some biological advocates promote the use of rock phosphate products in conjunction with “microbe friendly” seed treatments and “biological inoculants”.

The overall aim is to enhance biological health and hence improve nutrient cycling. It is claimed that the im-proved biological health of the soil will unlock some of the tied up P (sorbed P) and enhance the effectiveness of applied P fertiliser.

34 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

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isea

se feature

Getting the most bang for your phosphorus buck

By Col McMaster, Ken Motley, Remy van de ven and Simon Speirs – NSw DI&I

aT a GLanCe • Hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the smallest yield to breakeven in

2009.• Hi-analysis granular P and liquid P had a similar response curve and

both types of products performed well.• Rock phosphate product had a very flat response which slightly improved

when 30 per cent DaP was added.• The addition of biological additives to the rock phosphate did not

produce a fertiliser response curve greater than hi-analysis granular.• Growers must consider the effectiveness of various fertiliser sources (for

example, what does the fertiliser response curve look like) and cost per unit of P each year before deciding on fertiliser type/form.

TABLE 1: Site location and details

Location Variety Sowing date Soil type Free lime

presentColwell P (mg/kg)

PBI (mg/kg)

Total inorganic P (mg/kg)

Total P (mg/kg)

Organic P (mg/kg)

pH (CaCl)

Peak Hill Livingston June 15 Red dermosol No 25a 58 43 240 196 5.5

Gunningbland Ventura June 16 Grey vertosol Yesc 15b 106 62 252 190 7.6

a = Moderate response expected from additional P; b = High response expected from additional P; c = Free lime percentage yet to be analysed.

TABLE 2: Fertiliser product detailsPhosphorus source Form Cost Phosphorus $ % of MAP

P% $/kg PHi-analysis (MAP) Granular $950/t 22 4.32 100%

Rock phosphate (RP)a Granular $775/t 12 6.46 150%Rock phosphate +30% DAP (RP+30% DAP)a Granular $786/t 8 9.83 228%

Phosphoric acid Liquid $2231/t 16 13.94 323%Polyphosphate Liquid $3214/t 23 13.98 324%

Prices at Feb–Mar 2009. a = Rock Phosphate products are biologically activated (inoculated) with microbes to further solubilise P.

Research suggests that the effectiveness of rock phos-phate fertilisers are dependant on acid soil (ph less than 4.5), high rainfall (greater than 600 mm), P-sorption, texture and plant species.

Significant interest in liquid fertilisers is also devel-oping due to the increased efficiencies of liquid P over granular P on the alkaline calcareous soils (containing free lime – CaCO3) of southern Australia.

These efficiencies are yet to be proven amongst the com-mon soil types of Central West NSW as the presence of topsoil lime (CaCO3) is not considered regionally significant.

The other suggested benefit of liquid P products is the potential to apply P at various stages throughout the year.

what the trial set out to doThe aim of this trial was to evaluate the effectiveness

of the various sources of phosphorus fertiliser programs including liquids, hi-analysis granular and biological rock phosphate products.

Specific questions to address were:• Can fertiliser rates be reduced when using liquid P?• Do liquid fertilisers allow growers to split fertiliser P

applications? • Do rock phosphate fertilisers release enough P to pro-

vide for crop requirements?• How important is it to use “microbe friendly” seed

treatments and “biological inoculants” when using

rock phosphate fertilisers or other biological pro-grams? and,

• Which form of P was most cost effective?

How the trial was doneTwo sites (Table 1) were selected for fertiliser Product

trials (Table 2) in the Central West representing differ-

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 35

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Growers about ot do their ‘blind’ early vigour scoring at Peak Hill.

ences in soil type and their potential to be responsive to additional phosphorus.

The Gunningbland site is considered one of the higher P- sorption sites of the region (CaCO3 present in topsoil) whilst the Peak Hill site represented a far more common soil type with lower P-sorption characteristics (see PBI in Table 1).

Colwell P values (Table 1) indicate that both sites should be responsive to additional P.

At each site a second Systems trial was conducted to evaluate if fertiliser efficiency was improved by adopting a

full nutritional program (additional seed/foliar treatments) compared to only applying the specific fertiliser product.

Each trial was designed as a randomised complete block (four replicates) and laid out as a single row.

Product trial: Fertiliser product/source (Table 2) plus wheat seed

treated with Raxill Systems trial: Fertiliser product/source (Table 2) plus the recom-

mended seed/foliar treatment (Table 3). Note that in this Systems trial the hi-analysis granular

fertiliser and phosphoric liquid fertiliser had no additional seed treatments or foliar sprays as this is not recom-mended to enhance fertiliser efficiency.

Therefore the Systems trial was designed to compare the benefits of adopting a full biological system or liquid system over current district practise of hi-analysis granu-lar fertiliser.

All fertiliser products were applied at 5 kg P per hec-tare, 10 kg P per hectare and 20 kg P per hectare.

An additional polyphosphate treatment (liquid P) was included where half the P rate was applied at sowing and half applied at early booting.

Fertiliser treatments were balanced with urea to en-sure even rates of nitrogen (N) were applied. Basal ap-plication of N as urea was applied to the Nil P fertiliser treatment at the same rate as the other treatments.

At each site an early vigour score was conducted at mid tillering to identify any visual differences between treatments.

The Gunningbland site was assessed by seven agrono-mists and two growers whilst the Peak Hill site was as-sessed by 22 growers and three agronomists.

To ensure no bias occurred the scoring was conducted without knowledge of trial plan/layout. All individuals scored each plot using a value between 1 (poor crop

36 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

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TABLE 3: Seed/foliar treatments used in the Systems trial

Fertiliser treatment Additional product applied

Application details$/ha Key claim of product

Seed/Foliar Rate

Polyphosphate (liquid)

Seaweed extract Seed 1 lt/t 0.75 Root hormone to promote root growth

Zn seed treatment Seed 4 lt/t 1.40Enhance root growth and disease resistance

overcoming any zinc deficiencies either induced or inherent

NPK (14-15-11) Foliara 2 lt/ha 5.40 Enhance nutrient uptake and supply additional nutrients at key growth stages

Raxill Seed 1 lt/t 1.58 Control bunts and smuts

Rock phosphate and rock phosphate + 30% DAP

Broad spectrum inoculmn of

compost microbesSeed 5 lt/t 0.91

Re-inoculate the rhizosphere with a broad spectrum inoculmn to improve the soils’ natural organic cycle with beneficial fungi and bacteria

Broad spectrum inoculmn of

compost microbesFoliara 5 lt/ha 18.49

Re-inoculate the phyllosphere (leaf surface) with a broad spectrum inoculmn to maximise flower

boom, flower retention and harvest yieldHi-analysis granular and phosphoric acid liquid Raxill Seed 1 lt/ha 1.58 Control bunts and smuts

Prices at Feb–Mar 2009. a = Foliar sprays applied at head emergence.

FIGURE 1: Yield threshold to cover fertiliser costs in Product trial

(Assumes grain value of $185/t)

FIGURE 2: Yield threshold to cover fertiliser costs in Systems trial

(Assumes grain value of $185/t)

growth/vigour) and 10 (high crop growth/vigour) in re-gards to visual crop health and vigour.

It could be assumed that the early vigour score is an indication of dry matter production

Other data collected from the trial sites include plant establishment, tiller counts, heads at harvest, yield, pro-tein, screenings, soil moisture at sowing and monthly rainfall.

wHAT wE FOUNDBreakeven yield to cover fertiliser investment

To determine which fertiliser product to use the costs relative to response need to be investigated. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the breakeven yields required to cover the various fertiliser costs in 2009. For example around 0.5 tonnes per hectare of grain yield would cover the cost for:• 21 kg P per hectare of MAP;• 14 kg P per hectare of rock phosphate;• 9 kg P per hectare of rock phosphate + 30% DAP; or,• 7 kg P per hectare of liquid

So if growers allocated $10,000 to their fertiliser budget in 2009, they had the option to purchase either:• 2315 kg P via MAP; • 1548 kg P via rock phosphate;• 1017 kg P via rock phosphate plus 30% DAP; or,• 715 kg P via liquid.

If the decision is to buy less P for the same dollars, growers need to be sure that the crop is more responsive to P from a particular product compared to the alterna-tive fertiliser sources.

Factors such as P-sorption and the presence of free lime need to be considered. Growers also need to be aware that there will be less residual P for following seasons.

Seasonal conditionsThe combination of good rainfall, follow up rain events

and adequate weed control during the summer fallow period helped to penetrate moisture into the safety of the sub-soil at Gunningbland. Consequently 30 per cent (84 mm) of summer rain was retained for the following wheat crop. A combination of adequate sub-soil mois-ture at sowing and a wet June (decile 9) provided a good start for early crop growth and development.

But as the season progressed moisture became ex-tremely limiting during critical growth stages such as flowering and grain fill. Consequently yields were se-verely water limited in 2009.

In comparison the Peak Hill site had much less sig-nificant rainfall with few follow-up rain events over the summer fallow. Much of the moisture was retained near the surface where evaporation losses are highest, leav-ing zero moisture at sowing. Whilst growing conditions improved due to a wet June (decile 9.8), yield penalties started to occur much earlier than the Gunningbland site.

But a relatively mild spring and some timely rainfall post anthesis resulted in more favourable conditions for grain fill.

These sites highlight the difference between the ben-efits of stored moisture at sowing (Gunningbland had 84

mm) compared to zero moisture at sowing but an addi-tional 79 mm of in-crop rainfall (Peak Hill site).

Both sites received the same effective rainfall (stored moisture plus in-crop rainfall) despite the dissimilar rain-fall distribution

was the Gunningbland site responsive to additional P?

Yes it was – The early vigour score’s (Figures 3 and 4) indicate that visual responses to additional P were evident.

There were also up to 50 per cent more tillers and heads at harvest where P products were compared with the Nil P (Figures 5 and 6).

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 37

featurenutrition & disease

FIGURE 3: Gunningbland Product trial – early vigour score

Conducted by seven local agronomists and two growers.

FIGURE 4: Gunningbland Systems trial – early vigour score

Conducted by seven local agronomists and two growers.

The growers gave these samples an early vigour score of (from left to right) 8, 5 and 3.

Did the various fertilisers respond differently at Gunningbland?

Yes – The early vigour score indicates that the rock phosphate treatments were visually undistinguishable from the Nil P, and there was no difference between the number of tillers per square metre. A small visual response and a 25 per cent increase in tiller numbers was evident when 30 per cent DAP was added to the rock phosphate (when applied at the higher rates of 20 kg P per hectare).

Applying the various seed dressings and biological in-oculants did not improve the rock phosphate fertiliser response above conventional hi-analysis granular.

The polyphosphate liquid gave the most impressive visual response which was followed closely by the hi-analysis granular and phosphoric liquid.

The greatest tiller response (50 per cent above Nil P) was achieved with 20 kg P per hectare of hi-analysis granular which was closely followed by approximately 35 per cent more tillers from the other liquid P products (polyphosphate and phosphoric).

There was no significant yield difference between fertiliser sources in the Product trial. But there was an increase in yield of approximately 30 per cent in the Sys-tems trial (Figure 7) for the hi-analysis granular (20 kg P per hectare) and 38 per cent for the split polyphosphate treatments (10 kg P per hectare at sowing and another 10 kg P per hectare at mid booting).

This raised the question regarding the possibility of splitting P applications throughout the year – was the yield increase due to better P absorption or was it from the water required (1000 litres per hectare) to apply the additional 10 kg P per hectare at mid booting?

The rock phosphate treatments gave no yield advan-tage over the Nil P treatment, but when 30 per cent DAP was added approximately 16 per cent yield increase oc-curred when applied at the higher rock phosphate rates.

There was no practical significance between the vari-ous fertilisers in protein or screenings as they all fit into the same grade of APH1

was the Peak Hill site responsive to additional P?Yes – The early vigour scores indicated a visual re-

sponse to additional P and there were up to 35 per cent more tillers per square metre where treatments were compared with the Nil P treatment.

Did the fertiliser treatments respond differently at Peak Hill?

Yes – The rock phosphate treatments were visually similar to the Nil P treatment and there was no signifi-cant difference in tillers per square metre.

Again small visual responses and tiller numbers in-creased (by up to 18 per cent) when DAP was included with the higher P rates of rock phosphate.

Applying the various seed dressings and biological in-oculants did not improve the rock phosphate fertiliser re-sponse curve above the conventional hi-analysis granular.

The early vigour scores indicated that the hi-analysis granular and liquids performed strongly with no visual differences between these products. The hi-analysis granular product produced the greatest tiller numbers increase of 35 per cent when compared to the Nil P treatment.

Due to severe moisture stress there was no practical significant difference in yield (approx 1.47 tonnes per hectare) and grain quality (APH2).

Interestingly, there was no significant yield decrease by the treatments that produced more bulk earlier in the season.

TO SUM UPConclusive judgements regarding the various ferti-

liser sources/forms need to be reserved for when more favourable seasons return. But these results are a re-

38 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

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FIGURE 6: Gunningbland Systems trial – tiller counts

FIGURE 7: Gunningbland Systems trial – yield

FIGURE 5: Gunningbland Product trial – tiller counts

minder regarding the importance of selecting a fertiliser that responds effectively whilst also requiring the lowest breakeven yield to cover the cost of investment.

P response curves (based on early vigour scores, tillers and head numbers at harvest) were similar for liquids and hi-analysis granular, whilst the rock phosphate products were much less effective.

Additional seed treatments and biological inoculants did not increase the rock phosphate fertiliser efficiency above the hi-analysis granular P.

The hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the lowest break even yield in 2009.

As prices for the various forms of phosphorus fertilis-ers can fluctuate from year to year it is recommended that growers consider the effectiveness (what does the response curve look like) and the cost per unit of P be-fore making a decision.

Similar yields occurred across the two trial sites re-gardless of major differences in rainfall distribution. De-spite the Gunningbland site receiving 79 mm less in-crop rainfall it was able to utilise the 84 mm subsoil moisture to produce similar yields.

This highlights the value of moisture conservation over the summer fallow period.

Further information: Col McMaster, Industry & Investment NSW Ph: 0427 940 847; Fax: (02) 6862 5430 Email: colin.mcmaster@industry.nsw.gov.auThank you to the many companies, growers and advisors who have participated in this trial. The trial was conducted under the CWFS WUE project which is evaluating the influence of management on increasing water use efficiency across Central West NSW. n

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 39

featurenutrition & disease

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 39

I t is well known that the key to achieving and maintain-ing consistently high yields of excellent crop quality is through the provision of an adequate and balanced

supply of both macro and micro nutrients.The chemical analysis of both soil and plant tissue will

allow the balance and supply of these essential nutrients to be assessed. Analysis enables the precise determina-tion of fertiliser and trace element additions required to maintain a healthy and productive crop.

Analysis also assists you in being proactive towards good environmental stewardship. In other words, only applying the optimum amount of inputs necessary to achieve the target yield and quality of your crop.

To help you make the best input decisions for your crop, ensure the nutrient testing laboratory you choose can provide a fast, precise and understandable service supported by accessible and professional back-up.

Fast turnaroundThe importance of timely advice will depend on

whether the laboratory is suitably equipped and staffed to analyse your samples. Sample submission should be made as straightforward as possible. Some laboratories will provide kits containing analysis request forms, plant tissue bags and soil bags free of charge. If the laboratory receives your samples with the necessary details and uti-lises the right equipment and trained staff, then you can expect a fast turnaround of your samples.

There are laboratories which provide results within a consistent timeframe and some may offer a guaranteed fast turnaround of within five working days.

Precise resultsConfidence in your results is paramount and great

care must be taken in their validation. As part of quality assurance, the laboratory can be expected to continually take part in the Australian Soil and Plant Analysis Coun-cil’s proficiency program which allows the precision and consistency to be monitored (ASPAC certified laborato-ries can be viewed at www.aspac-australasia.com).

A high level of confidence from the laboratory can only be achieved when a commitment to the best analyti-cal instrumentation – operated by suitably qualified and trained staff – and stringent quality control is maintained.

Understandable reportsAnalytical data on its own has limited meaning if

the information it holds is not understandable. Request whether crop specific guidelines coupled with interpreta-tions for corrective treatment are available for your crop. This may incur an additional charge by some laborato-ries even though this information is freely available in the public domain.

Accessible back-upIn most instances results are delivered via email which

provides the quickest possible response. But the option to receive results via fax or ordinary mail should also be availableu.

Personal contact and accessible back-up should only be a phone call away. The laboratory you choose to measure the nutrient status of your soil, plant tissue or irrigation water should welcome direct contact with you to discuss all aspects of the services provided. n

The importance of analysis

Harvesting the phosphorous trials.

40 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

For most farmers, the process of get-ting a new tractor usually starts in the dealership or at your kitchen ta-

ble. Price book in hand, your local deal-er works with you to find a tractor that matches your requirements, helping you choose optional specifications and then working out the best pricing and trade-in deal. But your tractor’s life actually began a long time before it was ever listed in a price book.

It starts with an idea, based on customer feedback and market intelligence.

“Based on what we know of the market and what our customers are asking for, we need a new product with certain charac-teristics,” said Case IH Product Manager Tractors, John Dreves.

“For example, when it came time to design the new Puma CVT, we knew it needed to improve on the CVX and have higher horsepower models, with improved features like a larger cab with better vis-ibility, more transmission functionality and an improved ergonomic layout. Those are the mandatory features.

“Then there’s the nice to haves: things like making the tractor quieter and updat-ing its looks and so on. When we know those things we can estimate how much it will cost to build, so we can set a recom-

mended retail price and see whether that competes in the marketplace.”

Once the specifications are set and a competitive comparison completed, a new product proposal is sent to the company’s board of directors. If the proposal passes the vote, the actual hard work will begin.

First, the appropriate design and engi-neering team will create a series of CAD (Computer-Aided Design) drawings that include all aspects of the tractor. These drawings are then projected onto a 5 x 4 metre screen in one of Case IH’s four state-of-the-art virtual reality rooms around the world.

While the rest of the team watches, one team member dons a special glove and vir-tual reality goggles, which allow them to view and manipulate the life-sized, virtual tractor as though it was really in the room. A special joystick allows the controller to move components around, change their dimensions or remove them entirely. The entire team watches the process and works together to define the virtual prototype.

“Because the prototype is life-sized and feels almost real, the team can make all kinds of changes to the design and see how they will really look and function in the real world,” said John. “It’s an incred-ibly useful way to make sure the eventual prototype is as close to perfect as can be. Because there is no real cost involved in making changes virtually, designers are free to try ideas without fear of failure.”

With the entire design team in the room at once, decisions can be made quickly and effectively and the project can progress to the next phase.

The prototype“Once the virtual prototype is complete

and approved, the team can move to the next phase, which is manufacturing an actual prototype that can be driven and tested to its limits,” said John. “The virtual

In the virtual reality design room, different ideas can be tried without fear of structural or costly failure.

Modern Machinery

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Your tractor: From drawing board to delivery

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 41

reality system is fantastic but nothing re-places having an actual tractor that some-one can sit in and operate. This is how we can make sure that each tractor we pro-duce offers the high level of comfort and user friendliness that our customers have come to expect.”

The prototype undergoes thousands of hours of testing both in the field and in the lab. The tests are designed to push the pro-totype to its limits to see where any weak-nesses may be so these can be fixed before the tractor goes into production.

Once the prototype has been rigor-ously tested and, if necessary, modifica-tions made, the tractor is ready for the market. The product development team signs agreements with suppliers, and the tractor – with all its options – is included in the price book that your dealer uses when he meets you at the dealership or at your kitchen table.

Tractor built in two daysAs soon as you place an order for a trac-

tor, that order goes into Case IH’s world-wide computer system, which finds the first available slot on the assembly line and books your tractor in. It then takes as lit-tle as two days for your tractor to be built to your specifications. Once it rolls off the line, your tractor is thoroughly tested to en-sure it complies with all of Case IH’s manu-facturing standards.

“Once the tractor is ready to ship, an-other team of people arranges the logistics of getting your tractor from the factory to you – whether it be a Puma from St Valen-tin, Austria, or a Steiger from Fargo, North Dakota,” said John.

SeLf-DIaGnOSIS TOOLS DeSIGneD fOR eaSIeR MaInTenanCe anD RePaIR

Keeping your gear in top notch running order means ensuring any issues are rapidly identified and dealt with. a skilled and experienced technician at the dealership is essential to this – as is a machine which can help you figure out what’s wrong with it.

“Case IH machines are constantly checking themselves for faults. your machine may decide the fault is serious enough that the equipment is unable to be operated safely until it is fixed, or it may conclude that the fault is minor and it just needs to log details ready for your next service,” said Paul Pirovic, Product Performance & Warranty Group Manager.

“When it does find a serious issue, it can provide information so that your service technician arrives equipped with the specialised tools and parts he needs to fix it right away, rather than coming out once to diagnose and then again to fix.”

Once a machine is in the hands of a technician, there are other tools – besides the ones in the toolbox – to help locate and rectify faults.

“Our electronic Service Tool (eST) is a laptop computer with specialised Case IH software programs to ensure servicing, troubleshooting and diagnostic information can be readily accessed,” Paul said.

eST allows a technician to review any stored fault codes, monitor data logging of switches and sensors, simulate working conditions, and configure machine set up to meet the customer’s requirements.

“The next step in developing the eST tool is the recently released DaTaR Scope,” said Paul. “The on-board diagnostic capability of today’s equipment is exceptionally reliable, and supplies high level error coding and fault indications. But it is still unable to pinpoint specific component or connection issues. This is where the majority of diagnostic time is taken.

“The DaTaR system will allow hydraulic flow, hydraulic pressure, electrical current and voltage to be monitored with one device.”

Case IH has also developed aSIST, a worldwide database which permits immediate diagnosis of a breakdown and proposes the quickest solution for repairing.

“aSIST is like an electronic warehouse of approved diagnostic information and solutions. It allows technicians to benefit from the global experience of the brand,” said Paul.

While all of these diagnostic tools are enormously helpful, at the end of the day, skilled people solve issues. “We recognise the value of ongoing technician training. Last year, we trained about 700 dealership technicians on our range. Once technicians complete general training on our range and systems, they are then given specific product training so they have a detailed understanding of the machines people are using in their region.”

State of the art computerised diagnostics are part of the ‘tool-box’ that skilled technicians are able to use to help solve problems.Case IH Product Manager Tractors,

John Dreves.

Farmers and agronomists in mixed cropping areas know only too well that traces of certain herbicides can

have a devastating impact on sensitive crops. This can lead to crop damage, yield decreases and, in severe cases, costly re-planting. Popular herbicides are often for-mulated or packaged with wetters, stickers and oils that may make these products dif-ficult to remove from spraying equipment.

This season there will be a greater area of broadleaf crops including canola, pulses and pasture which are very sensitive to even minute traces of sulfonylurea (SU) re-maining in the boom spray.

SU herbicides have a tendency to bind to tank linings, filter and hoses, and ac-cumulate in the dead ends and crevices in boom spray hoses. Some common solvents in EC (emulsifiable concentrate) formulated chemicals strip the SU residues out of the boom spray, which can damage sensitive crops.

Growers can be excused for being confused when it comes to boom spray cleaning. In the past laundry detergents, household bleach and pool chlorine have all been recommended. But if you use the wrong one for the target herbicide the re-sults can be catastrophic.

Unique cleaning formulationDarren Thomas, Sales and Marketing

Manager for AgNova said, “All Clear is a unique tank and equipment cleaner which has been tested and proven effective on the key herbicides in Australia. What makes the product unique is its three-way mode of action. It strips it off, locks it up and breaks it down.”

“It is a unique blend of surfactants that penetrate into crevices within the tank, spray boom, hoses and nozzles, stripping even the most physically sticky materials off surfaces.”

All Clear contains sequestrants, which lock up active molecules in the washout solution, preventing recontamination dur-ing the clean-out process. This process is unique to the cleaner which also has a powerful oxidant that neutralises pesticide residues removed from the equipment by the surfactants and locked up by the se-questrants.

The three-way mode of action means

the tank cleaner can rid equipment of oth-erwise difficult to remove combinations, including SUs, triazines, phenoxys, fops and dims. The product is also very effec-tive against ‘sticky’ deposits and is equally effective as a general cleaning product for mecoprop, paraquat, glyphosate and oily adjuvants.

Cleaner trialsAll Clear is the only tank cleaner in UK

manufacturer trials to demonstrate it can effectively remove carfentrazone-ethyl – the active ingredient in Hammer and Af-finity.

“All Clear has been evaluated against 20 other tank cleaners for removal of 35 different pesticide deposits. In every case, it was equal to, or better than competitive cleaners,” Darren said.

“What Australian growers have also liked is that this tank cleaner is easy to use. It is a low foam formulation, is non corrosive and without the presence of am-monia, presents a lower hazard to the op-erator. It also has the flexibility of a shelf life exceeding three years.”

Contact Darren Thomas on 03 9840 2333 or visit agnova.com.au. n

news & new products

syngenta recently launched its first Connections program aimed at help-ing rice growers in North India farm

more sustainably by providing skills and tools to use water more efficiently. The project will simultaneously enhance the knowledge and skills of selected Australian agricultural university students, who will work with Syngenta to implement training and demonstrations for these farmers.

The students will demonstrate to Indian growers how to use a panipipe in combi-nation with an alternate wetting and dry-ing (AWD) technique, developed by the International Rice Research Institute. A panipipe and an AWD enables growers to determine when it is necessary to irrigate, and consequently reduce their overall level of water use while improving their farming efficiency and sustainability.

“This is a mutually beneficial platform where the farmers learn sustainable farm-ing techniques and the students have an op-portunity to experience a different farming system,” said Andrew McConville, Head of Corporate Affairs, Syngenta Asia Pacific.

“Through our Connections program, Syngenta aims to identify and develop platforms that support the exchange of skills and knowledge between different groups within agriculture.”

Syngenta will work with the agricultural faculties of several Australian Universi-ties and through its partner Rimfire Re-sources, will select students to participate in this project. These students, who will be partially self-sponsored, will first undergo training by Syngenta and other relevant industry experts before spending about 10 days in India training local growers.

The Syngenta Connections program, the first of its kind in Asia, seeks to link organisations, institutions and growers to increase access to technology for grow-ers, improve the sustainability of agricul-ture practices and enhance knowledge for other key industry stakeholders.

By encouraging the exchange of inno-vative solutions, Syngenta contributes to helping the region grow more with less and meet its food security challenges. n

Water use efficiency in rice program launch

In BRIef…• The program supports Indian rice

growers farm more sustainably;

• Program brings together australian students and Indian farmers; and,

• enhances knowledge and skills of australian agricultural students.

Growers warned to keep boom sprays clean

42 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 43

A new research project aims to help grain growers cope with climate variability by improving their un-

derstanding of the implications of stubble and soil management decisions on crop productivity.

The research, development and exten-sion project is funded by the Grains Re-search and Development Corporation (GRDC) and will be conducted by the Liebe Group in collaboration with CSIRO, the University of Western Australia and lo-cal growers.

Liebe Group project coordinator Nadine Hollamby said growers in medium to low rainfall areas had faced climate variability over the past 10 years including reduced and sporadic winter rainfall and increased summer rainfall.

“Liebe Group members have identified that a greater understanding of the effects of soil and stubble management practices on soil water and plant development is required to increase crop resilience,” she said.

“The project aims to quantify the effects of stubble management on soil water and increase understanding of the biological implications of stubble management.

“It will also demonstrate how the re-moval of soil constraints such as acidity,

subsoil compaction and non-wetting soil allows the crop better access to stored soil water and nutrients.”

Nadine said greater utilisation of rainfall is important, whether it is through con-serving summer rainfall, maximising infil-tration rates or reducing subsoil constraints to maximise the crop’s ability to access soil water and nutrients.

“The impact of stubble and soil man-agement on soil water has been relatively unstudied in contemporary low rainfall sys-tems,” she said.

“Our growers would like a better under-standing of the trade-offs and implications of soil water during the summer fallow pe-riod.”

The project outcomes will include:• Increased knowledge of the implications

of stubble management on soil water;• Increased information about soil ame-

lioration practices including liming, gyp-sum application and deep ripping; and,

• Increased knowledge of the long-term effects of soil biology on crop produc-tion. n

Liebe Group project coordinator Nadine Hollamby soil sampling and assessing stubble cover west of Dalwallinu, WA. The hydraulic soil sampler on the utility belongs to the Liebe Group and can drill to a depth of 1.2 metres.

Stubble and soil practices focus of new research

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Western region

NORTH

Moisture is needed over most of the region to get crops up and away. There have been some small rainfall events over most areas but very dry soil and hot conditions have limited the usefulness of these rains. Some occasional thunder-storms have delivered much more rain to a few strips in the landscape and these areas have had a dream start.

There is a large spectrum of seeding progress. Some growers have just started and others are nearly finished. The ma-jority of growers will be finished by early June – the remainider a bit later in June.

Some growers in the northern part of the region have reported dry-sown lupins that have sprouted and died. This is due to 3 to 5 mm rainfall events on dry soil which initiated some seed germination before drying out again. At this stage it does not appear to be widespread.

Mice have posed a large problem over the past 12 months and, thankfully, numbers are now on the decline. Declin-

ing paddock feed seems to be the main factor reducing numbers.

Grower sentiment is probably below average with finance harder to source for some and budgets difficult to get into the black.

A good rain is needed across all of the region to get crops up and away. There is a good chance this Friday. Hopefully it is the break that many are looking for.

Peter Norris, Agronomy For Profit and Synergy Consulting,

Geraldton May 18, 2010

SOUTH COAST

Up until mid-May, seasonal conditions on the South Coast had been dry after the Easter rains. Those who were fortu-nate to get enough rain at Easter have sown canola and lupins into reasonable moisture and now have crops at the 3–4 leaf stage – but these crops are the ex-ception and not the norm.

Most growers have completed one knockdown spray and by the start of May had begun dry seeding. Canola and lupins have been the most common crops to be dry-sown with some wheat

44 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

south eastCeNtRaL

NoRth

south

By mid-May in WA’s northern cropping region there was a very wide spread of seeding progress. (PHOTOS: Peter Norris)

Surface drainage being carried out in the Esperance region in April prior to the May rains. These drains have been constructed with carry graders using John Deere Starfire RTK elevation data. (PHOTO: Quenten Knight)

and barley going in dry where weed burdens are low.

On May 13 and 14 a good low pres-sure system centred over the South Coast delivering some very welcome rainfall of up to 125 mm around Munglinup and Cascades. Other areas received be-tween 16 to 70 mm.

This rain will prompt excellent germi-nation of the dry-sown crops and will allow the remainder of crops to be sown into good moisture. There will also be another good knockdown opportunity of emerging weeds.

For those areas where 75 and up to 125 mm of rain fell, there has been some soil erosion. There will also be some re-seeding required due to burst seed.

But in general the 2010 season has started well with good prospects of fol-low-up rain soon. Most seeding should now be completed by the middle of June and many areas that had been struggling with dry dams, have now had adequate run-off for the time being.

Quenten Knight, Agronomist Precision Agronomics Australia

May 16, 2010

SOUTH EAST CENTRAL

A very welcome opening rain of 5 to 50 mm arrived on May 14. This has been excellent for dry-sown crops as the rainfall will be concentrated into the fur-rows created from no-till sowing.

A large percentage (around 80 per cent) of canola and 95 per cent of lupin crops had been dry-sown in this region.

These crops will now have a head start compared to those crops sown after the rain.

As a result of this late opening rain, sowing for all crops is only 30 per cent complete at time of writing.

Start and don’t stop will be the work-ing orders for many tractors in the com-ing weeks.

Increasing machinery costs and larger cropping programs are the main reasons there are more and more seeding rigs (about 70 per cent) working around the clock. With most rigs completing 100 – and up to 250 – hectares in a 24 hour period, it doesn’t take long to get the crop in the ground.

As previous experience has shown, the greatest impact on yield potential is delayed sowing.

Knock-down spraying has been a great benefit for a number of reasons.

It has controlled the first germination of grass and broadleaf weeds by using medium rates of glyphosate and it has also preserved moisture from March and April rains. This moisture will be handy come September when the crops begin to hay off.

With the first knock-down completed, sprayers can then control the second small germination with glyphosate or Gramoxone as the paddocks are sown.

Brad Smoker Synergy Consulting, Kulin

May 16, 2010

Southern region

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

General climateConditions were warm to hot for much

of March and some of April for the South Australian cropping regions, with cooler weather starting to become more notice-able in the second and fourth week of April.

Mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures were generally above aver-age for both March and April, with the agricultural districts having their highest minimum temperatures for January-April on record.Rainfall

March rainfall varied from near av-erage to well above average in many areas, with most totals in the 20–80 mm range. April rainfall also varied from near average to above average in some eastern districts, with most falls in the 10–50 mm range.Crops

Widespread rainfall during March was followed by lighter, scattered falls during April which gave many farmers an opportunity to prepare paddocks and get early weed control ahead of seeding.

Most farmers are now looking for a good general rain to either start the sea-son in many areas or follow up earlier rainfall as topsoils start to dry out.

Seeding has commenced on much of Eyre Peninsula, parts of the Upper and Mid North and the Murray Mallee dis-tricts, with cereals for feed going in ear-lier as well as wheat, canola and beans in late April.

Cereals sown early for feed are begin-ning to emerge.

There has been limited cultivation to control weeds, but some selective burn-ing-off during April was done to manage excessive stubbles and help control dis-ease, snails and resistant ryegrass.

Very high mouse numbers are reported on Western Eyre Peninsula, with high numbers in some other areas including northern Yorke Peninsula, parts of the Upper and Mid North as well as parts of the Murray Mallee districts and the Upper South East.

Some farmers have been baiting pad-docks as well as fumigating hay sheds.

High locust numbers are a major concern right across the Northern Mur-ray Mallee, with dense swarms having caused – or still causing damage – to early sown crops and pastures.

Patchy opening rains in some areas combined with the threat of locusts and mice have seen many farmers cautious about seeding too early.

The area of wheat is expected to in-crease this season with more wheat on wheat and significantly less barley and chickpeas, while lentils, canola and durum may increase slightly as farmers seek to maximise their returns.

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 45

DIstRICt RePoRts

This 18.3 metre (60 ft) seeding rig in the Kulin area was completing 200 hectares per day by working ‘around the clock’. (PHOTO: Brad Smoker)

CLaRevaLLey

eyRePeNINsuLa

MaLLee

WIMMeRa

yoRkePeNINsuLa

southeast

southeRN NsW

CeNtRaL West NsW

Total crop area may come back slightly as some farmers drop a paddock or two in favour of increased stock num-bers.Pastures

Pastures have emerged and grown rapidly in many areas with the rainfall and mild temperatures over the past couple of months, and paddock feed is currently adequate with some supplemen-tary feeding.

Perennial pastures as well as early sown cereals are starting to provide a good source of feed.

Lambing is well underway in many areas.

The feed situation for many livestock farmers in the Northern Murray Mallee is becoming difficult with major feed losses occurring due to locusts.

There have been further reports of sig-nificant losses to lupinosis on Lower Eyre Peninsula.

Peter Fulwood Rural Solutions SA

May 6, 2010

EASTERN MURRAY vALLEY

The bulk of the crop planting programs are ahead of schedule due to little or no weather hold-ups. Most districts have received less than 5 mm during May. While the soil profile is now dry at 0–10 cm, the winter crop will be in the ground by the end of May.

Early sown canola and wheat have emerged and have access to the near full moisture profile below 10 cm, while crops sown in the last 10 to 14 days will need a germinating rain. Around 10 to 20 mm will be enough in most parts to link the moisture and deliver what is near to an ideal start to the season.

The 150 to 250 mm of rainfall most parts received for the calendar year to the end of April, has given grain grow-ers the confidence of some stored soil moisture that has been missing in the past four seasons. We only hope we can continue this good fortune by having a germinating rain event soon for the later sown crops.

As the last few weeks have dried off, insect activity to this point has been mini-mal with only isolated sightings of Bryo-bia mite.

Early soil nitrogen tests are indicat-ing high levels of nitrogen deeper in the profile – this is as expected with high mineralisation from the early-season rain events.

Keeping summer weeds from using this

nitrogen and moisture has been a battle. Most stubbles have been sprayed two or three times through summer and early autumn.

Corey Uebergang, I.K. Caldwell, Corowa

May 17, 2010

MURRAY vALLEY RICE REPORT

As indicated in my last report, rice yields for this harvest have been excel-lent with even the late crops performing well. A new record for the industry aver-age yield is almost certain to be set.

At the time of writing, late crops are still being harvested around Deniliquin, although there are not many left to come off. A very late crop of Illabong variety that is currently being harvested, is yield-ing around 10 tonnes per hectare – ex-traordinary for this time of year.

The reason for the late crops was a combination of good rice prices and late increases in water allocations. Growers knew they were taking a risk by sowing well outside the recommended window. Fortunately the risk paid off this season. But hopefully it has not given growers a false impression of what to expect from late plantings next season.

The new variety, YRM69 seems to have done very well. Hopefully it will pass all commercial quality testing and become available from next season. The increased cold tolerance it offers will be a great advantage to Murray Valley growers.

Conditions have turned dry again, which has assisted the harvest but is not

a good omen for next season’s water allocations. It is still very early days and will hopefully turn around soon. Every-one is hoping for full allocations as many irrigators have not grown rice for the past three seasons.

Quite a few growers have some car-ryover towards next season, which will assist in getting crops sown on time if there are any prospects of reasonable allocations.

I’m still expecting the crop area will continue to increase – hopefully it’s a realistic expectation.

John Fowler Deniliquin District Agronomist

May 17, 2010

Northern region

DARLING DOwNS

winter cropA small amount of wheat and chick-

peas has been planted on the Western Downs, with growers moisture seeking, but most farmers are waiting for a plant-ing rain to be able to commence sowing. Oats planted earlier have been through their herbicide treatments.

The winter crop area will still be fair,

46 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

DIstRICt RePoRts

daRLINg doWNs & WesteRN RegIoN

southBuRNett

CeNtRaLhIghLaNds

LIveRPooLPLaINs

NoRth WestPLaINs

Paul Parks harvesting a late crop of Illabong rice on his property west of Deniliquin. For a late crop, Illabong is harvesting exceptionally well at around 10 tonnes per hectare. (PHOTO: John Fowler)

with chickpeas and wheat the main crops. But the choice of planned summer crop keeps varying with many growers taking a long hard look at cotton, both under irrigation and dryland.Horticulture

Onions and potatoes are starting to be planted over what will be a long window for planting. The lettuce is off and early cutting of brassicas, such as broccoli and cauliflowers has begun.Summer harvest

The late sorghum will be harvested over the next three weeks.

Mungbeans are all off the paddock with yields ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 tonnes per hectare, but most crops have been around 1.5. Some strong prices have made mung-beans reasonably profitable.

Early sorghum yields varied along with stored moisture, and growers have higher hopes for the late crops, as long as the midge was successfully controlled.

Cotton picking is coming to a close with irrigated crops yielding around six bales per hectare with one watering and up to 12 bales under full irrigation. Dry-land crops have yielded in the range of four to six bales per hectare.

Every day more growers are commit-ting to switching ground to cotton next summer – attracted by the improved prices – land and sorghum on the dry-land.

It is possible that the cotton area on the Downs could double next summer.

Hugh Reardon-Smith Agronomist, Landmark Pittsworth

May 19, 2010

SOUTH BURNETT

Key issues in the region• Frost finishes some late crops;• Beans generally providing good

returns;• Good year for corn; and,• Big concern over the low grain prices.

Harvesting is almost completed for beans and peanuts. Corn has yet to start and sorghum and millet are mostly done.

It has been a pretty good year for beans. Prices for mung, navy and adzuki beans are high at over $1000 per tonne for good quality although the soybean price is only average.

Good quality mungs will sell for more than $1000 per tonne and hopefully lose the tag of “mongrel” beans. Yields have ranged from 0.4 to 2.5 tonnes per hectare for mungbeans, with most crops between 1.25 and 1.75 tonnes.

The main production issues have been pod borers, powdery mildew and frost on some late crops.

It has generally been a good corn year. Northern leaf blight and diplodia cob rot have been more prevalent than usual. A significant portion of the crop is processing quality and this should return a significant premium over feed.

Peanut yields are variable due to the late planting date which means a bat-tle to beat the cool weather and leaf disease. Leaf spot and net blotch are prevalent and will have impacted on yield of some crops. At least aflatoxin has not been a problem this year due to the milder temperatures and reasonable rains.

Peanut yields have ranged from 0.8 to 3.5 tonnes per hectare with most be-tween 1.25 to 2.0 tonnes.

No winter cereal drops have been planted yet. Hopefully, the winter grain prices will improve sooner rather than later.

Ian Crosthwaite BGA AgriServices, Kingaroy

May 17, 2010

CENTRAL QUEENSLAND

Early summer in CQ was either very dry or drought declared depending where your farm was located. This trend continued into January 2010 with below average rainfall. But since then, the sea-son has been brilliant.

For most CQ farming districts rainfall for February was generally two to three times the average – March was 1.5 to two times the average and April was 1.5 times the average. There has been little or no rain up to mid May.

Despite three good months, another rainfall event now would be perfect to set up recently planted wheat and chickpea crops.Mungbeans

The best crop news in CQ this year has been mungbeans yields (1.5 to 2.0 tonnes per hectare have been common paddock averages) and the price just got better as the season progressed.

One other big plus for mungbeans this season – which may well put mungbeans on the planting calendar into the future for many farmers – has been alternative in-crop chemical options to control feath-ertop Rhodes grass (FTR).

Almost all of the crop has now been harvested.Sorghum

The CQ sorghum harvest is about to start in earnest with a large area of the sorghum either sprayed out or soon-to-be sprayed out (in the next two to four weeks).

As always, as soon as it cools, drying slows and we have experienced cooler nights and mild days during the past couple of weeks.

There are some very good crops of

May–June 2010 Australian Grain — 47

DIstRICt RePoRts

Andrew Erbacher, experimentalist with DEEDI Emerald, inspects a very handy sorghum crop which is within a couple of days of being harvested at ‘Kilmore’, Gindie – south of Emerald in Central Qld. (PHOTO: Maurie Conway)

sorghum across CQ with perhaps 65 per cent of the crop likely to yield above average (3.5 to 5.0 tonnes per hectare).

Another 35 per cent will probably yield below average (less than 2.5 tonnes) either because of weeds, low plant numbers or low soil nitrogen.

The price is dismal ($173 per tonne at port) and doesn’t look like improving anytime soon.Cotton

Weather during the 2009–10 CQ cot-ton season was awful with half the days in January cloudy – almost all of the days in February cloudy (not good for a desert plant that likes full sun) – and then as the cotton bolls opened and as picking started, it rained ‘big time’.

Cloud during the late development stages probably reduced yield by as much as 40 per cent and rain at harvest probably caused $50 per bale down-grades. Rain did delay picking.

And there is still some crop to be defo-liated for picking.

wheatPlanting of wheat in CQ started very

early for some with a few paddocks planted in late March. A considerable area was also planted in April and into May. A few farmers, especially those south of Emerald are looking for 25 to 50 mm of rain to allow them to plant some more area.

The final area planted to wheat is likely to be reduced because of the in-creased area of chickpeas. My rough guessimate (and it is rough as there is still some wheat to be planted) is up to 240,000 hectares of wheat for CQ.Chickpeas

A record area will be planted to chickpeas in CQ – possibly more than 70,000 hectares – and mostly into a near full profile of moisture. For some farmers with seed on hand and planters that can deep-plant, chickpeas will re-main an option to plant in any paddocks where soil moisture has dried down too deep to plant wheat.

weed controlNow that feathertop Rhodes grass

(FTR) has started to establish and spread into southern Queensland consultants, who a couple of years ago said FTR was not an issue in their district, now realise what CQ farmers have been battling for a number of years.

Farmers who have resorted to plough-ing to regain control of FTR, recognise that already their winter crop planted into ploughed paddocks is suffering from reduced soil moisture.Pastures and cattle

Because pasture didn’t start to grow in CQ until January in some districts – and in all districts not until February – bio-mass production has been lower than possible in a longer growing season. But it has still been good.

The dry spell in the past couple of weeks has caused the grass to hay (reduced mois-ture in the plant) and bullocks, cows and weaners have bloomed as a result.

Again the big issue is price (too dear if you are buying stores and too cheap if you are selling finished animals) and get-ting a booking at the abattoir.

Meatworks are generally booked out for the next couple of months.

Maurie Conway Principal Technical Officer

DEEDI, Emerald May 18, 2010

48 — Australian Grain May–June 2010

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DIstRICt RePoRts

anSWeR TO Ian’S MySTeRy TRaCTOR QuIZThe tractor is a 1919 Moline Universal which, quite remarkably was equipped with an electric starter motor for its four cylinder engine and (amazingly) an electric governor. It was even fitted with electric lights, at a time when few American homesteads could boast such a luxury.

The control box was positioned immediately in front of the operator. The left hand control adjusted the electric governor and thus the engine rpm. It is likely that this was the first tractor to have the security of an ignition switch key.The beautifully restored example is owned by Mal Cameron of South West Rocks, NSW.

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