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Telephone ~ 1-888-857-6920Fax ~ 1-386-673-3563

Dear Georgia Funeral Service Provider:

Your schedule is busy enough without spending valuable time in the classroom completing your continuing education. That is why we set out to create a home-study continuing education course that would be comprehensive but at a very low cost to you.

This 10-hour continuing education course is in one convenient, comprehensive home-study book and will satisfy your required CE hours. You can complete all 10 hours for $49.95. If you find a lower price, call us toll-free and we will beat it. We will not be undersold!

We also offer testing online at www.elitecme.com. Our secure online site offers you the same low cost with an additional benefit of immediately receiving your certificate of completion, as long as you pass the course with at least 75 percent.

Should you have any questions, do not hesitate to contact us at our toll-free number, 1-888-857-6920.

Sincerely,

Tracey FosterProgram Administrator

Courses approved by the Georgia Funeral Service Board.

®

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EliteTable of Contents

Funeral Rites Today (3 CE Hours) ..........................................................................................................Page 1Final Examination Questions ...............................................................................Page 6

Funeral Marketing in the 21st Century(4 CE Hours) ..........................................................................................................Page 7Final Examination Questions ...............................................................................Page 23

History of Embalming and Restorative Arts(3 CE Hours) ..........................................................................................................Page 24Final Examination Questions ...............................................................................Page 36

Final Examination Answer Sheet ........................................................................Page 37

Course Evaluation ................................................................................................Page 38

All Rights Reserved. Materials may not be reproduced without the expressed written permission or consent of Elite Professional Education, LLC. The materials presented in this course are meant to provide the consumer with general information on the topics covered. The information provided was prepared by professionals with practical knowledge in the areas covered. It is not meant to provide medical, legal or professional services advice. If necessary, it is recommended that you consult a medical, legal or professional services expert licensed in your state. Elite Professional Education, LLC has made all reasonable efforts to ensure that all content provided in this course is accurate and up to date at the time of printing.

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

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CHAPTER 1

FunERAl RiTEs TodAy(3 CE Hours)

learning objectives ! Describe value-added kinds of personalization. ! List the legal requirements and benefits of

advance funeral planning. ! List some therapeutic benefits of technology

in funeral services. ! List benefits available from computer software

designed for use in a funeral business.

introductionWhen it comes to proper care of their dead, humans are amazingly alike, regardless of their geographical regions, customs or ways of life, ethnicity or background. Every culture and civilization has three things in common in their treatment of death and the disposition of the dead: 1. Some type of funeral rite or ceremony.2. A sacred place for the dead.3. Memorialization of the dead.

Anchored in customs, beliefs and rituals, a funeral is a ceremonial tribute for celebrating and remembering the life of a deceased person. The beliefs and practices used to remember the dead vary widely between cultures and between religious affiliations within cultures. Though varied in practices, the ritual of attending a funeral service provides many benefits, including the opportunity to receive and express love while showing respect for the family and the deceased. The gathering of family and friends provides emotional support and helps those grieving face the reality that a death has occurred and understand that death is final. The funeral is the first step in the healing process, especially when the ceremony reflects the life of the person who died.

Similar to the other industries, the funeral industry experiences cycles, trends and buzzwords that develop as people’s behaviors and mindsets progress. People today are coming with new standards, ideals and personal views that are changing the face of funeral service. No longer traditionalist, today’s families are giving more thought to the uniqueness of their loved ones and how they wish to honor them. Funeral directors today must make every effort to meet consumers’ demands and remain competitive. Some current funeral service trends to take note of include:

■ Funeral personalization. ■ Advance funeral planning. ■ The rise of cremation. ■ The impact of technology in funeral service. ■ The new face of funeral service.

Funeral personalizationEverywhere in the death care industry, “personalization” is the latest buzzword and is being thought of as the key to the future. The idea of funeral personalization is not a new concept, given that insightful, compassionate funeral directors have always encouraged individuality when planning memorable funeral tributes. However, as baby boomers age and begin to find their way through the

exercise of planning funerals for loved ones and confronting their own mortality, they are becoming bold in making funeral choices based on ideals unlike those of previous generations. Baby boomers perceive funerals as a valuable part of the grieving process, but are more willing to renounce traditional values by placing more emphasis on the uniqueness of the person who died. As the essential purpose of funerals undergoes a transformation, the result is an outpouring of unique services reflecting the hobbies, passions and interests of the deceased, making them more meaningful.

Personalization permits funerals to take place at any location of significance to the deceased: a park, a lake, the woods, a restaurant, an athletic field, on a boat, at the beach, the home of the deceased – wherever there is meaning for the family in remembering a loved one as they knew him or her in life.

Getting the family involved with the funeral experience by encouraging them to provide special letters and photos along with other items of significance of their loved one can initiate the grieving process. The act of displaying items in and around the casket that once belonged to the deceased, such as a golf putter, fishing rod, football, hand-knitted throw or a favorite hat, have all served as effective and powerfully symbolic aids in telling the story of the decedent’s life. But in the eyes of present-day consumers, there is nothing extraordinary about this type of personalization; it can be found at a great number of funeral services today. This is basic personalization 101.

The undertaking of planning last rites for a loved one can be a difficult process, involving enormous emotional stress. Without guidance, the myriad of decisions, options and information surrounding the funeral arrangement process can seem overwhelming during an already complicated time. Rather than relying on families to come up with the ideas, funeral directors should realize that families seek our expertise as funeral professionals for guidance, options and unique ideas. In other words, funeral directors need to have the ideas.

The goal of creating meaningful funeral experiences filled with living memories of the deceased does require both verbal and nonverbal interactions by family members and friends. However, the ultimate responsibility of personalizing a funeral tribute befitting the life of the decedent rests with the funeral director. As traditional funerals decline, today’s funeral directors realize that their firms’ long-term survival and consumer satisfaction are measured by more than the strategic placement of treasured objects. Even though some personalization may exist in the tangibles, they do little in reaffirming the bond between the deceased and the living.

Real funeral personalization is the culmination of a truly unique service that brings together the life of the person who has died and those still living, leaving a lasting impression.

ExampleLarry Doe was an avid golfer who found pleasure in teeing off with his buddies at 10 a.m. every Wednesday morning. One Wednesday following his golf game, Mr. Doe suffered a massive heart attack and died suddenly. His family and friends were devastated. During the funeral arrangement conference, Mrs. Doe spoke of the first time she met Mr. Doe at the USO Welcome Center in Saigon during the Viet Nam War. She was a volunteer, and he had just arrived to serve his tour of duty in the U.S. Army. During the time he was stationed in Viet Nam, Mr. Doe had received a Medal of Honor and a Purple Heart for courageously carrying 10 of his platoon members to safety after a bomb exploded in their camp.

She also mentioned that over the years, Mr. Doe had expressed his wishes to be cremated and have his ashes scattered. His children shared their memories of him as a loving, patient father who always had time for them. Most importantly, they mentioned the joy he found in golfing with his buddies every Wednesday morning at the Golden Eagle Country Club. After listening attentively and taking notes, the funeral director made several suggestions for a memorable tribute befitting Mr. Doe. In the end, the family chose to have a memorial service with cremation.

Two days following the cremation process, at 10 a.m. on a Wednesday, Mr. Doe’s family and friends gathered at the 18th hole of the Golden Eagle Country Club for a memorial service with military honors. As the memorial attendees arrived for the service, they each received a golf ball. At a designated time during the service, each was given the opportunity to use Mr. Doe’s special golf driver to hit the golf ball, experiencing the sensation he must have felt each time he played. At the conclusion of the service, Mr. Doe’s cremated remains were scattered over the 18th hole (with prior approval) as the U.S. Army military honor guard played taps in the background.

“Wow, now that was a funeral!” was the response echoed by many. People left the memorial service expressing how different the service had been and how much they actually enjoyed sharing in the experience of honoring a friend and loved one.

When these types of comments are made, the experience described may be setting new standards of funeral performance. Real personalized funerals are classified as “good” funerals because they create effective grieving opportunities with safe boundaries for expressions of loss. Real personalized funerals/memorials not only look different than traditional funerals; they actually feel different because of the strong emotional connection experienced by the survivors.

Value-added performanceThe harsh economical climate of the last decade demands an adjustment in the financial habits and behaviors of present-day consumers, from thoughtless spending to a more value-consciencious approach, especially when faced with the unpleasant task of making funeral arrangements. Present-day consumers find value

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when our services help them recall the stories of loved ones’ lives in a contemporary manner.

Modern-day funeral professionals must face the fact that we are not just in the death care business anymore; hospitality and showmanship are the keys to outstanding funeral experiences, and our realm of expertise must expand in both arenas. This might present a challenge in a profession that has traditionally been slow to embrace change.

Nonetheless, the next generation of funeral directors need to transform their thinking to step out of the status quo of cookie-cutter services and develop a sense of showmanship when planning funeral tributes. The outcome will be a truly personalized, well-thought-out funeral service reflecting attention to the details and individuality of the decedent, thus causing the many funeral professionals to question whether he/she may be an event planner instead. (See chart below.)

By constantly improving our performance, we can turn funerals of today, and the next decade, into meaningful experiences that people will talk about for years, resonating the true value of our profession.

Advance funeral planningFuneral pre-planning is becoming an increasingly accepted practice as more and more people plan their own funerals in advance. Statistics reveal that more than 20 million people age 50 and older have decided to prepay for some or all of their future funeral expenses, with millions more deciding to preplan within the next year.

In the past, the idea of pre-planning a funeral was considered superstitious. Most in opposition were convinced that planning their own funeral would somehow bring on a hasty death. But given the opportunity, many people overcome their initial resistance and actually find funeral planning to be a freeing experience. Some have discovered that making funeral arrangements before the need arises can actually be an empowering process.

Regardless of who initiates the process, funeral arrangements will be considered for us all at some point, and there are unquestionable

emotional and financial advantages to making them in advance.

Advantages ■ Provides peace of mind – The peace of

mind of knowing that “your affairs are in order” is invaluable. Advanced funeral planning can be one of the most thoughtful gifts to leave a family.

■ Relieves loved ones of unnecessary burden – Families experience overwhelming emotional burdens during at-need funeral arrangement conferences. Taking the time to make funeral plans in advance helps provide an assurance that survivors and friends will be relieved of this burden. There is a great satisfaction in knowing that survivors will appreciate your concern for their well-being.

■ Puts the planner in control – Planning ahead puts the person in control by helping the family to make informed choices regarding funeral and cemetery arrangements.

■ Reflects the expressed wishes of the planner – Not only does advance funeral planning simplify the funeral process for survivors, it also eases the stress of deciding what the deceased would have wanted. One of the greatest challenges that face family members when making at-need funeral arrangements is whether the decedent would have approved of the arrangements being made. For example, family members may not know that the decedent preferred cremation, a private family viewing, or a simple service attended by immediate family members and invited guests only.

■ Eliminates financial burden – Pre-planning and pre-funding a funeral allows funds to be set aside, relieving the family of the financial burden. It is difficult to predict what a family’s financial situation will be at the time of a death. Advance planning ensures that an amount that is considered appropriate will be allocated for a funeral.

Preneed regulationsAdvance/preneed funeral planning, like all other aspects of the funeral industry, is held to

strict regulatory standards. In Florida, before any funeral establishment, direct disposer or cemetery offers any funeral services, goods or merchandise for the purpose of advance funeral planning (preneed), the establishment must obtain a preneed establishment license by submitting a completed application to the Florida Department of Financial Services Division of Funeral, Cemetery and Consumer Services and meet all financial and other requirements as prescribed in Chapter 497 Florida Statutes, and rules adopted by Florida Administrative Code Rule 69K.

Under these laws and rules, no person may sell, advertise to sell or make an arrangement for a preneed contract without first having a valid preneed license. And no person may sell, advertise to sell or make an arrangement for services, merchandise or burial rights on a preneed basis unless such person is authorized in accordance with Chapter 497 to provide such services, merchandise, or burial rights on an at-need basis. Moreover, no person may obtain a license for the preneed sale of merchandise or services unless such person or its agent, in the case of a corporate entity, holds a license as a funeral establishment, cemetery company, direct disposal establishment or a monument establishment. In addition to a corporate preneed license, any person who sells burial or funeral merchandise for future use is referred to as a preneed sales agent and must hold a preneed sales agent license unless that person is a licensed funeral director. Without a valid preneed license, no person is allowed to receive funds for payment on a preneed contract.

There are two predominate methods used to fund preneed contracts: insurance and trust.

insuranceConsumers purchase life insurance policies for many reasons, one of which is to provide funds needed for final expenses. Commonly called “burial” or “funeral” insurance, final expense insurance policies are term or whole life insurance purchased in low face values of $5,000 to $50,000, with the purchaser assigning a named beneficiary. However, a consumer may opt to purchase preneed insurance with the intent of selecting specific arrangements at a funeral home, thus gaining the assurance that those arrangements will be paid for and implemented.

Unlike final expense insurance policies that are purchased directly from insurance companies, preneed contracts funded by insurance are marketed by funeral homes and sold by funeral directors who are licensed agents, with the funeral home as the beneficiary. Preneed contracts funded by life insurance may be sold only by persons holding a valid preneed license (69K-8.005 F.A.C.). In addition, the person must be in compliance with Section 626.785, F.S. (Life Insurance Agents). Mandated by guidelines set by the insurance company and the state governing agency, preneed contracts funded by life insurance are payable upon the death of the insured and, in the state of Florida, must not exceed $12,500.

The similarities in the functions of an event planner and funeral director are apparent:

Event planner Funeral director

Arranges details of ceremonies/festivities, taking into account the wishes of the customer.

Arranges details of funerals/memorials, taking into account the wishes of the family.

Plans events within the customers’ budget. Plans funerals within the family’s budget.

Establishes event dates and venues. Establishes service dates and locations.

Acquires permits and coordinates transportation and parking.

Acquires info for burial transit permits and death certificates and transporting dead human remains.

Develops a theme or motif for events. Personalizes services depending on uniqueness of the decedent.

Arranges for speakers and arranges décor, tables, chairs, tent, signage, catering and cleanup.

Assist families in locating appropriate speakers, obtaining tents, chairs, catering and cleanup.

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These contracts must include unambiguous disclaimers and disclosures. Included in the preneed contract, a disclosure of the full purchase price of the prearranged funeral, including itemization of the costs of all goods, services, cash advance items and merchandise purchased must be present. The purchaser of the contract should have a clear understanding of the policy. It must include a statement disclosing that a life insurance policy has been purchased to provide money for the purchase price and will be used to fund the preneed contract at the time of the insured’s death, in one of two ways:

■ Full payment – The life insurance policy proceeds are to represent full payment for the contracted purchase price at the time of insured’s death.

■ Partial payment – The life insurance policy proceeds will only be tantamount to a portion of the full payment for the purchase price at the time of insured’s death. The contract must clearly make known that the purchaser is obligated to pay the difference between the policy proceeds and the purchase price of the prearranged funeral.

There should be no uncertainty on the part of the purchaser. The contract must clearly reveal that it is being funded through the payment of premiums to purchase life insurance and that no monies are being paid into a trust under the preneed contract. In the event the purchaser fails to make the premium payments on the insurance policy, the contract must clearly state what penalties (if any) will occur.

Any consumer who purchases a preneed contract funded by a life insurance policy is entitled to terminate or cancel the contract at any time, and within 30 days of the purchase, the consumer is entitled to receive a full refund of all monies paid for the contract or funding insurance policy. The impact on the contract and any penalties to be incurred as a result of cancellation or surrender of the life insurance policy as well as any monies to be received must be clearly disclosed.

Preneed trust Another option for funding preneed contracts is to put the funds into a trust. As with the life insurance option, you must not sell, advertise to sell or make an arrangement for a preneed contract without first having a valid preneed license. The only exemption to this rule is that persons receiving funds for payment on a preneed contract funded through a trust company operating in accordance with Chapter 660 F.S., a national or state bank holding trust powers or through a federal or state savings and loan association having trust powers need not hold a valid preneed license.

Funds received from preneed contracts may be deposited in an individual trust account or a “master” trust account that pools many individual trusts. Funds collected or received under a preneed contract for funeral services or merchandise or burial services or merchandise must be deposited to the trust within 30 days after the end of the calendar month in which payments are received. Deposited amounts to the trust may

differ based on the category of goods or services, but should be at least equal to the sum of:

■ 70 percent of the purchase price collected for all services sold and facilities rented.

■ 100 percent of the purchase price collected for all cash advance items sold.

■ 30 percent of the purchase price collected or 110 percent of the wholesale cost, whichever is greater, for each item of merchandise sold.

Monies in the trust are held until the death of the purchaser of the preneed contract and then dispersed to the funeral establishment. Although preneed trust accounts are usually structured to keep relative pace with inflation, there are no exact guarantees of accessible amounts, since the value of the trust can rise and fall depending on the investment performance. Consequently, if you have provided the purchaser with a guaranteed-price contract, you take on the market risk from the trust and must provide the services the purchaser selected no matter how well the trust’s investments have performed.

All preneed contracts funded by a preneed trust can be cancelled and revoked, provided there are no contractual restrictions inhibiting the purchaser from terminating the preneed contract. For instance, funds in a revocable trust can be withdrawn at any time if the purchaser changes his/her mind. Conversely, persons who are qualified applicants for or recipients of supplement security income (SSA), temporary cash assistance (DCF), or Medicaid are required to make their contracts irrevocable, permanently giving up the legal right to take back any funds in the trust.

Despite some controversy and debate about the practice, offering funeral merchandise or services for future use appears to be a funeral industry trend that is gaining momentum as a mainstay.

The rise of cremation The “American Way of Death” – Jessica Mitford’s controversial 1963 book blasting the funeral industry – has changed, and a growing number of people, for a variety of reasons, are rethinking their final rites.

Alternatives to traditional funerals are on the rise, with a significant increase in cremations – the process of exposing dead human remains to extreme heat, usually 1,800- 2,000 degrees F for two hours or more. Once considered the choice of the wealthy and the well-educated, cremations continue to rise in the United States. Before the 1980s, the average number of cremations ranged between 3 to 5 percent.

Since then, the cremation rate has reached double digits, increasing from 15 percent (290,000) in 1985 to 42 percent (900,000) in 2010. According to a statistical report from the Cremation Association of North America (CANA), for the years 2003, 2007 and 2008, the percentage of cremations in Florida were 49.39 percent, 53.51 percent and 55.20 percent respectively, with Florida ranking second only to California in a 2008 report on the top 10 states by number of cremations. By the year 2015, CANA predicts that approximately 64 percent of deaths in Florida will result in cremation as an alternative to the traditional funeral with earth burial, with an increase of more than 57 percent nationally by 2025 (see figure below).1

Alternatives to the traditional funeralThe trend of opting for cremation is becoming increasingly popular, especially among the baby boomer generation (born 1945-1964). Known for reinforcing a sense of distinctiveness and redefining traditional values, baby boomers choose cremation for a number of reasons:

■ Monetary cost – A more educated generation, baby boomers are price conscious and tend to spend less on funerals than previous generations.

■ Religious acceptance of cremation – Unlike times past, when the idea of cremation as a final rite was a forbidden practice in some religious affiliations, many religious sectors have become more tolerant of families choosing cremation. Religious leaders of this age are challenged with a number of variables and trends distinct from their predecessors, causing a reevaluation of traditional practices.

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%

1,800,000

1,600,000

1,400,000

1,200,000

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

01985 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2015* 2025**Projected figures

Percentage of deaths cremated # of cremations

Percentage of Deaths Resulting in Cremation Since 19852007 Trend Analysis - United States Only

Cremation Data & Predictions: Data Trends

14.90%

289,091

19.20%

488,224

26.19%

629,389

29.51%

722,535

30.88%

740,633

32.27%

784,764

33.61%

815,369

34.34%

832,240

44.42%

1,206,019

55.65%

1,706,061

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■ Concerns for a greener environment – The long-term effects of global warming on the future of our planet and the idea of going green is of major concern for many consumers.

■ Geographical ties are diminishing – Lifestyles of today’s generation have changed greatly. People are living longer, leading more active lives and retiring to different regions of the country with fewer family ties.

■ Traditional funeral alternatives – Many people once believed that choosing cremation meant limiting memorial service options. Not so. With the vast number of options available with cremation, people now realize that rather than choosing a traditional funeral with earth burial or entombment in a mausoleum, cremation provides an assortment of options, such as direct cremation, cremation with memorial service, or funeral with cremation.

Direct cremation is the simplest, most economical method of disposing of dead human remains, in that embalming is not required, use of the funeral facility is minimal and no casket or grave purchase is required. When death occurs, the funeral staff transports the deceased to the crematory and stores the body in a temperature-controlled refrigeration unit until the cremation process can be performed.

In most states, a mandated 24-48 hours “waiting period” is required until cremation can be performed. Florida law declares it unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to cremate any dead human body before the expiration of 48 hours after the death of the person.

Public viewing is not normally permitted prior to direct cremation. A memorial service may be held at any time following direct cremation at a location of choice. Disposition of the cremated remains is entirely up to the family, though a number of memorialization options are available: cremated remains can be buried, scattered in a favorite place, scattered at sea, kept in an urn at home, divided among children or loved ones, interred in a cemetery plot, placed in a niche (an ornamental recess in a wall), or displayed.

Cremation with memorial serviceWith the steady increase of cremation as an alternative to a traditional funeral, it is essential to provide proper treatment and respect to families who make this choice and to emphasize the significance of memorialization when cremation is chosen. Without all the facts, it is easy for people to have preconceived ideas that there are fewer choices for a ceremony when opting for cremation. Consequently, the responsibility of clarifying cremation as merely the final disposition, having no effect on the funeral or memorialization of the deceased, rests with the funeral director.

People choose cremation for a variety of reasons. Some do so based on environmental consideration, while others have philosophical or religious reasons. Still others choose cremation because they feel it is less complicated than ground burial or mausoleum interment. Whatever

the reason for choosing cremation, many families embrace the idea of a memorial service, thus facilitating the bereavement process.

When a family opts for cremation with a memorial service, the same procedure of immediately removing and caring for the body is required. The necessity for embalming and casket use is eliminated. Cremation of the dead human remains is performed immediately, according to state requirements, and the cremated remains may be placed in an urn.

A personalized memorial service that reflects the life of the deceased can be held at a church, funeral home, or site of choice with or without the urn present during the service. Because funeral home facilities and equipment normally are used for the memorial service, the cremation with memorial service option will cost consumers more than direct cremation.

Funeral with cremationThe importance of the funeral ritual is to provide a suitable social gathering to help the bereaved begin the healing process. All funeral goods and services, merchandise and options accessible with a traditional funeral service that includes earth burial are available when selecting a funeral service with cremation. The only difference is the final disposition. The decision to celebrate a life with a full funeral service followed by cremation is a realistic option for many people. A personalized reflection of the life of the deceased could include:

■ Visitation prior to or during the service. ■ Ceremony at the funeral chapel, place of

worship or a special location of choice. ■ An open or closed casket. ■ Special songs or music. ■ Tributes by family members or friends. ■ Special military or fraternal ceremonies.

Embalming is not required by law, except in certain special cases.2 In most cases, opting for cremation would hold true to this guideline, but a funeral with visitation classifies as a “certain special case.” Additionally, a casket is required, making a full funeral service with cremation the most costly within this category.

Body donationThe increased cost associated with cemetery plots as well as a shortage of ground space in many large cities is also contributing to the rising trend of cremation as a means of disposition. However, body donation to the Anatomical Board of the State of Florida is another cost-effective method of disposing of dead human remains. Body donation makes a significant contribution to medical science by enabling health care professionals to gain a better understanding of the normal and diseased states of the human body.

The procedure for body donation is simple. The donor (prior to death) or the surviving relatives must arrange with a local funeral home, crematory or mortuary and pay for preliminary embalming and transportation of the body to the Anatomical Board. When the family requests

it, most institutions permit a funeral to be held before the delivery of the body to the institution for study or research.

The family may request that either the residue of the body or the cremated remains eventually be returned, or the donee institution will arrange for cremation or earth burial. People who are considering donating their bodies should be aware that at the time of death, the donee institution may not have the need for a body. Unfortunately, if this does happens, the family will have to find another institution or make other arrangements for the disposition of the body.

The impact of technology on the funeral industryAs one of the world’s oldest professions, the funeral industry faces the threat of using old procedures in a new age. While other industries have kept pace with technological indicators and moved forward as consumer demands dictated, it seems to some that the funeral industry is among the last to emerge into the 21st century.

Years ago when many funeral professionals began their careers, the business of death was simple, and the funeral industry was represented as a sensitive, hands-on business with high emotions. Moreover, for funeral professionals whose traditions and techniques have been handed down from generation to generation, embracing emerging technology can be challenging. But today’s entrepreneurs are forward-thinking professionals who are reshaping the death care industry.

Like all industries that evolve over time, many funeral professionals are web-savvy entrepreneurs who realize that the time has come to give the funeral business a much needed facelift by formalizing computer-based remembrances. Families are requesting more services inclusive of technological influences, such as websites, online merchandise options, online guest registries and creative ways to accommodate family members who are unable to attend the funeral service.

These and other consumer demands reveal the need for revolutionizing a once solemn industry ensconced in tradition and routines to one of fuller, value-added life celebrations. And today, computer software can make things much easier for business people. A forward-thinking business owner who invests in the latest computer network system and a fully integrated customized mortuary management software program can expect to increase efficiency and effectiveness exponentially in the administration of all aspects of his/her business. The following are some common features of mortuary management software.

■ Client tracking system – This tracks each case from the initial first call to the funeral service arrangements, the interment, and even completion of necessary permits, death certificates or any additional documents your firm may utilize. You may find it useful to choose a design that will allow you to view all related details pertaining to each client,

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from the property selected, all contracts and the related purchasing and payment information for each contract, as well as a section for gathering information on the next of kin, the informant and other family members of the deceased.

■ Preneed sales prospecting – Any affluent salesperson can tell you that the ability to effectively prospect is the key to success. While you may be tempted to bypass sections of the program software on prospecting because it seems irrelevant, you should understand that setting up this program can be the gateway to future sales. Additionally, when proper attention is given to data entry completion, the task of pre-qualifying prospects is simplified. Make certain that your software provides all the tracking and management tools you will need to effectively improve the efficiency of your advance planning sales.

Another excellent feature of mortuary management software is its seamless integration with the Microsoft Office suite of products that allows you to communicate with prospects by creating letters for direct mailings based on any range of criteria, creating calendar entries for follow-up with contacts, or for communicating via e-mail. Careful thought and planning for future events is a must for the continued existence of any business, especially one as unpredictable as the funeral business.

■ General ledger posting – Posting payments to the appropriate accounts is a basic function of the accounting department. Access to a general ledger module adapted to set up account titles, a chart of accounts and a preferred numbering system will make implementing your daily, weekly or monthly entry postings quick and easy.

■ Accounts receivable – As funeral goods, services, merchandise and cash advance items are selected by the families, the costs of each can be computed to create an itemized contract. The ability to track and reconcile each account is essential to the cash flow of your business, especially when accounts are likely to remain outstanding until insurance claim payments are received and posted. Failure to accurately manage accounts receivables in a timely manner can significantly affect the continuation of your business.

■ Casket/merchandise inventory – Errors in your inventory, such as out-of-stock items, overstocked items and inaccurate inventory counts can grossly affect the bottom line of your business. Included in your program software should be a management tool to address the receipt and movement of caskets and other goods, the valuation and status of goods remaining in inventory at any point in time, and a detailed sales history that includes item pricing, back-order information and optional reorder reminders.

With system customization, program modules can be designed to integrate all members

of your funeral service team, ensuring easy access to relevant data. The key benefit of this type software is its single data entry feature. All sections of the contract can be completed effortlessly once all of the decedents’ vital statistics and funeral service information has been entered initially. Single data entry conserves time and energy and reduces the error rate caused by multiple entries.

Whether a small business owner or a corporation, mortuary management program software can increase productivity and bring your business into the 21st century. As more and more firms embrace new technological advances, they not only enjoy the managerial benefits of its use, but also discover the therapeutic role technology provides for in the healing process.

One of the latest technological trends to sweep our nation is the use of social networking websites. These sites attract a wide array of individuals with some form of commonality. Social networking sites make it possible for people to stay connected, to reconnect, to share ideas, thoughts and experiences. Some people have hundreds or even thousands of “friends” in their accounts.

In instances where a young person dies, some families find solace through social media sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter and even Otrib, a website that helps people create tribute pages for their loved ones and connect with others who share their grief.

Some funeral homes are providing families with uniquely designed, personalized online funeral register books that honor the decedent’s life and provide an opportunity for families to celebrate the uniqueness of their loved ones’ story. The outpouring of love and support that families experience can be the catalyst required to facilitate the healing process. Similarly, as a means of coping, blogging and online support groups have become a common way to share the burdens of grief and bereavement. It’s common practice for funeral home professionals to direct consumers to online resources for support.

One of the biggest obstacles families face in attending the funeral service of a loved one is travel. This is even more challenging given that we live in an age where people are more transitory. Families often are spread out throughout the United States as well as other countries, making it difficult to travel on short notice. For those unable to make it to the service in time, a streaming video of the funeral can solve the problem. By capturing the service on film and making it available online, you can provide an invaluable service to families. Not only will those persons who were unable to travel participate in the service, but for family members who attend but are too grief-stricken to remember significant parts of the service or people, streaming video funerals can help recapture lost moments and facilitate healing.

As present day uses for technology become standard practice, the challenge for funeral professionals will

be how to remain competitive by providing new and innovative service options without losing sight of traditional ceremonies and rituals.

The new face of funeral serviceHistorically, women have not only cared for the sick, they have played an intricate role in caring for the dead. In ancient Greek as well as Christian cultures, it was the responsibility of women to care for the dead by washing, dressing and anointing the bodies. Similarly, it was customary for Hebrew women to wash and dress the dead. This tradition carried forward as colonial women also prepared their dead. Presumably, these ancient customs have significantly influenced funeral practices of modern America.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the undertaking of the dead progressed as supplemental work performed by carpenters and cabinet-makers to purposeful work receiving distinction as an occupational specialty or trade. The funeral industry was credited as one of few trades where women were permitted to work, but not without limitations. Unless you were a woman working in a family-owned business, the chances of being provided the opportunity to sharpen your skills in the embalming or prep rooms were slim.

Women have broken down the barriers that once blocked entry into this traditionally male-dominated profession. But as the history of the industry is considered, women’s involvement in death care may be seen not as a novel concept, but instead a return to the way things once were. It is a vocation perfectly suited to a woman with a caring and compassionate personality. Seen as nurturers with an innate desire to help others, women are deemed by some as better at consolation; some families may be inclined to relax more in the presence women, trusting that they will not be taken advantage of, especially during the arrangement process.

In recent years, women have outnumbered men nearly 2 to 1 in mortuary schools. In fact, the National Funeral Directors Association reports that 57 percent of mortuary students in the United States are women. The outcome is rewarding for women who are attracted to the aptitudes required of a funeral director, such as compassion, empathy, the ability to comfort those grieving, communication, and organizational and event-planning skills. The face of this once male-dominated business is being transformed as women settle comfortably in the funeral industry.

Meanwhile, the tradition of passing down the family business from one generation to the next has experienced a major decline, making way for people who once were unlikely to consider funeral service as a career. In addition to an increased number of women, many of today’s mortuary school graduates do not have family members in the funeral service business but have chosen to join the profession as a second career, finding great satisfaction. A myriad of opportunities await people contemplating funeral service as a career option.

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Follow those trendsAstute business owners who understand the economic premise behind supply and demand, in which consumer demand dictates the need for improved services or goods, pay close attention to the requests and comments of their patrons. Modern funeral directors and funeral establishment owners need to recognize that much of what was once considered “trendy” have become mainstays in the business.

That is a compelling argument for the need to closely monitor emerging trends. For instance, a recent study conducted by Wirthlin measured Americans’ interest in expanded services that go beyond those traditionally offered at funeral homes. The results revealed that nearly half (46 percent) of those responding were in favor of funeral homes providing reception halls or rooms, as well as catering food or beverages. The NFDA intends to conduct follow-up surveys in the near future to help members stay current in providing services that today’s families seek. Endnotes and references1. 2009 Preliminary Data Annual report of the Cremation

Association of North America2008 Statistics and Projections to the Year 2025

2. Federal Trade Commission – Consumer Protection –The Funeral Rule

Florida Department of Financial Services Division of Funeral, Cemetery and Consumer Services Chapter 497 Florida Statutes

Florida Administrative Code - Rule 69K.

National Funeral Directors Association

International Cemetery, Cremation and Funeral Association

http://www.insure.com/articles/lifeinsurance/funeral-insurance.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/28/technology

http://fpasoftware.com/maccs/SoftwareOverview

http://www.iccfa.com/reading/2000-2009/future

FunERAl RiTEs TodAyFinal Examination Questions

Select True or False for questions 1-10 and mark your answers on the Final Examination Sheet

found on Page 37, or complete your test online at www.elitecme.com.

1. Baby boomers perceive funerals as a valuable part of the grieving process, but are more willing to renounce traditional values by placing more emphasis on the uniqueness of the person who died.

True False

2. Funeral directors must realize that the ultimate responsibility for personalizing a funeral tribute befitting the life of the decedent rests with the family.

True False

3. Hospitality and showmanship remain inappropriate for funeral experiences.

True False

4. Any person who sells burial or funeral merchandise for future use is referred to as a preneed sales agent and must hold a preneed sales agent license, unless that person is a licensed funeral director.

True False

5. Any consumer who purchases a preneed contract funded by a life insurance policy is entitled to terminate or cancel the contract at any time, and within 45 days of the purchase, the consumer is entitled to receive a full refund of all monies paid for the contract or funding insurance policy.

True False

6. All preneed contracts funded by a preneed trust can be cancelled and revoked, provided there are no contractual restrictions inhibiting the purchaser from terminating the preneed contract.

True False

7. The cremation rate in the U.S. reached 42 percent in 2010.

True False

8. An open casket is not allowed at a funeral that will include cremation.

True False

9. Uniquely designed personalized, online register books that honor the decedent’s life provide an opportunity for families to celebrate the uniqueness of their loved one’s story.

True False

10. The National Funeral Directors Association reports the 75 percent of mortuary students in the United States are women.

True False

FGA03RTE14

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CHAPTER 2

FunERAl MARkETing in THE 21sT CEnTuRy

(4 CE Hours)

learning objectives ! Describe niche-marketing strategies. ! Define “unique selling position” (USP). ! Explain the purpose of “branding.” ! List and describe the five basic parts of a

print advertisement. ! Discuss some best practices for print advertising. ! List some ways to improve your Yellow

Pages advertising. ! Explain the roles of disclosures and

disclaimers in advertising. ! List some best practices for website organization. ! Define and distinguish between “keywords”

and “metatags.” ! Describe best practices for “search engine

optimization” (SEO). ! Explain the role of “links” in SEO. ! Provide three examples of social

networking sites. ! Explain the importance of proximity and

placement in displaying online disclosures. ! Distinguish between and provide examples

of traditional vs. new media in marketing and advertising.

introductionAt this very moment, there must be at least nine other businesses competing for your customers. Some are small, family-owned multi-generation funeral homes. Others are large corporations with local offices that provide standardized services and products. Some of your competitors are traditional full-service funeral directors, others are exclusively product vendors; still others might be in an entirely different industry (web-based funeral services, for example). All are trying to convince your customers to buy their goods or services instead of yours.

How can you win sales in this competitive environment? Use strategic marketing and advertising tools to educate your public, raise awareness of your business, and communicate effectively with your target audience. Funeral professionals today have a greater range of marketing and advertising resources for promoting their services and products than ever. The number of promotional tools used to deliver your message and repeat your name is limited only by your imagination and your budget.

The first section of this chapter will introduce general do’s and don’ts for funeral professionals advertising and marketing in the traditional media. The second section emphasizes the importance of a Web presence and Internet marketing in the funeral business today. It explains how funeral professionals can use the new marketing tools of social media and networking sites (like Facebook and Twitter) to reach more people and raise awareness of their business.

Part i: Traditional marketing and advertising Every successful company uses some sort of marketing to influence certain audiences –

usually customers or prospects – by informing or persuading them. The key is to find the methods that are appropriate for you, your employees, type of business, and professional style. One strategy that has been successful for many small businesses is niche marketing, explained below.

niche marketingNiche marketing gained wide popularity through Donald K. Clifford Jr. and Richard E. Cavanaugh’s “The Winning Performance,” which studied 6,117 small companies that had grown four times faster than the Fortune 250. Ninety percent of these firms, the authors found, competed in small market niches. All were customer- rather than sales-driven. All developed new products with the end user in mind. And all concentrated on advertising to – and generating repeat sales from – not just any customer, but a small, credit-worthy, qualified group.

To understand how marketing and advertising work and obtain the best results, think about your best customers, then consider targeting a buyer segment, marketing strategically to that particular niche. This entails determining who your existing customers are, and defining the target market you want to reach.

Clifford and Cavanaugh present a series of steps companies can take to adopt niche marketing for themselves:

■ Compile a comprehensive list of your prospects and customers.

■ Narrow the list to a profitable group you believe you can serve better than the competition.

■ Create a profile of the traits common to these customers, such as sales volume or location.

■ Use this profile to tailor products, services and advertising to your niche market and qualify new prospects.

■ Be prepared to experiment with several niches before finding the one that fits your company best.

You also need to know what you are truly selling, which is not just your product or service per se, but also certain intangibles associated with life, death and commemoration. These are the “secret motivators” of sales. Once you determine the intangible benefit of your product or service, you will have a clearer sense of the businesses that offer those same intangibles, and what advertising approach and image you need in order to compete successfully.

Take into account target markets, the sale messages, the image and competitive environment. Consider your underlying objectives in running an advertising campaign, such as expanding your business or developing a more affluent clientele. Equally important is establishing a realistic advertising budget. By rule of thumb, it should amount to 3 to 5 percent of your annual revenue, although you will need to consider adjusting up or down depending on the extent and spending levels of your competition. This budget should cover any community sponsorships you may provide, as well as your advertising in newspapers, magazines, Yellow Pages, newsletters, on radio and television,

by direct mail, Internet and any other promotional avenues you choose.

One public relations consultant tells a story of a funeral owner who really “gets” niche marketing.1 The consultant’s passion is motorcycles, and he sent out a promotional piece though the mail with a glossy full-color photo of a Harley Davidson “trike” pulling a funeral wagon like those used in the Old West. Both were painted black with fancy gold trim and fittings. Featured underneath was the question: “How do you want to go when you go?”

The funeral home owner, himself a motorcycle enthusiast, found a natural group of fans when he showed the photo of the Harley-Davidson-powered hearse at a motorcycle event he attended. He was easily able to capitalize on his unique hearse by targeting other motorcycle enthusiasts with a promotional newsletter that included the photo and description of possible services.

Similarly, any funeral home that provides pet services can capitalize on this profitable niche through marketing that reaches pet owners (specific types of pets are even possible). Do you offer a particularly attractive pet urn that can be personalized with the pet’s name? Consider providing a photo of one to high-income dog owners in a promotional newsletter that also discusses the kinds of products or services you provide for dog cremation, burial, and memorial services. You can also provide informational materials at community events. Hand out dog bones and information to dog owners at block parties or community festivals. Get to know the dog owners in your neighborhood.

Finding a niche is sometimes only a matter of capitalizing on your own interests or those of your community. By focusing on the broad market (usually elderly people), you can miss the forest for the trees. Instead, think about how your market can be subdivided into smaller profitable niches.

Think like a customerIf yours is like most small businesses, you receive frequent calls and visits from advertising representatives, all with persuasive stories. It can be confusing to try to compare and weigh the advantages they cite. So to decide if a particular advertising option is right for you, think the way a customer does.

Think like a customer, or potential customer, to assess which media or publications connect you with the greatest concentration of people you are trying to reach. Examine not only demographics and geographics, but also the programming or the editorial style. Is your target market likely to watch this TV channel, listen to this radio station, or read this magazine or newspaper? Are they likely to trust and respond to the advertising they find there? Does the medium or publication cover the geographic area where your likely customers are located, without including so broad a region that you’re paying mostly for exposure you do not need? Take the time to watch, listen and read for yourself. Know your media firsthand, and get a feel for who their audiences are.

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unique selling position (usP)In the same way, think like a customer to figure out what would make people choose you, rather than companies selling either the same products and services, or different ones that provide the same psychological or material benefits as yours. In short, arrive at what is called your “unique selling position,” or USP. This unique or special benefit to customers sets you apart from the competition. Your USP tells people the specific advantage they receive if they choose you.

The funeral home market is becoming increasingly crowded, meaning it will be more important than ever for you to provide something unique in the next few years. In fact, it is the most critical element of your whole marketing strategy. It answers the question, “Why should they choose you?” If someone asks you why he or she should use your funeral home, what would you answer? Is it unique, or is it available at every other funeral home? This, in a nutshell, is your USP. It should be a clear, brief, true statement that can be said consistently and backed up. Practice saying your USP until it you can say it smoothly and it feels comfortable and natural. Eventually you will find people saying, “Oh, you’re the funeral home with [insert USP here].”

There are four main options in developing a USP: price, service, facility and ease. More and more funeral homes are trying to compete on price. A basic marketing tenet is that in cases where all other things are equal, the individual will make a decision based on pricing. This makes sense – if you could buy a coffin from two different vendors, both providing the same product and ease of getting it to you, you would almost certainly choose the one who provides the best price. Price is a consideration, but it is important to distinguish yourself with regard to the other factors: service, facility and ease, and develop a statement that says exactly what makes your funeral home different (and better) than the competition.

Positioning strategyNo two companies can occupy the same niche or provide the same USP. If you claim that you are “the Texas cremation leader,” it will be difficult for another cremation provider to make that claim (unless it is untrue). Positioning is about finding your unique niche in the marketplace; the space that you are uniquely suited to fill. Tag lines usually reinforce the single most important reason for buying your product or service.

There are three main parts to a positioning strategy. ■ Features and benefits of products and services. ■ Needs and wants of your target market. ■ Your competition’s positioning strategies.

Here are a set of steps to help you think about developing a positioning strategy:

■ Consider what your consumer wants or needs and how your products and services address them.

■ Who are your direct competitors (those who compete for your target market)?

■ What are your market motivators?

■ What are the marketing strategies and USP of your competitors?

■ What are the unoccupied marketing niches? ■ Which niches have the potential to be most

profitable? ■ Choose a strategy according to the previous

points. ■ Create a promotional campaign that

highlights your positioning strategy. ■ Adapt your marketing options to promote

your strategic position.

Here is a sample funeral advertisement that demonstrates the specific positioning strategy for a particular company:

The XyZ Funeral Home differencePerpetual care is offered at all the gravesites within XYZ funeral sites, which means that they are preserved for generations to come. True perpetuity means that the traditions and dignity of burial are preserved forever at your gravesite. Our long-established cemetery offers a combination of stability and experience for your family at their time of need.

XYZ Funeral Home is the location of Texas’s first crematorium. Our experience is unsurpassed, and you are guaranteed that the cremation process will take place on site.

Our grief counseling and aftercare programs are unique in this part of Texas and are offered free of charge to our families as well as any other grieving individual, even if they did not use our services.

We are Texas’s finest garden cemetery with prizewinning landscaping and are a haven in the city for community members to enjoy.

Our 100 percent funeral pre-arrangement refund policy is unique in Texas, offering families a no-strings-attached opportunity to protect their loved ones.

Our professionally trained funeral directors and counselors provide consumer protection and a “no pressure” approach in which integrity and service are the priorities.

XYZ Funeral Home is committed to being an educational resource for Texans, helping to demystify the funeral and cemetery profession and offer valuable information kits, seminars and professional referrals on the topics of estate and financial planning as well as the products and services we provide.

BrandingBranding means establishing a theme in look and feel that identifies your product or service in all of your advertising. The theme of your advertising reflects your special identity or personality, and the particular benefits of your product or service. There used to be one primary requirement for funeral arrangements: Always rely on a dignified, understated theme. Increasingly, however, funeral advertising is branching out, using humor or a surprise angle to sell products and services. Branding is creating the personality of your company – what people

think or feel when they hear the words associated with the name of your business.

Imprint your company name and graphic identity on pens, paper, calendars and other giveaway items. Put your message on billboards, inside buses and subways, and on vehicle and building signs. You might co-sponsor events with nonprofit organizations and advertise your participation; distribute newsletters; conduct seminars; or develop sales kits with brochures, product samples, or application ideas.

One company wanting to stand out from the competition developed a new design concept for its network of funeral homes. It wanted to get away from the stereotypical dark wood and heavy velvet curtains and make its facilities and communications more welcoming with bright, modern and streamlined design, to help take the fear out of funerals. In testing, while some (often younger) people considered the new look attractively modern and transparent, other people saw it as cold. Marketing surveys suggested that the target population was far more interested in value of services, wanting a facility that would meet the unique memorial needs of the individual’s family. After reviewing this data, the company chose to emphasize its flexibility to meet unique or special demands, and chose a company logo and tag line that emphasized this special value in quality and service.

First, engage your communityExperts agree, a funeral home’s business centers in the community, and funeral directors need to become engaged and visible members of that community. Gladys Edmunds, a USA Today columnist who writes about entrepreneurial issues, said in a 2004 column about the funeral home business: “Good quality community relations are important for any business enterprise, and are particularly important to your type of business.”

Edmunds suggested that funeral directors take an interest in community affairs and civic affairs through the usual organizations, but should also consider ways to show an interest in helping youth. She suggests a funeral home owner could sponsor a youth sports team, summer baseball, for example, and provide uniforms, or sponsor health and fitness camps for kids.

Edmunds says community involvement will support business growth, and suggests people create a written plan to increase their activities. “Remember, most often it’s the small things that you can do that can make the biggest impact.”

Promotional toolsThe number of promotional tools used to deliver your message and repeat your name is limited only by your imagination and your budget. Some easy to implement and cost-effective marketing strategies for a small funeral home might include the following:

■ Hand out free giftsIf you want guaranteed attention, offer a free gift. Also called an advertising specialty, a

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premium is a gift of some kind that reminds your customer of you and your service (branding again!). There are thousands from which to choose: key chains, scratchpads, coffee mugs, refrigerator magnets, pens or calendars – just about anything that can be engraved, imprinted, silk-screened or embroidered with your company name and information. To explore the range of gifts available, consult some of the “advertising specialties” firms listed for funeral homes in the Yellow Pages or on the internet. Ask the representatives to suggest gifts that have been used successfully for your specific funeral services and products. Select gifts based on their appropriateness to your customers and your business, quality of construction and tastefulness of design. (Note: Some states require that promotional items carry your funeral home’s full name and the funeral director’s license number.)

Think about handing out life-affirming and life-related gifts, not those associated only with death. For example, if you arrange dog funerals, provide bones for dog owners to give to their dogs at community events. Consider sending family members of the deceased calendars with preprinted personal memorial dates.

■ Be creative with telephone-hold marketing and video marketing In most businesses, callers will at some point be placed on hold. So play a telephone-hold audiotape that, over background music, talks about your products, services, facilities, or even your company itself. Besides helping the time pass faster, tapes can answer callers’ questions and even inform them of products or services they need but did not know you provide. To find a company to produce your telephone-hold tape, check the Yellow Pages or internet under “telecommunications – telephone equipment, services and systems.” Most firms provide everything you need, including outgoing messages, hookups and phone equipment for a monthly fee. You can also create an audio segment or audio and video segment for use in other contexts with the same primary purpose – educating people and highlighting services.

■ Sell with signageThe Funeral Rule requires that you post signs on the coffins you sell. Follow the rules, but don’t stop there. Use interior signs to tell customers about the goods and services you offer, especially new products. If you stock a specialty line, such as environmentally friendly coffins or biodegradable urns, point it out. If you’ve just received merchandise with a high-demand feature, such as cremation jewelry, let customers know. Signs also provide an easy way to answer customers’ most commonly asked questions. Post explanatory labels to help customers differentiate among various products you provide. Write out shelf signs describing special features that make products

outstanding values or unique in their field, or telling customers where to find accessories.

Use signs, in short, to showcase your company’s competitive advantages and to make shopping easier, more informative and more motivating for your customers.

■ Free presentations or consultationsFree presentations or consultations can take place on your premises or that of your customers, or at homes, community centers, rented conference rooms, trade fairs, community festivals or other events. When staging them, talk for no more than 15 minutes. When doing consultations, determine how much information you must impart to prove expertise without giving away too much.

Presentations are an option to attract people to your place of business, show them your expertise and establish your credibility. A crematorium might do tours of the facility. Business representatives can make themselves available for question-and-answer sessions. Promoted through signs, circulars, media ads and other publicity, these short presentations or “talks” should be educational and concern a topic related to your business. Give participants an easy, compelling way to sign up for more information from you before they leave.

You may also want to try: ■ Speeches or seminars: Depending on your

topic and your market, you might want to speak before chambers of commerce, trade associations, senior citizen organizations, or other local groups. Think about speaking at a local church or synagogue or to a fraternal organization. Perhaps the easiest thing to talk about is to answer commonly asked questions. Host an “Ask Your Funeral Director” event, and discuss some of the more mysterious sides of the business, including funeral and cremation rituals, preplanning, state laws and consumer protection issues. If you don’t know the answer, offer to research the issue and get back to everyone at the event with the information.

■ Articles: Another possibility is to write an article for a trade journal, reprint it and mail it off to your friends, customers and prospects. This positions you as an expert, and is a particularly good way to promote your expertise in a business. This same information can be put into a newsletter, blog or advertisement.

■ Donations: Donating your service to a charitable cause often results in positive exposure to community leaders, charity board members, PTAs and civic groups. If you have a large area that can be used as a meeting facility, consider hosting an event for a charitable organization. This works best if volunteers for that charity are potential customers. Donations can also be tied to holidays, such as Memorial Day or Veterans Day; for special events, such as local marathons (for breast cancer research,

for example); or neighborhood celebrations. Host a fund-raiser for the Humane Society or another reputable animal-adoption organization in your area, and highlight your pet funeral services in the written materials. Raise money to feed and house the homeless in your community, or provide a Thanksgiving meal.

■ Newsletters: Another good way to promote your business is through newsletters. They demonstrate how much you know about your field, and do it in a low-key, informative way. They help keep your company top of mind among your audience. The following section discusses newsletters in more detail and suggests possible content.

■ Events: Think of ways to capitalize on seasonal themes or holidays with special events held at your facility or, if that’s not possible, a nearby location. Host a bingo night or game of “Trivial Pursuit” at a local church or community center, or invite older adults to a free tax tip seminar. For more ideas, see Events, next page.

newslettersNewsletters should be sent out at regular intervals. It’s not necessary to create one as often as monthly, but every two or three months is likely a good idea, as you will probably want to highlight seasonal topics. Consider whom you are trying to reach. You may have a variety of audiences, so should have a different newsletter targeted toward each set of individuals. For example, you may want to send one version to your target consumers, another to clergy members or hospice centers in your area, and yet another to funeral home colleagues you want to reach.

Perhaps the biggest question regarding newsletters is what to write. Think about topics that will engage your community members – keep a note-pad, laptop or tablet computer handy and note things that strike your interest. Consider community events or issues, business questions people ask, things that happen to you in the course of your work. The length can vary from very short and succinct to long and detailed, but keep most articles short. Write obituaries or biographies of deceased individuals of interest, both local and famous; articles about community and national issues that spark interest; death care and disposition topics; grief and grief support groups, among other topics.

You need not concentrate only on strictly death-related issues. Death is a part of life, and you should feel free to comment on life-affirming and life-related issues as well. Don’t be afraid to use some gentle, tasteful humor to make the information more appealing. Think of your role as to educate, inform, even amuse, but not to sell. You can even address somewhat controversial topics, such as criticism of the industry, if you maintain the rules of etiquette.

You might want to write about the federal Funeral Rule and specific state policies or laws regarding cremation or burial, as each locality may have different rules or guidelines regarding funeral

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specifics. Focus on some of the most common questions you hear: Can you be buried in your own backyard? What are the rules and what should you not do when you are in a funeral procession? What might a pet funeral entail? How are environmentally friendly funerals different from traditional funeral practices? What is keepsake jewelry? What does aftercare involve?

Here are a number of other ideas for newsletter content. Many can be tied to seasonal celebrations and events:

■ Write articles of special interest to senior citizens, such as “Companion animal trusts” or “Tax tips for the retired.”

■ Have a section devoted to an introduction of you and your staff and answers to frequently asked questions. Provide a history of your company that includes your roots in the community.

■ Profile a staff member or community member of interest and write an article about him or her.

■ Explain how preneed works in your state. ■ Provide information that educates and protects

the consumer: Write an article entitled, “How to save money and still have a beautiful and meaningful funeral,” for example.

■ Highlight cultural traditions associated with funerals, such as “The traditional New Orleans funeral,” or “What is an Irish wake?” Discuss “Celtic funeral imagery” and provide photos.

■ Discuss St. Patrick around St. Patrick’s Day, “The History of Santa,” around Christmas, and commemorate partners who have passed around Valentine’s Day.

■ Highlight gardening news and summer recipes in spring or summer newsletters: “How to make the best barbecue sauce,” or “Grow an herb garden.”

■ In the spring or early summer, highlight safety issues surrounding proms and graduations, “How to keep teens safe this summer,” and “A safe Fourth of July.”

■ Back-to-school tips” in the fall and “How to have a safe and fun Halloween” (partner with the local police department to promote safety in the community in a variety of ways).

■ If you live in the North, write about cold weather safety in the fall (winterizing the car, what to carry, safe driving tips, what to do in a snow storm or power outage, emergency numbers); If you live in the South, write about hot weather safety in the spring (What to do in a power outage, preparing for hot weather, protecting yourself against sun damage).

■ Highlight Memorial Day and Veterans Day remembrances, with tributes or profiles of the local deceased.

■ Interview people in the community about a subject of interest and print the results. For example, around Thanksgiving, ask, “What are you thankful for this year?”

■ Include games like Sudoku, crossword puzzles, mind-teasers, and word games, recipes, and helpful hints.

■ Obituaries: Newsletters can be excellent locations for obituaries and more extensive biographies of the recently passed or to commemorate the anniversary of a death.

EventsBeing an active member of the community is an important way to connect with people. Use the newsletter to highlight or coordinate public relations events that you host, or your sponsorship of any community activities. For example, you might invite people who have experienced a loss over the past year or years for a year-end holiday remembrance service (be sure to target different religious groups appropriately). You can create a sense memory by decorating your facility or the location of the event in a festive, aromatic way with colorful and cozy holiday lighting and decorations. Play traditional music in the background, bake cookies, have punch and warm drinks like hot chocolate, and have a fire in a wood-burning fireplace, if you’re lucky enough to have one. (If not, there are also candles and incense that mimic this smell). Create a warm feeling that is associated with your business and personnel.

You could also: ■ Host a veterans appreciation event. ■ Host an old-fashioned ice cream social or

barbecue; coordinate with the local baseball or soccer games in your area.

■ Sponsor a sports team from a local school. ■ Send cards to family members of those

who died in the past year or years and publish their names in your newsletter to commemorate the event.

■ Host an Easter egg hunt or spring festival at a local park or community center. Print your name and logo tastefully on candy and prizes that you give out.

Customer service The Golden Rule, “do unto others as you would have them do unto you,” may seem self-evident in the way we try to conduct our personal lives. Yet this axiom is assuming new importance as a guiding principle in the world of business. Customers are demanding service again. And companies of all sizes are realizing that their strongest selling point can sometimes boil down to treating customers as they would like to be treated – or better.

More and more, businesses are realizing that service is a competitive factor, and view it as an integral part of their product. The growing significance of meeting – or exceeding – customer demands for quality service has special implications for small business. For it is in this arena that small companies can, in the least expensive way, set themselves apart from the competition.

A recent three-year study by the National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB) in Washington, D.C., showed that small businesses that put heavy emphasis on customer service were more likely to survive and succeed than competitors who emphasized such advantages as lower prices or type of product. “A strong customer ethic must guide your business from the inception,” writes author and business owner Paul Hawken in his book, “Growing a Business.” No matter whether you manufacture, grow, produce, distribute or sell, you are “in service.”

Quality customer service begins with your employees. An owner of a successful chain of funeral-related services advises that the first step is to set quality customer service standards. Then make sure everyone in the company understands them. Finally, he says, reward employees for achieving your service goals. And be sure to seek out and solve any annoyances they might have that could lead to poor morale. An employee with a complaint cannot be completely effective in dealing with customers. “If you take care of your employees, they will take care of your customers.”

On the other hand, Hawken warns, if your employees are not customer-oriented, no standards or goals will change that. “We concentrate on hiring people who embody the quality of service for which we strive. It is difficult to teach someone to be helpful and serve others if he or she is misanthropic to begin with.”

Hiring the best people means trusting them. Your employees should be able to do what is necessary to make the customer happy without fear of reprisal. Says Hawken: “Policies and procedures are helpful only as guides toward an end result. When employees run out of possibilities to make the customer happy, they must have the latitude to improvise to make it right. Most employees operate in a state of fear that their own generosity with a customer will be viewed as foolishness by their boss. This situation will stifle flexible customer service.”

In the smartest companies, asking questions and listening carefully to the answers is an important part of customer service. These firms train their employees to focus on what the customer is saying, and then tailor products or services to meet customer needs. Says one corporate executive, and his words hold true for smaller firms as well: “Knowing what’s on the customer’s mind is the smartest thing we can do.”

It is also cheaper than attracting new customers. According to the Customer Service Institute, 65 percent of a company’s business comes from existing customers, and it costs five times as much to attract a new customer than to keep an existing one satisfied.

Losing a customer is even more expensive. According to studies by the Technical Assistance Research Programs Institute, 91 percent of unhappy customers will never buy again from a company that has displeased them and will also voice their dissatisfaction to at least seven other people.

This responsibility to be receptive does not lie solely with your employees, however. If you want your business to be successful, you must listen to and talk with customers as well. There is no substitute for getting out “where the action is” to learn from the customers themselves how you might serve them better. The best business owners are not only committed to staying close to their clientele, but also to identify with them. They give their customers the level of service they themselves would expect to receive. Moreover, a good relationship with customers necessitates paying attention to every link in

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the distribution chain. That means listening to everyone who helps your business and asking them for suggestions on improving your service. Be sure to take advantage of feedback from employees, especially those whose everyday job is dealing with customers. They can serve as tremendous reservoirs of information.

Many owners search for a special touch that will make them stand out from the crowd. Condolence cards, evening hours, family member discounts and follow-up calls all show customers you want to take that extra step to please them.

Some of the most effective “extras” are very basic adages of conducting good business, although customers are often surprised when they take place. These include answering the phone by the third ring; treating customers respectfully and courteously at all times; greeting them by name; promptly answering their questions and, if you cannot, getting back to them with an answer as quickly as possible; and providing high-quality goods and services. No business, whatever its size, can afford to take customers for granted, because it’s without question a buyer’s market and becoming more so every day.

Another important courtesy is saying “Thank you.” The best way to let customers know you value their business, and to encourage their continued patronage, is also one of the easiest. It boils down to saying “thank you” – in person, on the phone, in letters, receipts and invoices. Whatever else you may include as part of your marketing plan, do not skimp on follow-up or courtesy, for they are the key to loyal customers.

About the rulesYou may ask: With all the regulation of the funeral industry, can I advertise at all? Yes, you certainly can.

The federal Funeral Rule requires that you be open and honest about the products you sell and their prices. But the Funeral Rule does not prohibit advertising that is truthful, accurate and does not mislead consumers. More on advertising laws and rules in general will be found later in this course. But it boils down to the simple practice of being honest and fair in your business practices.

Some states have their own set of industry regulations – several require licensees’ number to be included in any advertising, for example – but most of them simply reiterate Federal Trade Commission guidelines for truthfulness and fairness and content that is factual and clear.

To clarify its rules on funeral provider advertising, which require any advertising to include the funeral establishment’s license number, California regulators in 1998 explained that premium-type items (like those described above) and anything that is “intended to call public attention to the funeral establishment” are considered advertising. The state said the casket price list, general price list, statement of goods and services selected (required under the Funeral Rule) as well as funeral service contracts also fall under its definition of advertising and require the license number.

South Carolina regulations elaborate on the rules that ban soliciting by funeral providers, but specify that the rules do not restrict “the right of a person lawfully to advertise, to use direct mail, or otherwise communicate in a manner not within the prohibition of solicitation” or the rules on discussion of goods and services required by the Funeral Rule.

Oklahoma funeral board rules elaborate on false, misleading or deceptive advertising. They say an ad may not contain statements:1. Containing a misrepresentation of facts;2. Likely to mislead or deceive because in

context the statements make only a partial disclosure of relevant facts;

3. Relating to fees without reasonable disclosure of all relevant variables so that the statement would not be misunderstood or be deceptive to laypersons;

4. Using any name other than the name the establishment or individual is licensed as;

5. Using the name “crematory” in conjunction with a funeral establishment or commercial embalming service when the establishment or embalming service does not hold a crematory license and the crematory is not located on-site.

In 2004, the FTC made its feelings known on advertising when it ordered the commonwealth of Virginia to cease and desist the enforcement of state regulations that had restricted advertising of funeral products and services. The FTC said the Virginia Board of Funeral Directors and Embalmers regulations had in fact restricted price competition.

The FTC order stressed that funeral providers could advertise prices, and discounts from ordinary prices, of at-need or preneed funeral products, good or services, as long the advertisements did not contain “any promise, assertion, representation or statement of fact which is untrue, deceptive or misleading; contain inaccurate statements; or create an impression of things not likely to be true.” The Virginia board amended its regulations to do away with its restrictions.

Traditional advertisingIn preparing an advertisement, consider the benefits your business provides to customers and their families. How does your product or service actually help them or their family? For example, does a preneed arrangement bring an elderly person piece of mind that no one will have the burden of selecting or paying for memorial arrangements?

■ Who is your audience? Create a profile of your ideal customer. Be as specific as possible, for this will be the focus of your ads and media choices. A funeral business, for example, may target a specific religious group or those who live in a specific geographic area close to the business.

■ Who is your competition? It’s important to identify your competitors and their strengths and weaknesses. Knowing what your competition offers that you don’t, and vice versa, helps you show prospects how your product or service is special, or why

they should make arrangements with you instead of someone else. Knowing your competition will also help you find a niche in the marketplace.

■ What do you know about your industry, market and audience? There are many sources of information to help you keep in touch with industry, market and buying trends without conducting expensive market research. Examples include U.S. government materials from the Census Bureau and Department of Commerce. Nielsen, Marketing Sherpa, and Hitwise are examples of global market research companies that offer detailed information on an astounding range of personal variables that can be tremendously useful in targeting your marketing. Public, business or university libraries are also a good option, as are industry associations, trade publications and professional organizations. You can quickly and easily learn more about your customers by simply asking them about themselves, their buying preferences and media habits. Another, more expensive, alternative is to hire a professional market research firm to conduct your research.

Your next step is to select the advertising vehicles you will use to carry your message, and establish an advertising schedule. In most cases, knowing your audience will help you choose the media that will deliver your sales message most effectively. Use as many of the above tools as are appropriate and affordable. You can stretch your media budget by taking advantage of co-op advertising programs offered by manufacturers. Although programs vary, generally the manufacturer will pay for a portion of media space and time costs, or mailer production charges, up to a fixed amount per year. The total amount contributed is usually based on the quantity of merchandise you purchase.

When developing your advertising schedule, be sure to take advantage of any special editorial or promotional coverage planned in the media you select. Magazines often focus on specific themes in each issue.

Print advertisingPrint ads generally have four written parts – headline, support copy, call to action and company name – plus a visual. Spend time developing the headline and support copy. It has been estimated that about 60-75 percent of an ad’s effectiveness is associated with the headline and visual. Visuals are usually more important than copy because they’re more effective in attracting readers’ attention and can instantly present your product or service in a dramatic and motivating way. You may produce or commission your own original artwork or photography, or use drawings and photographs from your suppliers, clients, or non-copyrighted artwork (clip art) found in clip-art books and scrap-art computer programs. Choose the strongest visual among them – the one that best draws the eye and explains what you are selling – and move on to copy.

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The most prominent piece of copy – your headline – must not only work with your visual, amplifying its meaning, but also attract attention with a word, phrase or sentence announcing a benefit that appeals to your target market. One expert wrote that a headline is that final, mind-changing, sales-clinching comment you would make when leaving the office of a prospect who, until then, had responded with nothing but negatives. Collect ideas that are right for you from people you know, from the ads in your file, and from advertising books. And remember, it is not so much the words, but the ideas they express, that sell; determine your message, then find words to convey it.

Below the headline, support copy explains the headline premise and adds secondary benefits or any assurance readers might need to dispel suspicions raised by the headline, such as the assurance of “high quality” when you’re offering a “new low price.” Following this copy is a sign-off, is a call to action urging the reader to respond (“Call for an appointment today,” or “Remember, promotional terms end March 21”).

Your company name, traditionally at the bottom of the ad, should include your address, phone number and in some states, your license number. Make your phone number larger to help stimulate response by phone. Add a cross street to your address (i.e., “5730 Sheridan, at Main”) if you are a new business or if, for other reasons, people might have difficulty finding you.

The next step is to combine all these visual and copy elements into an eye-catching, easy-to-read ad formatted to the dimensions stipulated by the publication. It is best to study the ads in that publication in advance, and consider what your ad might look like in order to stand out on the page. Experiment with different layout ideas rendered in thumbnail sketches, and then fine-tune your ad to fit the layout you prefer. Obviously, it is highly advisable if not imperative when you are doing ads in-house that the person composing your ad has design experience. Skills are required to make an ad look professional and you want ensure that your ad is able compete favorably with others appearing in the publication and attract the reader’s attention.

It is also a good idea to prepare your ad well ahead of the deadline. This way, you can put it aside for a few days and then review the ad with a fresh perspective while there is still time to make revisions. As a final check, lay your ad on a page of the publication where it will appear and make sure it stands out from the articles and other ads on the page.

Perhaps the greatest obstacle to good advertising is excess. Ads can end up so crammed with ideas and features that they appear dense and uninviting. If over-designed, they can be more artistic than motivational, obscuring the sales message. If over-written, they can become over-subtle or over-cute. Certainly, some of the best ads ever created are clever and visually arresting – but good ads must also sell.

Similarly, selling points may over-promise. Use “largest,” “best” and other superlatives only if you can back them up. Avoid any claim that could be construed as deceptive. In addition, make sure the overall tone of your ad is upbeat and appealing. Emphasize the solutions you provide, not the problems you address. And get outside opinions on your new advertising concepts to be certain they carry the personality and message you intend.

Best practices for print advertisingIf you own a small business, you probably spend the largest portion of your advertising budget on print ads. To get the most out of your ads, consider the following steps:

■ The most successful advertisers are consistent (utilizing branding strategies). If you constantly change your approach, your audience will not recognize you. Use design to present an integrated image in all your ads as well as your newsletters or other publications. They should use the same type and size of font, layout, and images. Recognition of your ads should be easy and immediate.

□ Plan ads around a central selling message and consistent look. To help develop your image or brand, consider the “unique selling proposition” of your businesses. Ask “What does this business offer that others do not?” Make that dimension a focus of your campaign. Emphasize your unique selling proposition throughout the ad campaign. What is the one thing you want customers to know about your business? Does it relate to price, quality, selection or convenience? Make sure you pick the right services to advertise. The Newspaper Advertising Bureau suggests promoting your most cutting edge services and products, your most profitable services and products, your best values, and services most typical of your business.

■ Think about your current customers’ location, culture, gender, age, and income. Is it your target market? What are other identifying characteristics of this group? This is your intended audience. Your ad should speak directly to the customer/client. Call them by name: “Discounts for Veterans.”

■ Advertising copy needs to be customer-oriented, emphasizing benefits to the user rather than features.

□ Choose one objective for each ad and ensure every part of the ad reinforces that objective. Use short phrases and be specific.

■ Confirm that the business name, location, phone number, and hours are correct. Note forms of payment and the date of any particular promotions or community events you’ll be participating in.

■ A budget approach to advertising might include the development of a template or “shell” by an artist that can be reproduced over time with a different headline, illustration, copy, or logo, but maintain many

of the same design features. Experts suggest the following tips:

□ Select a unique border and use it in every ad.

□ Use clip art. □ Use one typeface for the headline and

one for body copy. Use bold or large type for emphasis, rather than a different type of font. Above all, it should be readable. Avoid small type, and colors that make the words difficult to read. Leave adequate white space or background. Do not clutter your ad with too much information.

□ Some photos may print poorly in some newspapers or newsletters. You may prefer to use non-photo images.

■ In choosing a publication, consider the number of people in your target audience who read the paper. Note the publication’s circulation demographics, which are usually broken down by age, gender, income, and other characteristics. Look for publications that reach the greatest number of people in your target audience. Newspaper space is measured in inches per column. “CPM” refers to the price or cost per thousand – how much it costs to have the ad seen by 1,000 people. CPM is equal to the cost of an ad divided by the newspaper’s circulation in thousands. If you buy a $200 ad in a newspaper with a circulation of 20,000, your CPM would be 200 divided by 20, or $10 to reach 1,000 readers of the paper. If you buy a $300 ad in a paper with a circulation of 50,000, your CPM would be $6. By computing the CPM for each publication you consider, you can determine the best deal. Remember that an inexpensive ad is no bargain if it reaches few people.

■ Avoid advertising on days when there are a lot of extra ads already in the paper (traditionally Wednesday and Friday).

■ Repetition or frequency is one of the most important aspects of successful advertising campaigns. It may take months of consistent advertising to have an impact on your target audience. Always choose frequency over size: running many small ads over a period of time will tend to have a greater impact than running a large ad less frequently.

■ Try to have your ad positioned carefully on the page. The optimum location is on a right-hand page, near the right margin of a newspaper and above the fold line. Choose “preferred position” instead of “run of the paper” (ROP). This means you may request a specific section, page or location in the paper. While the obvious location is near the obituaries, consider a different location if you are advertising events such as ice cream socials or neighborhood block parties that you are hosting or sponsoring.

Tracking your resultsEstablish a method to determine how customers found you, and keep track of the results. Some companies routinely ask “How did you hear about us?” when new customers phone or visit.

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Others have a “Referred by” box filled in on each invoice. Whatever system you use, tracking is the only way you can assess how effectively your advertising is working. Tracking tells you which ads or media bring inquiries and which bring sales – a key distinction. If you track by invoice, you can also determine how much revenue each ad dollar is producing.

Most importantly, tracking helps you decide how to readjust your advertising program periodically to make your budget work its hardest. You’ll know when to discontinue certain media and publications and when to pump more money into others. You’ll be able to see which are working hardest for you. And you’ll know when results are dropping off from previously good sources, signaling that it’s time to give them a rest. In the end, advertising is a trial-and-error process. You may need to spend several years trying out various advertising options and assessing results to know the target markets and media mix that work best for you.

yellow Pages advertisingYellow Pages ads resemble no other kind of advertising. They’re not aimed at motivating consumers to buy a product, but rather at convincing them to buy a desired product from a particular company. Because companies attract business by showing they have whatever consumers want, Yellow Pages ads also tend to be full of brand names and information.

The first thing your ad must do is get itself read. Here, your success depends in part on which Yellow Pages directory (or directories) you choose to place your ad. The bottom line is to get the greatest amount of exposure. So compare competing directories by their usage figures – not their distribution figures, but the number of actual consumer uses per year. If you then divide directories’ uses-per-year figures by their charge for the same size ad, you will see which directory provides the highest number of uses per dollar. That is the directory that delivers the best value for your money.

Factors to considerMost funeral directors don’t think that much about advertising until a sales representative calls. Few other critical business decisions are made with so little time and analysis, even though for many business owners, the Yellow Pages is a primary means of advertising. Instead, Yellow Pages advertising should be an ongoing process that takes place throughout the year. Funeral directors should ask themselves, “What is it that I want to say?” instead of simply “What size do I need?” Deciding on the appropriate message to be conveyed, studying your competitors ads and acquiring enough information to make advertising decisions takes time.

In terms of competitors, many business owners have a tendency to think that they compete with everyone in their catagory. It’s important to first eliminate non-competitors in your heading, then hone in on those who directly compete for your current and potential customers.

In addition to determining what distinguishes them from the competition, funeral providers should think about how customers are likely to shop for their products or services in the Yellow Pages. In some instances, the key is being called first. However, in other purchase situations, the key is being one of a few considered, in that potential customers are likely to make several calls before reaching a decision. This has important implications in terms of how you should advertise in the Yellow Pages.

In designing their Yellow Pages ads, some business owners make judgments based solely on what they personally like instead of showing several versions to customers to ascertain their preferences. What we think is far less important than what our customers think. A Yellow Pages ad is an investment. Once it’s out there, it’s out there for one year. So why not get customer feedback before the ad runs? This does not involve sophisticated research. Just asking your customers or potential customers in your target market a few questions and observing their reactions can provide very useful information – and at no cost. You will want to highlight important selling points that distinguish you from the competition, such as eco-friendly product lines, or extra-large coffins, or your flexibility in meeting other special needs.

Treating your Yellow Pages display ad like real advertising is the key. Attracting attention is only part of the concern. Having a message that is right for your target market and right for your business is just as important. It takes some planning, but it is well worth the investment of time.

Another key factor determining whether your ad will be read is the size of ad you decide to buy. Obviously, the larger the ad, the more attention it gets. Once you select the heading or headings under which your ad will appear – and they should be headings for the products and services that give you the greatest profitability – open to those headings and see what ad sizes your competitors have. You can then choose ad sizes larger than theirs, on a par with theirs, or smaller than theirs – depending on budget constraints and the competitive stance you want to take.

Once you have decided on directories, headings and ad sizes, concentrate on creating an ad that both attracts attention and stimulates customer response. You will achieve the best results by including the following in your ad:

■ Attention-getting artwork: Artwork is the greatest eye-catcher for an ad, after size. You can use visuals from your suppliers or non-copyrighted artwork. Stick with illustrations whenever possible, because photographs may reproduce poorly. And keep areas of blank space around your artwork and throughout your ad as well, so your ad is uncluttered-looking and easy to read.

■ A headline that says what makes you special: Identify the special or unique characteristic (USP) that, for your target customer, puts you ahead of the competition. Write a short, to-the-point headline stating

that advantage. If your headline must focus on just one of your products or services, choose the one that is most profitable.

■ Complete information buyers need to make a purchase decision: Your ad must convince buyers that you are the best source for what they need. So support your headline with information, usually presented in list form, about your:

□ Reliability (i.e., years in business). □ Ability to meet special needs (such as

extra-large coffins). □ Authorized products and services. □ Full range of product line. □ Location (with maps and cross-streets,

when helpful). □ Hours. □ Special features such as forms of

payment honored, discounts, licenses, guarantees, transport policy and memorial services.

■ Try to get your ad placed in the most prominent position possible under each heading: If positions are assigned on a first-come, first-served basis, it’s advantageous to finalize your contracts with Yellow Pages publishers as rapidly as possible.

■ Using color: Color should be considered in conjunction with the overall impression a company wants to project through its existing graphic elements – including signs, business cards and reminder notes. We may not be aware of it, but color affects us subconsciously and can be very effective in evoking feelings and emotions. It should therefore be consistent with the message an advertiser is trying to convey. If photo quality is reasonably good, you may want to show your building exterior or scene from a landscaped graveyard. Concentrate on images that sell the business.

Essentials of successful advertisingIf you are new to advertising, or if you are using media or publications you have not tried before, you will probably want to assign your ads to outside specialists rather than try to create them yourself. These specialists may be the creative group at an advertising agency, a freelance writer and designer, or the ad department of the newspaper, magazine, TV channel or radio station where you plan to advertise. Such people are experienced in translating information about a product or service, target market, USP and advertising goals into advertising that suits each medium and conveys an effective image and sales message. Moreover, it’s extremely helpful to work with and learn from specialists for several years before you consider doing advertising in-house.

Consider freelance writers and artists who work on a per-project basis at a smaller fee than you would pay an advertising agency. Some sources for freelance assistance are local advertising clubs or trade associations, your Chamber of Commerce, the advertising, journalism or art department at a local college, or ask local printers. Adweek Magazine, for example, is a regional journal that includes a directory of

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freelancers. Internet sites like www.monster.com allow you to search easily for qualified individuals in your area.

Advertising can do the following: ■ Remind customers and prospects about the

benefits of your product or service. ■ Establish and maintain your distinct identity. ■ Enhance your reputation. ■ Encourage existing customers to buy more of

what you sell. ■ Attract new customers and replace lost ones. ■ Slowly build sales to boost your bottom line. ■ Promote your business to customers,

investors, and others.

Whether you work with specialists or create advertising on your own, here are six guidelines to follow in developing an ad program:1. Do your homework. Start compiling your

own ad file. Collect ads you like or that caught your attention, to give you ideas, as well as ads run by your competitors, so you can monitor what they are doing. Read books on advertising, including anthologies of the best ads of the year, or how-to’s by advertising greats.

2. “Sell the sizzle, not the steak.” The old rule about selling products based on the benefits and peace of mind they provide has proved true time and time again. So focus on your USP – and on those intangibles that motivate human behavior and generate sales. This rule does not apply to Yellow Pages ads, which do sell steak, but it remains the essence of all other advertising you do.

3. Stick to your own image and personality. Stay with the basics of who you are. Make sure that the personality and image projected in all your advertising rings true.

4. Work as a team with your ad rep or ad agency. The best advertising results from a synergy of your expertise in your business and your ad specialists’ expertise in advertising. Carefully explain your product, market and goals, and let the ad people go from there to develop your ideas. Advertising is a give-and-take process, and both sides need to communicate and work together, without dictating, until the outcome feels right for both sides.

5. Give each advertising medium you choose a fair test. Traditional advertising rarely brings sales overnight. Run your ad at least five times – or at least two months in weekly publications – to test out the market properly. Often, consumers need to get used to seeing your ad before they will act on it. Results take time.

6. Don’t overlook current customers. Nobody sells you better than a satisfied customer. So in your efforts to gain sales from new prospects, remember that you can build sales equally well through the customer referrals and repeat purchases of existing clientele. Maintain a mailing list and, at your earliest opportunity, start producing catalogues, or other goodwill and sales-generating materials for the customers you already have. Some of

these items lend themselves to a direct mail campaign targeted at new prospects as well.

Advertising’s benefits You have complete control. Unlike public relations efforts, you determine exactly where, when and how often your message will appear, how it will look, and what it will say. You can target your audience more readily and aim at very specific geographic areas.

You can be consistent, presenting your company’s image and sales message repeatedly to build awareness and trust. A distinctive identity will eventually become clearly associated with your company. Customers will recognize you quickly and easily, in ads, mailers, packaging or signs, if you present yourself consistently.

Advertising’s drawbacksIt takes planning. Advertising works best and costs least when planned and prepared in advance. For example, you will pay less per ad in newspapers and magazines by agreeing to run several ads over time rather than deciding issue by issue. Likewise, you can save money by preparing a number of ads at once.

It takes time and persistence. The effectiveness of your advertising improves gradually over time, because customers do not see every one of your ads. You must repeatedly remind prospects and customers about the benefits of doing business with you. The long-term effort triggers recognition and helps special offers or direct marketing to pay off.

legal issues in traditional advertisingUnder the Federal Trade Commission Act:

■ Advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive. ■ Advertisers must have evidence to back up

their claims. ■ Advertisements cannot be unfair.

According to the FTC’s Deception Policy Statement, an ad is deceptive if it contains a statement that is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances or omits information that is important to a consumer’s decision to buy or use the product.

According to the Federal Trade Commission Act and the FTC’s Unfairness Policy Statement, an ad or business practice is unfair if:

■ It causes or is likely to cause substantial consumer injury that a consumer could not reasonably avoid.

■ It is not outweighed by the benefit to consumers.

disclosures and disclaimersAdvertisers must identify all expressed and implied claims that the ad conveys to consumers. When identifying claims, advertisers should not focus only on individual phrases or statements, but should consider the ad as a whole, including the text, product name and depictions. If an ad makes expressed or implied claims that are likely to be misleading without certain qualifying information, the information must be disclosed.

Advertisers must determine which claims might need qualification and what information should be provided in a disclosure. If qualifying information is necessary to prevent an ad from being misleading, advertisers must present the information clearly and conspicuously.

A disclosure only qualifies or limits a claim to avoid a misleading impression; it cannot cure a false claim. If a disclosure provides information that contradicts a claim, the disclosure will not be sufficient to prevent the ad from being deceptive. In that situation, the claim itself must be modified.

When the disclosure of qualifying information is necessary to prevent an ad from being deceptive, the information should be presented clearly and conspicuously so that consumers can actually notice and understand it. A fine-print disclosure at the bottom of a print ad, a disclaimer buried in a body of text unrelated to the claim being qualified, a brief video superscript in a television ad, or a disclaimer that is easily missed on a website are not likely to be effective. Nor can advertisers use fine print to contradict other statements in an ad or to clear up misimpressions that the ad would leave otherwise.

To ensure that disclosures are effective, advertisers should use clear and unambiguous language, place any qualifying information close to the claim being qualified, and avoid using small type or any distracting elements that could undercut the disclosure. Although there is no hard-and-fast rule about the size of type in a print ad or the length of time a disclosure must appear on TV, the FTC often has taken action when a disclaimer or disclosure is too small, flashes across the screen too quickly, is buried in other information, or is otherwise hard for consumers to understand. Most importantly, if you are concerned that a disclaimer or disclosure may be necessary to clarify a claim, evaluate your ad copy and substantiation carefully to ensure that you are not misleading consumers.

To evaluate whether a particular disclosure is clear and conspicuous, consider:

■ The placement of the disclosure in an advertisement and its proximity to the claim it is qualifying.

■ The prominence of the disclosure. ■ Whether items in other parts of the

advertisement distract attention from the disclosure.

■ Whether the advertisement is so lengthy that the disclosure needs to be repeated.

■ Whether disclosures in audio messages are presented in an adequate volume and cadence and visual disclosures appear for a sufficient duration and whether the language of the disclosure is understandable to the intended audience.

Making other claimsWhen a “free” offer is tied to the purchase of another product, the price of the purchased product should not be increased from its regular price. In addition, if you are advertising a

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product as “free” or offering it at a low cost in conjunction with the purchase of another item, the ad should clearly and conspicuously disclose the terms and conditions of the offer. Disclose the most important information – such as the terms affecting the cost of the offer – near the advertised price. You also may want to check with the attorney general’s office in the state(s) where you plan to advertise. In addition, the Better Business Bureau has voluntary standards for when something can be advertised as “free.”

Ads that include rebate promotions should prominently state the before-rebate cost as well as the amount of the rebate. Only then will consumers know their actual out-of-pocket cost and have the information they need to comparison shop. Rebate promotions also should clearly disclose any additional terms and conditions that consumers need to know, including the key terms of any purchase requirements, additional fees, and when consumers can expect to receive their rebate.

If an ad mentions that a product comes with a guarantee or warranty, the ad should clearly disclose how consumers can get the details. Any conditions or limits on the guarantee or warranty (such as a time limit or a requirement that the consumer return the product) also must be clearly disclosed in the ad. Finally, the law requires companies to make copies of any warranties available to consumers before the sale. This applies to retail sales, sales by phone or mail and online transactions.

The same standards for truthfulness apply when companies make claims about price comparisons, “sale” prices, and the like. Since many pricing issues involve local practices, you also may want to contact the attorney general’s office in the state(s) where you plan to advertise. In many jurisdictions, companies are legally required to charge no more than the advertised or shelf price for a product, so good pricing practices are important for both customer satisfaction and a company’s bottom line. The same standards for truthfulness apply when a company makes advertising claims about sale prices or products being “on sale.”

Made in the usA A product has to be “all or virtually all made in the United States” for it to be advertised or labeled as “Made in the USA.”

Environmental claimsIt’s deceptive to misrepresent, directly or indirectly, that a product offers a general environmental benefit. Your ads should qualify broad environmental claims – or avoid them altogether – to prevent deception about the specific nature of the benefit. In addition, your ads shouldn’t imply significant environmental benefits if the benefit isn’t significant. That means that an “environmentally friendly coffin” must be made of appropriate materials to biodegrade according to green guidelines without leaving potentially toxic residue.

JewelryThe FTC’s Jewelry Guides tell you how to make accurate and truthful claims about jewelry you offer for sale. This may be an issue if you sell keepsake jewelry. Keepsake jewelry is designed so that a small amount of cremains can be placed inside (like a locket) as a remembrance. FTC guides cover claims made for gold, silver, platinum, pewter, diamonds, gemstones and pearls and define how certain common terms may be used in ads. For example, the guides explain when a product can be called “gold plated” or when a diamond can be called “flawless.”

The guides also describe information that sellers should disclose in their ads so that consumers are not misled. For example, if you sell synthetic or imitation gemstones, you must tell the consumer that the gemstone is not natural. In addition, you should tell consumers if the pearls that you are selling are cultured or imitation, so that consumers are not misled about the type of pearl being offered.

Mail and telephone ordersAccording to the Mail or Telephone Order Merchandise Rule, you must have a reasonable basis for stating or implying that a product can be shipped within a certain time. If your ad doesn’t include a shipping statement, you must have a reasonable basis to believe you can ship within 30 days. Keep this in mind for preneed agreements that involve shipping of items before the time of need. One-of-a-kind decorative urns, for example, or personalized items created by an individual artist may take some length of time. If you can’t ship when promised, you must notify the customer of the delay and the right to cancel. For definite delays of up to 30 days, you may treat the customer’s silence as agreement to the delay. For longer or indefinite delays and second and subsequent delays, you must get the customer’s consent. If you don’t, you must promptly refund all the money the customer paid you without being asked.

You can give updated shipping information over the phone if your Internet ad prompts customers to call to place an order. This information may differ from what you said or implied about the shipping time in your ad. The updated phone information supersedes any shipping representation made in your ad, but you still must have a reasonable basis for the update.

Warranties and guaranteesIf your ad uses phrases like “satisfaction guaranteed” or “money-back guarantee,” you must be willing to give full refunds for any reason. You also must tell the consumer the terms of the offer.

Endorsements and testimonialsTestimonials and endorsements must reflect the typical experiences of consumers, unless the ad clearly and conspicuously states otherwise. A statement that not all consumers will get the same results is not enough to qualify a claim. Testimonials and endorsements can’t be used to make a claim that the advertiser itself cannot substantiate.

Connections between an endorser and the company that are unclear or unexpected to a customer also must be disclosed, whether they have to do with a financial arrangement for a favorable endorsement, a position with the company, or stock ownership. Expert endorsements must be based on appropriate tests or evaluations performed by people that have mastered the subject matter.

All endorsements must reflect the honest experience or opinion of the endorser. Endorsements may not contain representations that would be deceptive or could not be substantiated if the advertiser made them directly.

Endorsements by consumers must reflect the typical experience of consumers who use the product, not the experience of just a few satisfied customers. If an endorsement does not reflect users’ typical experience, the ad must clearly disclose either what consumers can expect their results to be or the limited applicability of the endorser’s experience. Saying, “Not all consumers will get these results,” or “Your results may vary,” is not enough.

Endorsements by celebrities must reflect the celebrity’s honest experience or opinion. If the endorsement represents that the celebrity uses the product, that celebrity actually must use the product. Once a celebrity (or expert) has endorsed a product, the advertiser has an obligation to make sure the endorsement continues to reflect the endorser’s opinion.

To give an expert endorsement, a person must have sufficient qualifications to be considered an expert in the field. But just being an expert is not enough. Expert endorsements must be supported by an actual evaluation, examination or testing of the product that other experts in the field normally would conduct to support the conclusions in the endorsement.

Advertisers also must disclose any material connection between a person endorsing a product and the company selling the product. A “material connection” is defined as a relationship that might affect the weight or credibility of the endorsement. For example, if an endorser is an employee or relative of the advertiser, that fact must be disclosed because it is relevant to how much weight a consumer would give to the endorsement. Similarly, an advertiser must disclose if a consumer has been paid for giving an endorsement.

noncomplianceIf your advertisements don’t comply with the law, you could face enforcement actions or civil lawsuits. For advertisers under the FTC’s jurisdiction, that could mean:

■ Orders to cease and desist, with fines up to $16,000 per violation should they occur.

■ Injunctions by federal district courts. Violations of some commission rules also could result in civil penalties of up to $16,000 per violation. Violations of court orders could result in civil or criminal contempt proceedings.

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■ In some instances, refunds to consumers for actual damages in civil lawsuits.

Part ii: Funeral marketing and new mediaWe all know marketing in the funeral industry is a very sensitive business. Few people want to discuss their own deaths or those of their loved ones before it’s absolutely necessary. Finding the “right time” is critical. Using the Internet, funeral businesses are now able to target people who are currently looking for specific products and services. In fact, it is estimated that more than 75 percent of funeral planning begins online.2 This means funeral directors can put themselves in front of this targeted audience at the exact point when the audience wants the information.

Why should you be on the Web?E-commerce has redefined the marketplace, altered business strategies and allowed global competition for local businesses. The term “electronic commerce” has evolved from meaning simply electronic shopping to representing all aspects of business and market processes enabled by the internet and other digital technologies. Many small businesses assume that the Internet has little value to them because they feel that their product or service cannot be easily sold online. But inexpensive information processing and electronic media can help most small businesses provide better, faster client service and communication.

Even though you may believe it’s unlikely that your services can literally be sold online, a business website can be a virtual marketing brochure that you can update on demand with little or no cost, and can be a useful marketing tool by providing richer and more complete information about your business that might differentiate your service from your competitors’. E-marketing has lessened the disadvantage that small businesses have faced for years when competing with larger businesses.

Not only do the majority of people in the U.S. now have access to the Internet, these consumers are often the individuals with the most wealth, so a vital part of your marketing strategy is to help these people find your services and products on the internet. Funeral homes can put their name and services in front of hundreds of people every day using websites and free social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook, or even post a video on YouTube. The new technology greatly expands your ability to promote your business.

A website can be educational for people simply looking for information – not as a replacement for a traditional phone number and mailing address, but an additional item that is initially underutilized by businesses new to the internet. It can help you further engage those you’ve served in the past and bring at-need customers to your business.

death and the internetMany funeral homes are, in a manner of speaking, already part of a growing Internet tradition: the online obituaries. A discussion of the Internet and the funeral business must

include the changing face of the obituary. Once a profitable portion of newspaper publications, newspaper obituaries are dwindling in number as newspapers themselves disappear and become smaller. Paid death notices have historically been important sources of revenue to newspaper publishers and have played an important role in informing the public about a person’s death, funeral details, where to send flowers or charitable donations and other details. These notices, typically purchased by family members or funeral directors on their behalf, and traditional media itself are being displaced, and we are experiencing a transformation in how we commemorate the deceased. Increasingly, society turns to the Internet.

online obituariesMore and more obituaries are finding their way to the Internet. Legacy.com is one well-known company that partners with newspapers to publish the papers’ paid death notices. The online version provides functions such as searches, the ability to write comments in a guest book, and add to memorial pages for the deceased. Legacy and similar companies (Tributes.com, for example, a competitor from the Monster.com people) provide other useful services, such as the ability to upload multimedia presentations, purchase online memorials with photos and videos of loved ones, and enter chat rooms to discuss grieving and find support.

In 2010, Legacy.com said it was publishing death notices for two-thirds of the people who die in the U.S.,3 partnering with nearly 1,000 newspapers. Legacy.com calls itself one of the nation’s 100 most visited sites, and lauds itself as an easier alternative for searching death notices. Newspapers pay Legacy a fee to host the death notices, which are paid from monies received from families (often through funeral directors). Legacy memorial websites provides services for a one-time fee or annual subscription service. These kinds of sites allow one to participate in new rituals, such as lighting “virtual candles” for the deceased.

An internet presenceHowever, funeral professionals must go beyond that. A website is a must in today’s business world. Your website address should be on all the materials that you use or give away (sticky pads, calendars, pens or other such items, all with your information printed on them). These should coordinate with all your other printed materials, business cards, condolence cards, thank you and reminder notes and so on with a characteristic and consistent look.

Your website’s home page should contain contact and other basic information, and you may also want to include information about services offered and prices, as well as your experience and expertise. Remember that your website can be available 24 hours a day, seven days a week – whenever a potential customer wants to check in. But it can do much more for you, as you will see later in this section.

getting startedJust as you must analyze your goals with print advertising, you must determine a clear idea of the purpose of your website before you begin any work on it. That means you must think beyond the obvious, that it will “help your business.” How will it help? Will it bring in new customers? Introduce new services and products to those you’ve served in the past? Build trust and create the image you want? Help you use new technology to better manage the business side of your funeral home? Or will it simply help you keep up with competitors?

While all of these may be good for business, you must decide what you most hope to gain from a website, the No. 1 result you want to see. You must have a vision for what you hope your funeral home will be like if you get the results you want with a website.

The number of people who visit your website (called site “traffic”) is important information. Measuring the number of site visitors helps tell you how effective the website is. But for some sites, such as those supported by outside advertising, it is vitally important. If your site is affiliated with another company, such as a cemetery or crematory, for example, it could be beneficial for both of you. You need to decide before you begin whether your site traffic is a high priority because that will be a key part of your site design – and its cost to build and maintain.

Once you’ve determined these factors, you will have to become creative – and do some homework. Regardless of whether you create your own, simple website to put on your Internet service provider’s servers for free or hire someone to create a custom site with all the bells and whistles, the content that will help you meet your goal is your responsibility. And simply put, what you get out of a website is determined by how much effort you put into it.

The name gameYour first content decision may be the name of your website, called its domain name. Your logical first choice for your business’s website is its name, of course. But it’s not as easy as that.

The domain name is the “address” of your site, linked to a string that supplies the numerical Internet address of a website on the World Wide Web and the computer protocol – the method of transferring data – by which the site or resource is accessed. An organization called InterNIC, a registered service mark of the U.S. Department of Commerce licensed to the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, registers domain names for a small fee and keeps people from registering the same name.

Domain names can be registered through many different companies (known as “registrars”) that compete with one another. A listing of accredited companies can be found at http://www.internic.net/regist.html on the InterNIC site.

You can easily research and register the name yourself online. Registration fees themselves

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usually are reasonable, often less than $10; you might want to register (and park) variations on your name as well. If no one has already registered your name, you may do so. If your business name is already taken, however, it may be time to get creative. You’ll need to carefully consider alternative domain names that still keep your funeral home’s name out there. While there are many new suffixes to use with your domain name, many experts suggest it’s important to get one that ends with “.com,” because that’s what most people in the U.S. expect to see. If you do register a name yourself, make sure to check and double-check the spelling. Once you’ve registered the name, you won’t be able to change it.

The registrar you choose will ask you to provide various contact and technical information that makes up the registration. The registrar will then keep records of the contact information and submit the technical information to a central directory known as the “registry.” This registry provides other computers on the Internet the information necessary to send you e-mail or to find your website. You will also be required to enter a registration contract with the registrar, which sets forth the fees and terms under which your registration is accepted and will be maintained. Many companies, however, allow you to simply register a domain name and “park” it until you’re ready to use it.

Here are some questions to ask when you’re choosing among the hundreds of registrars you’ll find online:

■ How long has the company been in business? ■ Can you control all aspects of your domain

name? Some firms won’t allow you to make even simple changes. Make sure yours has a “control panel” that will allow you (or your tech person) to that.

■ Will you be charged a fee if you transfer your domain to another registrar/hosting company?

■ Do e-mail accounts come with your registration or will they cost you extra? Can you send outgoing mail from your domain account?

■ Is the company accredited by ICANN, the organization that manages InterNIC?

■ Will you be able to retain control of your domain name, including having the ability to move to another hosting site without hassles?

Some web design and development firms will handle domain registration for you. Other companies that keep and maintain your site on their servers (or “host” it), also can register the domain name.

your site’s contentYour business logo and other basics – address, phone number and hours of operation – should be on the page most people use to enter your site: your home page. This page sets the tone and image you want to convey, and it must also highlight the features that will help you reach the goal you’ve set. It must be user-friendly, with a design that will catch the viewer’s interest and drive a visitor’s focus to the services and products that are related to your No. 1 goal.

Research shows that more than half of all Web users evaluate websites based on home pages alone. So on your website, the home page must feature the public’s most requested information and services and serve as a top-level directory to access that information in the primary sections of your website. The home page will be the main tool for sending your visitors in the right direction.

Indeed, your entire website must focus on helping the public find the services and information they want and need most. According to one study, people cannot find the information they seek on websites about 60 percent of the time. This can lead to wasted time, reduced productivity, increased frustration and loss of repeat visits and money. If you have an ineffective home page that doesn’t point people in the right direction, many visitors will immediately be turned off and may never come back to your site.

Web visitors want fast, efficient service. On home pages, they expect to find what they’re looking for with little or no scrolling. Web users are impatient. They don’t want to be distracted by text or graphics that don’t help them find what they want or that increase download time.

Even if your website is targeted to specialized audiences, your home page needs to communicate basic information to the general public.

To create an effective website and home page, you should:

■ Assess audience needs: Organize and design your site based on what a potential customer needs. Initially, a funeral home might use information gathered from families who have used your services. Later, you may reprioritize after considering other things, such as:

■ Customer satisfaction surveys (on paper or online: this could be as simple as a rating of your services); how did family members and friends feel about the funeral service?

□ Focus groups – have an online or video-cam discussion of, for example, environmentally safe funeral products.

□ E-mail, phone calls, letters and other contact with the public.

□ Talking with other funeral professionals. ■ Provide the most requested information:

Your most requested information should be featured prominently, including services and products. Some funeral homes have posted their entire GPL on their websites. Others have created visual casket price lists, with photos. Some have created “build your services” price calculators using information that conforms to the Funeral Rule.

■ Include photos and graphics: Much of the information regarding print advertising is applicable to designing your home page. Use attractive colors and fonts, don’t clutter or crowd information, and use appropriate photos and graphics wisely.

■ Be clear about the purpose: The home page should provide an easy-to-identify section that shows the purpose of the website and its value to individuals.

so what kind of website do you need?Once you’ve considered your goals, particularly your primary goal, as well as all the possibilities, you can begin to think about the actual creation of your site – and another huge consideration: your budget.

Here are some of the costs you’ll need to factor into your decision:

■ Website design: The cost range is wide, from free for do-it-yourself sites to thousands of dollars for customized corporate interactive sites that enable online commerce and dozens of other high-tech features.

■ Website hosting: You’ll most likely have to pay a website-hosting company that will keep your site and put it online, meaning it will reside on the company’s servers (instead of your home computer, for example). Because of the competition, web hosting is relatively reasonable, with tiered pricing based on the technical features of your site as well as the tech support you might need (such as the day when your site mysteriously goes down). Prices range from $10-15 a month for a basic site with only a few pages, no bells and whistles and e-mail support only, to $50-75 and up a month for a full-featured e-commerce site that attracts thousands of visitors and requires on-demand, full-service support. Some companies also may have initial set-up fees.

■ Website maintenance: Some hosting companies charge extra fees for regular and advanced site maintenance routines and tech support, particularly those with low-tier monthly fees. Others may charge for updating the site. Before you sign up, ask about these and any other charges you might face.

A brochure websiteIf you’re somewhat computer savvy, you probably can create a simple, brochure-type website yourself using a template – a predesigned and coded page that allows you to insert your own wording and possibly a photo or two. If your primary goal is to simply reach a wider market and create another avenue for potential customers to find you and learn a bit about your services, this could be the way to start. You’ll be able to offer information on a brochure site, but will have few if any interactive features, such as a way to contact you. You may be able to use your own photos, but likely will have a limited amount of space for them and your information.

The cost of setting up a simple site is attractive, starting at “free.” Your Internet service provider may host a small website for free, and many have stock templates you can use to create your site.

Website hosting companies usually offer free or inexpensive templates for customers, and some have proprietary software to help create a more individual site. You also can find inexpensive or free templates with an internet search.

A custom business websiteIf your goals include targeting certain kinds of new customers and more engagement with those

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you’ve served before, you’ll probably want a site created specifically for your funeral home. Such a site may be based on templates, but often it will require special software to create the amount of information you want and other, more sophisticated features. It will take a person with computer and design know-how to use that software and take your site beyond a “cookie-cutter” look.

Your costs could be cut by designing the site yourself using design software:

■ The gold standard for many Web designers is Adobe’s Dreamweaver, which is complicated but powerful – and pricey. It comes bundled with the company’s Creative Suite and its other design applications, and is available in both Windows and Mac versions.

■ If you’re a Mac user, you might have iWeb already on your computer; it comes with Apple’s iLife suite, installed on most recent Macs. It’s easy to use, and the entire iLife suite costs less than $100.

■ Realmac Software’s RapidWeaver is another inexpensive design program for Macs. It is template-based, but the templates can be easily customized.

■ Microsoft’s Front Page was the best-known web design program for Windows computers, but it has been discontinued and replaced by ExpressionWeb and ExpressionDesign, which are more complicated and powerful programs than Front Page.

You’ll need to have some advanced computer and some design skills in order to tackle issues such as your site’s ease of use; proper use of type and type fonts; an eye for color; sources for photos and artwork; and a feel for elegant, purposeful design and Internet style. You will need to learn how to measure the success of your site and the parameters used to do that. Your marketing skills will have to include knowing how to use keywords and other, more technical considerations to maximize the number of visitors to your site and the ways to get Internet search engines to bring them there.

Finding a website designerIf the need for all those skills sounds daunting to you, consider using a web designer or design company. These professionals will help you create that elegant website and the online image you wish to present. They’ll understand the technical needs that must be incorporated into the design, and help you with the other details, such as finding a host and maintaining the site once it’s up and running.

Could the kid down the block build your site? He may already be creating computer games and be able to set up your new computer or home network. But can he understand the needs of a business, and more importantly, how to incorporate fulfilling those needs into the design of your website? Do you trust him to interpret your image, your style and your brand in a public way?

Computer design students at your local college or a novice designer may well be able to do so.

But they also need to be knowledgeable about advanced features needed for a business site, such as search-engine optimization, scripting, navigation tools, and multimedia and interactive integration on your site. If you’re considering hiring a student, use those terms and ask him what advanced Web knowledge he has and how he incorporates it into business websites he designs.

You can find numerous website development companies online; some website hosting companies also have a range of services that include custom design. Some major firms offer a complete package for large companies and corporations: design, development and maintenance of a website. However, their cost likely would be far out of reach for a small business such as an independent funeral home.

Meanwhile, surf the Web a bit. If you see a site you really like and believe has the same style and purpose as you’re seeking, look at the bottom of the home page. There you’ll find the name of the site’s producer and usually a link or contact information. Check that site for its designer. You also can look for online databases of registered web designers, which can include talented – and hungry – freelancers whose fees are reasonable.

But a local professional designer may be your best choice if his or her prices are reasonable. Local professionals know your city and the people in it, which can be a big help in creating a design to appeal to the people you’re hoping to reach via the Web. Costs can vary, so check your budget and determine what you can spend on site design before you talk to designers.

You also need to understand that there are website designers, and there are website developers. The former creates your beautiful site; the latter will, through technical skills, make it work for you. It’s possible to find someone who can do both, but just as you should question the teenager, you should interview the designer to make sure he or she understands and can work in both worlds.

How can you tell?Make sure you have the conversation about the difference between designers and developers with all the designers you interview. Ask them to explain their design philosophy and approach to serving business needs in the design. Can they do the necessary coding for a website and speak the language of the technical folks who will eventually be taking care of your site? If not, what is their plan to get it done and to collaborate to ensure that both design and function needs are met?

Ask to see a designer’s portfolio, preferably online so you can visit the sites and judge their effectiveness yourself. Compare the portfolio with established, professional sites you like.

Does the designer in fact interview you to determine your goals and needs? A good candidate should seek details from you about your goals, your plan and the mission of the site.

Can he or she offer suggestions to refine your plan? You need to feel that the designer aims to create a website that you, his client, will love – and not necessarily one his design colleagues will laud for its beauty or trendiness.

Browse competitors’ websites or other business sites that you like and find easy to use. Share these sites by printout or website address with designers you are considering. Be ready to explain what you like about these sites – and what you don’t like. See what kind of conversation that prompts between you and the designer.

Ask designers what kind of help they provide with your content, and whether they’ll be able to set up the site so you or a staffer can handle updating it as needed. Have them explain the kind of maintenance that will be required for the site and make recommendations on how to best get that done.

When you agree upon a price – preferably a set fee – and contract, insist on a written description of what the designer will do. Should you need him or her to do more as the work progresses, be prepared to pay more, possibly on a per-hour basis. Be sure to negotiate that in advance and make it part of your contract.

Back to that contentYou know what you want from a website, and you’ve found the right person to create one. Now somebody has to come up with all the right words. If you’re confident about your writing skills, it should be you, the person who knows best what you hope to accomplish and the features of your business that can do it.

If you know, however, that you’re a poor speller and you skipped grammar classes, you may want to try to find a professional writer to help. You might look first to people you know and have dealt with before: the obituary department at your local newspaper. Many people in the newspaper, advertising and public relations fields have been laid off in the past couple of years. The paper’s obit staff may know of one who is more than willing to take on a freelance job and bring local knowledge to the task.

Make sure that you or your writer understand the concept of keywords. These are the words and phrases that you must make sure are in your copy on the site because they are the words and phrases people use to search for business sites like yours. Web developers – and hopefully, your web designer – are experienced in figuring these out, including how and where to put them. And they have a number of other tools to ensure your site shows up on potential customers’ Google searches. In the end, it will be that Web developer who makes it work. But you need to play a significant role and be the ultimate guardian of your content.

Once everything is written, including headlines and photo captions, have someone with a keen eye for spelling and grammatical errors go over it. Misspellings and poorly written copy won’t create the image you want for your site, and they will hurt your credibility.

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After you’re up and runningYour work isn’t finished yet. If your goal is to engage clients, you’ll need to give them a reason to visit your site often. That means you need to put fresh information on it regularly.

A good Web designer-developer will make it easy for even the inexperienced to do that, and the routine for doing so should have been part of your site-building plan. Someone in your office should be designated as the “webmaster” who will take care of listing new features, services and prices when necessary, and whatever else needs updating.

Are you ready to become more tech-savvy?You can find software that ties into your business software and allows customers to communicate with you online, to set a time to talk with you about arrangements for a family member, for example. You can create videos for your website that show your beautiful facilities.

But there is a niche for those in the funeral business that you should explore.

Virtual memorialsTraditional marketing methods and media are important promotional venues, but new strategies in marketing by using social media networks have become increasingly important in the past few years. This technology offers funeral professionals a powerful way to get the word out about their business.

Virtual memory gardens or memorial pages began appearing on the Internet in the mid-1990s. Initially, these sites were part of social networking sites like MySpace or Facebook pages – online profiles that turned into memorials when the individual died, creating a living obituary. When Facebook is notified about a death of a member, the page becomes a memorial site, remaining active but limited to family members and friends who knew the deceased during his or her life. They may add comments and condolences, post photos, list the location of memorial services, include an online obituary and so on. Facebook chooses to manage memorials by allowing access to only those who were confirmed friends during the individual’s life, which some consider a limitation. Other groups support public memorialization sites, allowing anyone to post condolences or messages.

Once a loved one reports the death, the Facebook profile transforms into a living memorial where people can share memories. Facebook changes the status and removes some information so the profile does not show up inappropriately. Unfortunately, there have been mistakes; in late 2009 and beyond, Facebook began recommending that users “reconnect” with people they had not contacted in some time, in many cases referring them to an individual who had died.

Despite that, we are seeing the Internet changing mourning rituals in the same dramatic way it changed dating. A friend’s death becomes a portal to connect with others and remember. Facebook’s fastest-growing demographic is people 35 years of age and older. These people

used to learn about a death through a phone call or newspaper obituary. Now they read about it in their e-mail, in online obituaries and memorial profiles. Family members of the deceased who want to share photos and videos post them on the site. They support one another and share their grief through online contact. The Internet is increasingly the place to extend invitations to attend a funeral or memorial service of some kind. Memorial or tribute pages are places to connect with other grieving individuals, providing a central place to grieve and reinforcing a sense of community.

Friends and acquaintances can express condolences publicly or privately, post stories or anecdotes about the deceased, send flowers or make a donation to the charity in the name of the deceased. Social networking sites offer a “place” to gather and remember. It is a way to share and grieve in real time, and many find interacting with an online memorial cathartic, providing resolution and peace for the bereaved.

Maintaining your own online obituary or memorial sitesYou can participate in social networking and generate new revenue by posting obituaries or creating memorials on your website or an associated blog site (see blogging, below). This not only creates new services and products to offer, but also brings new people to your site. Your website can allow obituary readers to post comments and photos of the deceased, and provide the opportunity to leave condolences at the site, connected to options that allow the person to learn more about your business, if desired. For example, when you show, “Thank you for leaving your condolences for John Smith,” also provide clickable options allowing the visitor to donate to the deceased’s favorite charity or send flowers, read information or find resources on grief, or learn about preneed.

It is not difficult to coordinate these sites with systems that alert group members about a death. For example, a college graduate may want to be alerted if a fellow alumni member dies; a veteran may want to know of the death of a member of his unit. Perhaps the cardinal rule is to make it easy for mourners as well as other obituary readers to find the information they are looking for, including funeral dates and times or information about grief counseling and charitable donations. Obituaries can be categorized for greater ease in sorting and searching. People interested in genealogy, for example, might appreciate a searchable database, which can then be linked with other historical or community-related websites.

As noted above, in recent years, there has been a boom in online obituaries. Often associated with blogs, these online spaces are superior in many respects to newspaper obituaries because space is not an issue. One can provide a lot of text for a very reasonable price, and images can be easily included. Once created, an online obituary or memorial can exist forever, to be referred to anytime someone wants to remember the deceased or talk with other bereaved loved ones about the death.

As someone who has created and submitted obituaries to media for years, you know you can find out a lot about a person through in-depth interviews with friends and family members. Use these conversations to develop the text and associate it with meaningful photos, video, slide shows and appropriate links. Online memorials often use imagery of nature along with text to create moving tributes that offer a unique blend of private and public mourning and post-death rituals that offer sympathy and support. Memorial sites reinforce the community of the bereaved, providing comfort and peace. Commemorative notices can be posted or e-mailed at appropriate times, such as at the year anniversary of a death.

social mediaSocial networking is a kind of internet marketing that involves the use of social media and social networking sites. Social media is a broad term that defines the various activities that integrate technology, social interaction and content creation. Through social media, individuals or collaborations of individuals create web content, organize content, edit or comment on content, combine content, and share content.

Social networking sites are websites that connect people and create online communities. In these online communities, people can join (usually, for free) and at a minimum, establish a page with their profile. Many, like MySpace and Facebook, also have discussion groups, typically formed around a theme or industry subject, where members can interact and exchange questions, information and suggestions. Web-based discussion groups include blogging sites and chat rooms. Social networking may involve posting or commenting on a social networking site like Twitter or Facebook, or may involve uploading a video to YouTube or your website.

Social networking sites allow you to build up an audience or community with specialized interests. Your web presence becomes intrinsically associated with your business, helping you develop and strengthen relationships. All social networking sites allow users to find people they know among the members or look for other members with similar interests or affiliations, making it easy to establish networks of contacts. Other technologies, such as Wiki products (i.e., Wikimedia) and photo-sharing sites (i.e., Flickr), also have social networking aspects to them. Social networking sites can expand your business’ outreach capabilities, highlight your services and attract new people to your location.

An important thing to understand about social networking sites: Unlike traditional marketing venues, social networking is not about selling – instead, it stresses interaction, educating the public and increasing awareness of your business. Like traditional networking, social networking stresses community visibility. These sites can facilitate your interaction with customers and potential customers. Rather than simply appearing when a death occurs, integrate yourself into the community as a part of community life.

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Many of these social media websites (i.e., Facebook) provide a great way for you to stay connected with families that you have served and provide appropriate aftercare and follow-up. Continuing the relationship with families after the funeral service is key, but be careful not to promote your business to these people through a social networking site. Instead, use them to build relationships and educate the public about your role, as well as demonstrate yourself an expert in your field.

Multimedia servicesProviding multimedia services is a great way to increase revenue. It is not difficult to create videos and slide shows with family photos, and then post them to a site. You can create a moving slide show of the deceased’s life using Flickr, a photo sharing social media tool. It is user-friendly, and allows users to share photos, comment on them, and categorize or tag them to find them easily. Privacy settings allow you to make events inclusive of family members and friends without being open to the general public, or available for anyone to see. A funeral director can do all this quite easily, with these tasks (from simply posting photos to creating a multimedia funeral presentation) making an excellent add-on service.

Flickr is also useful as it provides a searchable database of images you have permission to use and provides a means to keep your own photos archived. Googleimages.com also has an excellent search function, but be sure you have permission to use the image. Photos are critical in the commemoration business.

Some funeral homes now provide live video feeds of the viewing or a funeral service, allowing out-of-town people to “attend.” Webcams and or computer monitors can be set up where needed, and people can log on, view, and even communicate with others who are at the event or are also viewing remotely. (Skype, for example, offers free services with this technology.) These presentations can be shown on-site, at the funeral, or exist online only. They can also link to sites that were relevant to the deceased, such as a favorite charity for donations, or activities with which they were closely associated.

Video gives you great latitude to show, rather than just say. YouTube is a popular place to post, but you can also use video on Facebook and a great many other networking sites. Use a video cam to:

■ Take a video tour of your funeral home or park. ■ Highlight special services. ■ Provide new product information.

If you do decide to develop your own obituary or memorial site, create a letter for family members explaining social media and the new services available. Describe ways you can provide services, such as scanning copies of old photos, creating slide shows, uploading videos, or sending invitations or reminders about scheduled events. (Of course, any costs must be appropriately disclosed in this letter as well as on your GPL).

Companies that provide Web-based services There’s no need for you to reinvent the wheel. Many startup businesses are forming around web-based or multimedia services for funeral homes. If you’re not technically inclined, it is much easier to hire a business that specializes in creating an effective social media program. Experts can even set you up on Facebook and Twitter accounts (although that is incredibly easy to do yourself) and assist you in interacting with clients, creating presentations and posting appropriate material or links to your page.

They can help with: ■ Content ideas and development (videos,

biographies, photos, articles, etc.). ■ Responding to posts in a timely manner,

making and maintaining contacts. ■ Creating autoresponders, an e-mail campaign

made up of an automated sequence of personalized e-mails.

BloggingA weblog, which is usually shortened to “blog,” is a website where regular entries are made and presented in reverse chronological order, in the form of posts. A post is a written item, like a journal entry. The most recent post is at the top of the list. While they may look like websites, there are some significant differences in their design and function. In general, blogs are easier to build and maintain and have content that is updated frequently, while website pages are more static and less subject to change.

Blogs are commonly associated with websites, but provide a somewhat less “formal” place where the author can share ideas, thoughts, stories, things that happen to him or her at work or at home. While it may look like a website, it often functions as a personal or business newspaper or newsletter that is easy to update and manage without a Web and management team. Some companies provide blog-related services for free. WordPress, for example, is a popular free blog platform that also provides paid services.

Blogs can offer commentary or news on a particular subject, such as technology, politics or local news; some function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images and links to other blogs, websites and other media related to its topic. Most blogs are primarily textual, although many focus on photographs, videos or audio. Some blogs are very focused on the personal writing of the author. Others take an editorial approach, with writers searching the Web looking for interesting content, then writing up a short comment and linking to the original content.

If you like to write, consider a blog. You can write about almost anything that you feel you know well. Discuss the services or products you provide; answer questions and provide solutions to common problems. If you feel less comfortable writing, review or refer to what other people have posted or written. If writing is a trial to you – don’t despair. Just see the section on Twitter, below.

With blogs, you control the show with written content, photos and video. Materials presented in blogs might include photos, videos, product reviews, an explanation of different services you offer and so on. Blog entries need not be long, but should invite comment or discussion.

When you post new material on your blog, the blog notifies special blog search engines about the new content, and those search engines create new links to your material, bringing people who are searching for content like yours right to you. Using a blog is a great way to generate more website traffic. They can spread your message and get many more people to see your content. Blogging is a big part of a comprehensive communications mix, like e-mail alerts and RSS feeds. Blogs also put a human face on your business. They can make services more “accessible” by allowing more interaction between you and families you serve. Benefits include:

■ Having a blog can improve your placement in search results. Each time a blog is updated, an RSS feed goes out and “pings” search engines, so it’s an excellent way to stay at the top of search results. Blogging and blog searching is becoming more and more popular, so getting your content into blogs helps bring more people to your site through search. Google created a special search engine just for blogs.

■ You can also encourage syndication of your blog through an RSS feed, so other folks might grab your feed and republish on their own websites. With this approach, you’re really propagating information.

■ Creating a blog is fast and cheap. It’s very easy to do and usually doesn’t require technical skills.

■ If you allow the public to post comments to your blog, you have a finger on the pulse of your audience – the American public. A key component of blogging is that people can easily post replies to any comment the blogger makes and others can then comment on comments.

■ If you’re prepared to listen, you can spot trends – negative and positive – early, and respond appropriately to them.

■ If done well, blogs can be a great source of market research, of new ideas and feedback. They can be an excellent way to share and explore innovations, product concepts and more.

■ You can also comment on other people’s blogs to raise interest. There is a trackback function that links your comment on a blog back to your own blog. People will see your blog and “add it to their feeds,” meaning that they will be notified when you post new content.

When blogging, remember that the Web has a long memory. Do not publish any material on impulse. Ask these questions:

■ Who else might read it? ■ Supposing prospective partners, stakeholders

or customers read it. What would they think? ■ Would you be willing to have it on the front

page of the newspaper?

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■ In what other ways might it be interpreted? ■ How will it stand up in a year? In five years?

Blog contentBecause what you say can be out there forever (even if you try to “take it back”), content should be, above all, safe! Ask yourself, “Am I completely comfortable with this information I’m presenting?” If not, DON’T. Consider whether the people in your business and your customers would find the information useful or valuable. Will it help build your reputation as a source of new or interesting information? Will it positively affect the way you are perceived?

Another important question is “how often?” It’s up to you. One nice thing about blogs is you can build up a relatively large library (eventually), writing only occasionally, because everything remains on the site. A well-archived and organized site allows new readers to review old articles on topics of interest to them. Unlike newspaper and magazine advertising, blogs do not disappear when the issue is thrown away.

You will find that writing not only helps clarify and refine your thoughts, but produces content that can be easily repurposed. That means you can adapt the same information slightly and use it in a variety of different locations, such as trade magazines, websites and traditional newspapers, each of which will refer back to your business. Those polished answers can be posted efficiently in many places, increasing your top-of-mind awareness among different networks of community members.

Blog content can be very much like that of a newsletter; much of what was said about newsletter content earlier in this course would apply to blogs. It is helpful to think of a blog as a combination journal/newsletter/newspaper, with the range of content that would be found in any of those publications.

Possible topic areasObituaries and biographies are a must. Include a photo of the deceased person, write a tribute, and link to the individual’s official obituary (if not on your site), with appropriate comments. For example, for a famous individual with early roots in your community, provide a brief biography, explain the local connection, and find someone who knew the individual personally. The public may originally come to your blog to read your tribute to this famous person or check an obituary or related details regarding a funeral of a loved one you have listed on your site. They will stop back to see other peoples’ comments regarding your listings or articles, interact by posting their own photos or stories, or ask you to assist them in scanning photos or creating a slide show for posting.

Other articles and posts can be a great source of blog content. You can link or refer back to the original site or other media source, write your reactions and find out what others are thinking about the same topic. If the American Association for Retired Persons (AARP) publishes an article on funeral preneed or disposition options, for example, you can link to it and write your own

reaction to the material presented. An important note: Always provide attribution when referring to original photos and articles and include a link to the original. Err on the side of caution to avoid potential copyright infringement.

Discuss topics relating to current events, news stories in your area, community happenings. Do you have a strong opinion about something you see every day? Write about it.

People are naturally curious about the funeral industry. Don’t be afraid to confront the rare scandal head on. Explain why your company is not like the one that was highlighted by the negative news and answer questions in a straightforward way to put fears to rest. Write an “Ask the funeral director” article, and position yourself as the expert in your area when it comes to your business. Answer frequently asked questions (FAQs). It’s important to realize that one question usually represents many more people with the same question who do not ask. Each is an opportunity to educate.

Feature specific topics or participants according to holidays or seasonal concerns: A natural topic is depression and loneliness around a holiday after a loved one dies.

Reach out to other funeral providers. Blogs can be a useful professional tool among colleagues to keep abreast of new technology or novel business ideas. Consider sharing questions on your mind; ask or provide help regarding a professional question. Blogs are a good way to solidify a feeling of community by “following up” on relationships made through conferences or webinars.

Twitter (microblogging) Another form of blogging is the microblog. As its name suggests, microblogging is simply writing extremely short blog posts in the vein of text messaging. The messages can either be viewed by anyone or by a restricted group that is chosen by the user. Twitter is currently the most popular microblog posting service. Users can read these messages online or have them sent as a text message to a cell phone or other mobile device. Twitter has become the way people communicate during disasters as well as celebrations due to its immediacy, simplicity and flexibility.

The beauty of Twitter, if you’re not a writer: It limits you to 140 characters or less. Twitter allows you to throw a salient comment out and hear responses without a lot of effort. It’s a great way to send short updates to people who are interested in seeing them. Twitter also makes it possible to send messages through mobile phones (Check fees with your phone company). People get your updates in real time, and can participate in two-way communication.

With microblogging, you can: ■ Get quick answers to simple questions. ■ Try out new ideas, getting responses from

people whose opinions you trust. ■ Learn about issues that affect your business

before they become common knowledge.

■ Establish a network of people involved in interests, products, services similar or complementary to yours.

Microblogging can do all of that, in addition to giving you a new outlet for important announcements. As its name suggests, microblogging is writing extremely short blog posts, kind of like text messages. But microblogging is more than just random “short bursts of text”; it’s better characterized as short conversations where you listen to and share ideas. The popular social networking websites Facebook, MySpace, and LinkedIn also have a microblogging feature, called “status update.”

Once you get going with a set of people you follow and people who follow you, it’s a never-ending conversation you can dip into when you want. The people you talk to can serve as a filter for the torrent of information online, giving you links to check out, sharing new ways of thinking and offering responses to the questions you ask.

Twitter is an excellent tool for brief reminders, links, and promotions. Those who choose to follow you on Twitter will receive a list of your tweets. It is often a useful way to respond to colleagues or alert them to useful content such as a recent article of interest. It also can be used to commemorate an anniversary of a death, remind people about a memorial service or funeral. Set up a system so people can read your funeral home’s obituaries on Twitter. You will find a surprising number of people peruse obituary listings.

Twitter often involves time-sensitive information – that’s what makes it good as a reminder about an event taking place in the near future, for example a funeral service. Keep your tweets relevant and don’t overdo with unnecessary tweeting. Consider Twitter the company “voice.” Words should always be respectful, dignified and meaningful.

People may start to follow you on Twitter after you follow them. To get more attention, add yourself to one of the directory sites, like WeFollow, where you can list your Twitter account according to industry keywords.

FacebookFacebook is becoming the corner post office or bank, the place you run into people in your neighborhood and beyond. While the last generation built community ties through the church, Rotary Club, PTA and other community organizations, now the networks are accessible on social media. Many social networking sites have a particular demographic, or range of characteristics associated with the site. Facebook started at Harvard University, and still is associated with a well-educated, young audience, although older persons are increasingly joining. Many networking sites are associated with individuals of a certain age or in a certain location. Facebook, like Twitter and YouTube, have experienced exponential growth in a relatively short time, with huge numbers of new users checking in every day. You can also microblog or send real-time messages from Facebook.

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Remember that profiles are for people and pages are for businesses. As a funeral professional, you will access Facebook very differently than you might as an individual. You will need to create a Facebook “page” for your funeral home that is targeted toward businesses, and set your settings so anyone on Facebook can see your page. Being a page on Facebook means that the page is viewable to all and indexed by Google. People can choose to “like” your page, which means they receive any updates you post to your page, such as obituaries or tributes, when they login to Facebook.

Facebook is as user-friendly as you can get. To begin a contact list, you can import people you know from your e-mail program. Later search groups and fan pages for local organizations including your Chamber of Commerce, clubs, houses of worship, community centers and public spaces, and link to them. You can post items as easily as cutting and pasting a specific URL into the “post a link” area. When your friends click the item you posted, the browser will automatically navigate to the item. You can also post items from Facebook by using the “Share” option, which will open a dialogue box to which you can add text. To share a page you’re currently viewing, install a Facebook “bookmarklet,” which will share the page you’re viewing along with a comment you provide.

Particularly useful to some businesses marketing their services is the Facebook button, which posts items to your profile, allowing you to share items from partner websites you’re viewing (articles, photos etc.) As an extra benefit, Facebook allows information you post to show up in the news feed (which is free, unlike ads). Whatever you post to your profile will show up in your friends’ news feeds (they can also report you for spamming or other pushy marketing tactics, so be respectful of personal information and do not abuse the privilege). Facebook also makes it easy to remove and change information posted.

You also can advertise on Facebook. Facebook ads display in the right side column on Facebook pages, called the ad space. Up to three ads may show at one time on any given page. These right-hand spaces might include three Facebook ads or one Facebook ad and one banner ad. In the second case, the banner ad will always appear below the Facebook ad.

Facebook ads allow you to target your audience with unsurpassed detail. Not only can you contact large numbers of people, you can also filter by segments such as age, gender, location (critical in the funeral business), marital status and interests, to talk directly to specifically filtered groups. You can create one e-mail campaign with information relevant to Catholic Vietnam veterans or other specific religious or cultural groups; or send dog memorial information to confirmed dog owners, community veterinarians, and pet stores. You can easily tailor your publication to a variety of population niches.

gather informationOne of the best ways to use social networking sites and your Internet presence is to ask

questions and gather information about different consumers. Perhaps you perform countless cremations, but rarely sell a decorative urn or conduct a service in which the cremains are buried or scattered with some type of ceremony. Why not ask what your audience is doing (if anything) with the cremains?

One company, noticing that it was performing many cremations but few ceremonies or services associated with those deaths, did just that. It found that most consumers knew the basics about cremation, but not what other options were available. Cremation clients wanted to “keep it simple” and avoid the “production” of a funeral, seeing little value in funeral home services. Interviews suggested, however, that the lack of a service was associated with a lack of closure in some cases. Some of the bereaved knew they wanted some kind of service, but not what kind. To respond to this need and educate the consumer, the company developed a YouTube video discussing disposition options associated with cremation to help connect the idea of cremation with a memorial, to ensure closure and peace. While moderately expensive to produce, a video like this can be used again and again in a variety of contexts.

What other questions would you like to ask your public? What does this or that demographic group, age range, or gender feel about funeral expenses, keepsake jewelry, pet funerals, or current Memorial Day celebrations? The list is endless; if you can think it, you can ask it.

Podcasts and videocastsYou can also use the variety of resources at your disposal to create podcasts and videocasts. These are audio or audio and video segments of varying lengths that can be used like your own personal radio or TV show, for interviewing, answering frequently asked questions, or discussing a professional topic. Consider interviews with clergy members, family members of the deceased whose life you are highlighting, hospice workers, or community leaders who have a valuable message.

google mapThe funeral business is highly geographically targeted. Deaths, like lives, are tied to specific areas, with the desire to memorialize a loved one somewhat location dependent. According to a local marketer, “thousands search Google for funeral homes” each month. To help send traffic to your funeral home, add it to Google Places. It is a free place to list your business and will allow you to come up in search results for your local area, but you must be listed to be found. To set up a Google Places listing, you must have a Google account, which is free. Start at the Google Places Business Center by clicking “Add New Business,” and include your business information in search-friendly terms. Using the custom fields can help people find your specific niche or the products and services you provide. Claim your business listing by phone or text, and consider adding a map to the listing.

Ping.fmThis free tool helps you be more efficient with social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter and allows you to “ping” a message to a social media file. (It will automatically shorten urls for Twitter.) Setup at http://Ping.fm to start creating an account and put your appropriate access information in for any social networking sites you have. Any message you post will automatically post to all your social media.

Rss feedsRSS stands for really simple syndication. It is a Web content format that, when used with an RSS aggregator, can allow you to alert users to new or exciting content on your website. These news feeds enable users to avoid the conventional methods of browsing or searching for information on websites. Instead, the content they want is delivered directly to them. Anyone can subscribe for free to anyone with a blog. The reader will be notified with a symbol whenever there is a new post on a blog he or she is following. A number of sites, such as Blogger, LiveJournal, Wordpress and TypePad, offer a free platform with the option of hosting or additional services or assistance.

RSS feeds are commonly used on weblogs (blogs), news websites and other places with frequently updated content. Once users subscribe to an RSS feed, they can gather material from websites of their choosing. It’s a very convenient format because it allows users to view all the new content from multiple sources in one location on their desktop.

RSS is written in the Internet coding language known as XML. It’s important because:

■ Web users are finding RSS to be a very efficient method for keeping up with current news that interests them.

■ RSS saves users from having to repeatedly visit favorite websites to check for new content or be notified of updates via e-mail. Instead, article summaries are delivered directly to them. They can choose to visit the websites when the RSS feeds contain summaries that look interesting.

■ It is now very common to find RSS feeds on most major websites as well as many smaller ones.

■ The process for developing an RSS feed is relatively simple and inexpensive.

Creating an RSS feed is not very difficult. It’s simply a text file written in a special XML format that you place on your website. Visitors will then add the URL of the XML file to their aggregation software. Once added, the user’s software will notify them whenever you update the feed. You’ll need some specialized software before you get started. Here are the steps to place an RSS feed on your website:

■ Determine the content: First, you need to figure out what type of content will be most effective and relevant to your audience via an RSS feed. Content that is updated fairly frequently (i.e., weekly) is best suited for RSS feeds. When selecting content, keep in

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mind that RSS users will download the latest RSS entry every time the content is updated.

■ Generate the RSS feed: There are several ways to create RSS feeds in the necessary XML format. The easiest way is to have a content management system (CMS) generate the RSS feed in XML. A CMS does the technical work, leaving you to concentrate on the content you are creating.

Endnotes1 http://www.theinternetwizards.com/A-funeralhomeniche.htm2 Local-Marketer : http://hubpages.com/hub/funeral-home-marketing3 Medill Paper

Referenceshttp://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/primeradv.htmlUSA Today, May 4, 2004: Entrepreneurial Tightrope column by Gladys Edmunds: “Advertising works, even for a funeral home.”Accessed online July 29,2010.Virginia Board of Funeral Directors and Embalmers.Funeral rules and regulations.http://www.tanningtraining.com/isc/sopc/chp10htmlhttp://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/yellowpage.htmlhttp://www.sba.gov/managing/marketing/customer.html; National Women’s Business Center, Washington, D.C., 4/97http://www.usa.gov/webcontent/managing_content/organizing/homepages.shtmlhttp://www.usa.gov/webcontent/usability/techniques/usability_testing.shtml Accessed October 15, 2009http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/buspubs/ad-faqs.htm

FunERAl MARkETing in THE 21sT CEnTuRy

Final Examination Questions

Select True or False for questions 11-20 and mark your answers on the Final Examination Sheet

found on Page 37, or complete your test online at www.elitecme.com.

11. According to the Customer Service Institute, 32 percent of a company’s business comes from existing customers, and it costs two times as much to attract a new customer than to keep an existing one satisfied.

True False

12. Print ads generally have three written parts – headline, company name, plus a visual.

True False

13. Running many small ads over a period of time will tend to have less impact than running a large ad less frequently.

True False

14. According to the FTC’s Deception Policy Statement, an ad is deceptive if it contains a statement that is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances or omits information that is important to a consumer’s decision to buy or use the product.

True False

15. Funeral providers may not advertise their general price lists.

True False

16. To ensure that disclosures are effective, advertisers should use clear and unambiguous language, place any qualifying information close to the claim being qualified, and avoid using small type or any distracting elements that could undercut the disclosure.

True False

17. FTC guides cover claims made for gold, silver, platinum, pewter, diamonds, gemstones and pearls and define how certain common terms may be used in ads.

True False

18. It is estimated that more than 75 percent of funeral planning begins online.

True False

19. Website domain names can only be registered by the government.

True False

20. Technology is available to allow funeral providers new ways to serve customers, such as offering virtual memorial sites.

True False.

FGA04FME14

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CHAPTER 3

HisToRy oF EMBAlMing And REsToRATiVE ARTs

(3 CE Hours)

learning objectives ! Discuss some of the reasons different cultures

have embalmed their dead. ! Describe the process and materials used to

embalm the dead in ancient Egypt. ! Discuss the historical changes affecting

the embalming policy from the Dark Ages through the Renaissance.

! Explain how the Civil War changed the history of embalming.

! List three noted early American embalmers and their contributions to the field.

! Name three inventions that significantly changed embalming techniques in the 1800s and 1900s.

! Name the first well-known “demisurgeon” whose restorative techniques were a sensation in the early 1900s.

! Discuss the findings from the recent National Cancer Society research, published in November 2009, and how this may affect the use of formaldehyde in embalming.

! Explain the risks of arsenic in old cemeteries and embalmed bodies and how to protect yourself from exposure to arsenic.

introductionThis chapter is presented in two parts. The first part of the chapter discusses the history of embalming, introducing significant practitioners and authors, the invention of innovative devices and techniques, and the subdiscipline of restorative techniques. The second part of the chapter discusses possible risks of embalming, including those associated with formaldehyde exposure highlighted in recent research findings, and the hidden danger of arsenic in historic cemeteries.

PART I: Embalming – a long historyMen and women have practiced human preservative methods and restoration art since early times, to restore and maintain bodies free from decomposition and return the body to its natural lifelike appearance. The reasons for the practice are varied and distinct to each culture. The ancient Egyptians practiced their embalming and mummification techniques to meet religious goals involving the afterlife. In more recent times, the practice was a matter of necessity; the early study of anatomy and the technique of dissection, for example, necessitated some method or material that would allow the corpse to be studied for longer periods in warm as well as cold weather. Not least significant, embalming and restorative methods became critical for transportation or viewing associated with funeral and memorial celebrations, to display the body as is the tradition in many cultures and faiths, and provide a sense of peace and closure to family members and friends.

This section highlights some of the significant individuals, inventions and techniques in the history of embalming, from ancient through modern times, describing the incredible range

of materials and methods used to make tools and embalming fluids. It also reviews a history of modern restorative art, which emerged as an important subdiscipline in the early 1900s.

Embalming definedEmbalming refers to the preservation of the dead human body by specific actions conducted by human beings. It is “man-made,” in that it requires specific types of intervention and treatment of the body that necessitates human action. In some parts of the world, elements of the climate, such as extreme cold or dry heat, act as a natural preservative, creating corpses that do not decompose and maintain their form for great lengths of time. These natural processes do not require human intervention and are not considered embalming.

Humans around the world and throughout history have developed scores of fascinating methods and materials for preserving dead bodies. Ancient Sicilians had a method that used heat; ancient Egyptians used evisceration and immersion in their special solution; arsenic and mercury were popular for a while, and, more currently in this country, arterial injection and cavity treatment became the norm.

Historical periodsEmbalming history is composed of a number of distinct periods. Our earliest knowledge of embalming is that which occurred in Egypt over 5,000 years ago. It continued, with variation in practices and materials over time and location, for almost 4,000 years, ending in about 650 ACE. Egyptian embalming was a religious practice, as preservation of the body was a necessary precursor to resurrection in the afterlife. As Christianity became more dominant in the area, the practice was suppressed as a pagan ritual, and Arab conquerors also rejected the practice of embalming. Still, Egyptian methods recorded by historians of the day would emerge many years later, influencing embalming in other parts of the world.

The second main epoch of embalming history is the period of the Renaissance in Europe, a period in which embalming techniques were primarily used to preserve the dead for purposes of dissection and study.

The third distinct period is modern history, from 1861, the start of the Civil War, to the present day. During the Civil War, embalming became more common (at least among Northern officers), initially required by public transportation services before they would take a corpse to its final resting place from the battlefield location. It became an invaluable means for maintaining corpses of prominent military officials, whose bodies might travel to a number of locations for memorial services. Additionally, embalming allowed viewing of the body without showing all the ravages of war. In this third, and current period, embalming is available to nearly everyone who requests it, where once it was only available to nobility or the wealthy.

Ancient EgyptWell over 5,000 years ago, Egyptians did not embalm their dead. Instead, they prepared the

dead by folding the arms and legs of the body and placing the body in the fetal position, wrapped in a simple cloth or fiber mat, and buried on its side in a shallow grave in the desert. The location was specific: west of the Nile River, in some cases with pottery or other items. Because the body was surrounded by hot, porous sand in an area with virtually no precipitation, the climate acted as a preservative, extracting all moisture from the body.

By about 5,000 years ago, Egypt had become a bustling hub with a growing population and increasing wealth. Those with titles and wealth wanted more than a simple burial. Because one’s body and certain organs in it (but not all), as well as specific possessions, would be required in the afterlife, it was problematic to just leave a body in the sand to dry, as it could easily be uncovered by winds and exposed or be robbed of the items buried with it. To ensure that they entered the afterlife with their body and possessions intact, the wealthier Egyptians requested deeper graves that could be sealed or lined with materials that would keep sand away from the body and grave robbers away from personal items, such as buried jewelry and even furniture that the upper class might want buried in their container.

Even with sealed containers, grave robbers of the day, knowing that valuable jewelry and personal objects were being buried with a body, would find ways to open the containers and steal the items, usually leaving the body in a position where it was no longer protected and no longer preserved. Once discovered, bodies might be decayed or even reduced to a skeleton, which was shocking to family members. Unaware of the process of decomposition, the Egyptians initially thought that burying loved ones in tightly built stone coffins would preserve them. When they found that the soft tissues would disappear even in a stone casket, they coined the term “sarcophagi,” which refers to a type of bronze or copper casket, but literally means “flesh eater.” In order to keep the body from decay in the warm Egyptian climate, they had to construct a method to preserve body tissues over time.

While we do not know exactly how it began, it is likely that methods common at the time for preserving meat, fowl or fish probably suggested a clue for early techniques. One might bleed a fish, for example, then preserve it by salting, smoking, sun drying or otherwise heating it to prevent decomposition and store it for a later time. By the time of the very earliest documentation of the process of embalming (in about 500 BCE), it had become a sophisticated technique that had been evolved over hundreds of years. Embalming methods varied by era as well as by individual embalmers. Additionally, a number of different services were usually available to the customer, ranging in price according to materials and time involved. In most historical accounts, there are three options provided family members of the deceased, distinctly defined as low to high quality.

To demonstrate each tier of service, the embalmers would show three wooden models of corpses that were distinct from one another

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by the way the body was incised (or if it was not incised), the number of steps involved, and the materials used. The most expensive (over $1,000, by current monetary standards) required incision and removal of internal organs, as well as the insertion of aromatic powders and perfumes, such as myrrh, frankincense and cinnamon, before the incision was sewn up. A less expensive method (less than $100) utilized an injection of cedar oil into the gut or anus, while the cheapest included little more than washing and salting the body for a lengthy period. In most cases, the desirable processing time was a period of 70 days.

Our knowledge of the process comes primarily from descriptions written about 500 BCE by the famous Greek historian, Herodotus. Nearly 500 years later, in 45 BCE, Siculus, another historian, would write about the process – still the three tiers of service, but materials and processes had changed slightly. Here are some of the characteristics that were common to both accounts.

Egyptian embalming procedureThe first step for the ancient Egyptian embalmer was the removal of the brain, typically with the use of a metal hook or spoon, inserted through the nostrils into the brain, or less commonly, through the eye socket. Some mummies did not have the brain removed.

Incision and evisceration was not always used, but became more common in later periods. The earliest incisions were made in the left side, from the ribs to the crest of the ilium, measured about 5 inches, and were usually made with a black flint knife blade. The angle of the incision shifted over time, then turned oblique, with the cut extending from the crest of the ilium toward the pubic bone. Very late in the tradition, bodies might be incised at the anus. In cases of evisceration, all the viscera except the kidneys and heart were removed and cleansed, then immersed in a container of palm wine and packed in natron.

Natron is a salt found in dry lake beds of the desert in that area that is composed of sodium carbonate decahydrate (a kind of soda ash) and baking soda, along with small quantities of household salt. Like other salts, it is highly corrosive. Egyptian embalmers found it necessary to tie fingers and toenails to each digit using a little metal wire or thimble, or the nail would disappear in this step of the process. The body was immersed in a high concentration of natron for 20 days. After that, it was rinsed with water and dried in the sun.

The next steps were spicing and wrapping the body. The body surface and cavity would be coated with resin (tree sap), or resin mixed with fat, and the skull was packed with bandages made of linen and soaked in resin, rolled up and placed in the cranium. Sometimes the skull was filled with resin that was heated and poured into the skull using a funnel.

The viscera removed from the body might be returned to the body or placed in four special jars, perhaps one to two feet in height and 4 inches across, and made of a variety of materials, from clay to alabaster. The top of each container depicted a face of one of the four children of Horus, the Egyptian god of the sky, who had the body of a

man and the head of a falcon. Each child resembled a different species, having the face of a human, jackal, hawk or ape, with each container dedicated to a specific body part: the jar with the human face contained the liver; the face of a jackal held the stomach, an ape held the lungs and the hawk, the intestines. The jars were typically housed in a wooden box near the body, while miniature copies of each of the four containers were placed within the body cavity. The cavity was then packed with straw, resin-soaked linen or moss.

If the actual organs were returned to the body cavity, they would be wrapped in material that also depicted the appropriate child of Horus. In the earliest days of embalming, the incision was not sewn closed, but the edges were pulled together, or attached to one another with wax or resin. Embalmers began to sew the incision closed as early as 1700 BCE. Looking at the stitches today, one is struck by how much they look like the familiar embalming stitches used in modern times. Finally, the incision would be covered by a plate made of metal or wax depicting the eye of the Egyptian god of the dead.

In the most expensive method, treatment would approximate this schedule:

■ Day 1 through16: Evisceration and washing of the body.

■ Day 16 through 36: Immersion in natron. ■ Day 36 through 68: Spicing and wrapping

with bandages. ■ Day 68 through 78: Body placed in a coffin.

Wrapping started rather simply and became a very complicated affair, with individuals specializing in the wrapping of toes, for example or another body part. Each finger and toe was wrapped individually, followed by wrapping of each of the limbs. The face would be covered with a bandage and the body with a simple cloth garment, then spiral bandaging would begin. The body would be padded in places or bandaged with extra material to maintain the body’s natural shape. Other items might also be bound between the bandages, including the name of the deceased or lotus flower petals.

The amount of bandages required was great, and people may have saved pieces of linen their whole lives to have sufficient wrapping for their mummification. Bandages might be over 3,000 feet in length and were imprinted with hieroglyphics identifying the person.

Ancient Egyptians did get what they paid for, in some cases, as the more expensive methods of embalming preserved the body better, but only about 10 percent of mummies were preserved this way. The majority of people were embalmed using cheaper methods, where the body was coated with natron or heated resin, for example, which preserved the body but tended to destroy facial features, fingers, toes and hair. Some of the success of Egyptian preservative methods could likely also be attributed to a hot, dry climate that discouraged bacterial growth.

Originally, Egyptian embalming was simply about preservation; keeping the body from decaying. Only if a body was properly embalmed and mummified would the individual be able to be part of the afterlife.

Given the prominence of death rituals and the fact that the quality of the embalming directly affected one’s chance in the afterlife, embalmers were treated with great honor and respect, often accompanying priests at the temple in the role of holy men. In fact, during embalming, the head embalmer would wear a costume depicting Anubis, the half-human, half-jackal god of funerary and embalming, who protects the dead for their journey to the afterlife.

In the last 1,000 years these methods were practiced, the external appearance of the wrapped body became increasingly important. Wrapping patterns became more and more elaborate, with plaster added to create a surface that could be easily decorated to depict the individuals’ life. A lifelike portrait of the individual was painted and placed over the mummy’s head, with great care taken to make the face as close to the way it was in life.

Wrapped mummies were placed in a “cartonnage,” a kind of envelope of about 25 sheets of linen or papyrus soaked in resin, plaster of Paris or gum acacia and placed over the body when still wet. This material would be pulled together and cinched in the back create a tight fit that dried to create a hard surface that would be covered with a thin layer of plaster that was painted with a human head or other images. The body within the cartonnage would also be surrounded by a number of wooden boxes made of cedar or sycamore. The position of the body in the coffin also changed with time. Initially, bodies were place in the coffin on their sides, with a pair of eyes painted on the outside of the coffin to signify the position of the body inside. The final external container for the mummy varied according to the fashion of the day. Early on, the outermost wooden case might be shaped like a house with a roof for a cover in one era. Later, it was more likely to be shaped like a human form (called mummiform).

Ancient Egyptian restorative artThe ancient Egyptians were already practicing a range of restorative techniques as early as 1200 BCE. To “round out” emaciated facial features, such as hollowed cheeks, the inside of the mouth might be packed with sawdust. Eyelids were stuffed using linen or eyes might be replaced with stone. Material was also packed into the body through incisions into areas like the back, which could not otherwise be easily reached. Later, the temples and cheeks would be filled with warm resin administered through a funnel into the ears, where it could be molded into the right position. Common padding materials included long pieces of linen, sand or mud, sawdust, and fat. Both the face and the body were contoured to approximate the individual’s original features and shape.

If the individual had a broken leg or other obvious disability or injury, it would also be tended to. Bed sores were packed with resin-soaked linen and covered with animal hide. Broken legs would be supported with a splint. A crooked spine might be straightened.

Important or wealthy people’s bodies might be painted with a thin layer of gold (gilded). The gold might cover the whole body, or, more

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commonly, portions of the body, such as the face, fingers, toenails and genitals. After this, the body would be covered with a sticky paste of fat mixed with resin, and bandaging would begin.

other ancient embalming traditionsWhile many ancient civilizations embalmed their dead, only a small number are mentioned here to touch upon the great diversity of methods and materials used.

Populations of the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley, including the Persians, Syrians and Babylonians, submerged recently deceased individuals of importance in a container of honey or wax to preserve the body, especially for a long journey. Alexander the Great was likely treated this way to preserve his body after his death in battle in 323 BCE.

The ancient Ethiopians eviscerated and dried their dead much like the Egyptians. They also practiced restorative art, applying layers of plaster to the skin to round out the body in natural contours. Then, the plaster was painted and covered with a thin clear coating. Its composition remains something of a mystery, but may be a type of liquefied amber.

Perhaps as early as 900 BCE, the Guanche lived in the Canary Islands, a small cluster of islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Fabled to be the descendents of Atlantis, the lost continent, the Guanche embalmed only the most important members of their society, using a flint knife to cut the lower abdomen and take out the intestines, which were cleansed and returned to the body along with salt and herbs, which also covered the cavity. The body would be covered with fat, resin powder and pumice, and dried in the sun or placed by a heat source, with arms positioned according to the body’s gender; men’s arms down at the sides, and women’s across the stomach. Guanche embalmers were also gender-specific – only male practitioners could attend to men’s corpses, and female practitioners to women’s corpses.

In some cases, the body was dried in the same manner described above, but, additionally, a corrosive substance, likely the juice of a local plant, was inserted into the wall of the abdomen or poured down the throat, producing a special type of mummy called “xaxos,” the knowledge of which may have originally come from Egypt. These mummies were distinct from others as the flesh of their bodies appeared perfectly preserved – wrinkled and a deep tan color, but forming a hard, dry, unmovable surface. Xaxos bodies show no sign of decay, very minimal shrinkage in body size, and are incredibly light. A body measuring about 5½ feet in length might weigh only 7 or 8 pounds.

Guanche embalmers were responsible for watching the body and protecting it from vultures during the drying period of a little over two weeks. After the drying was complete, the family would take the body with them and sew it a cover made from animal skin. Nobility were placed in hollowed out juniper logs, which served as coffins, and which were housed in special caves. Unlike Egypt, where embalmers had enjoyed high status, Guanche embalmers were paid well but suffered the taint of personal pollution by the nature of their

work. Their touch was considered contaminating, and they lived far from the rest of the community.

Some indigenous North American populations (Native Americans) who preserved the corpses of their leaders after death used a singular process in which the skin was removed all in one piece. The procedure began with an incision in the back, followed by removal of the flesh from the bones, leaving the skeleton intact, with the sinews still connected to the bones. All the flesh was removed from the bones, and dried thoroughly in the sun. The bones and skin were also dried in the sun, but the skin was painted with fat first to reduce shrinkage. After drying in the sun, the skin was placed on a mat and housed in a special building on a high shelf where it remained clean and undisturbed until the funeral. At that time, the bones were replaced in the skin and a powdery white sand was used to fill in the natural contours of the body. Once the skin was sewn up, the body was said to look much as it did in life, according to witnesses. The flesh that had been taken off the body and dried was sewn into a basket and placed at the feet of the corpse.

More than 100 years ago, the people of the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak Archipelago preserved their dead by removing the internal organs though an incision in the pelvic area, with the resulting cavity filled with dry grass. The body was placed in a cold stream where the icy water stripped the body of fatty tissues. The corpse would be manipulated into the fetal position, with the knees immediately under the chin, and the arms wrapped about the legs. In some cases, bones had to be broken to achieve this posture. Once formed into this shape, the body was dried in the sun and wrapped in animal skins.

Embalming during the RenaissanceDuring the Dark Ages (also called the Middle Ages), a historical period lasting from about the 5th to the 15th Century ACE, the law had typically prohibited medical schools from acquiring corpses for anatomical study and dissection. What was little known at the time is that cases of embalming, while few in number, did occur. Most of the people preserved were royalty or held another elite status, such as members of the clergy. The information was kept secret, not known by the typical European nor publicized in any way. The methods used were very similar to the ancient Egyptian methods (and were likely taken from ancient descriptions in historical documents), except that the process was speeded up considerably. It was generally done to preserve the body for burial purposes, and was typically performed where the death occurred. A pope, bishop, countess, and princess were among the elite group of individuals embalmed during the Dark Ages, but this was not generally known until the 1500s.

Within this period, from 1095 to 1291 ACE, the Christian nations of Europe launched a bloody campaign, known as the Crusades, in an attempt to capture the Holy Land, initiating a series of military campaigns against Moslems and many other religious and cultural groups. It was a time when many, many members of nobility and military leaders died in battle, far from their homes. As preservative methods were unknown to the vast

majority of people, bodies of importance would be disemboweled, and the flesh cut off. Bones were boiled until soft tissues came off the bones, and the bones would be dried and wrapped in animal hide, to be returned to their home nation by couriers.

The Renaissance, the historical period that emerged from the Dark Ages, marked a period of increasing freedom in the study of anatomy and medicine, historically indicated when Frederick II, a Sicilian king in the early 1300s, granted authority for dissections to be carried out and even delivered a number of executed criminals to a medical school in Bologna, Italy, for the procedure. In those days, dissection had to be a speedy process, typically performed outdoors in the cold in front of a large group of anatomy students or other spectators. The supply of bodies for study, however, never matched demand, and medical students, along with many other culprits, were known to steal bodies from cemeteries or the gallows and work with them for the short time before they were too decayed to be useful.

In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII issued an order that prohibited corpses being cut into pieces for transport or burial, warning that those who broke the rule would be excommunicated. Now, those killed in battle needed to find a new way home, at the same time that anatomy students needed a preservative that would allow a more careful and lengthy examination of a body without the worry of decomposition.

It was clear that some form of drying the body would be necessary, and there had already been some experimentation exposing cadavers to the heat of the sun and ovens. It was also discovered that warm air pushed through the blood vessels would clean them out and dry the tissue surrounding them. Additionally, practitioners had been experimenting with the injection of different substances into the body, which was facilitated by the invention of better injection tools. Anatomy students learned to inject substances into body cavities to make blood vessels more visible for study, and in the early 1300s, in Italy, a colored solution that hardened in the body was developed. Others experimented with injecting warm water, ink, mercury and wax.

The first instruments used for injection included a bladder, which held the solution, attached to a cannula made from a straw, the quill of a feather, and later, a glass tube. The tubelike section would be inserted in a body opening, and the liquid would be pressed out of the bladder and into the body. Tools approximating a modern hypodermic syringe were manufactured as early as the 1500s. By the end of the century, the first continuous-flow syringe was developed.

Early European embalmers and embalming methodsAmbroise Pare, who lived in the 1500s and was the Royal Military surgeon for two French kings, was best known for devising a method of embalming that become the most commonly used of the era. Like most surgeons of the day, he was responsible for embalming the bodies of military men killed in battle or by natural causes, but he

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was also well known for developing a technique for controlling bleeding after amputations and his ability to design far better artificial limbs than had previously existed.

The embalmer treating soldiers killed in battle would first remove the heart, which would be embalmed separately, then presented to the relatives, as was the custom of the day. The skull was cut with a saw and the brain removed, and deep incisions were made along the limbs and back and buttocks, where the larger veins and arteries are located, to empty the blood, which was further pressed out. The body was washed with a sponge soaked in aqua vita and vinegar boiled with wormwood, salt and other ingredients. All the incised areas would be filled with an aromatic, powdery mixture of spices and herbs including chamomile, balsam, menthol, lavender, marjoram, thyme, absinthe, myrrh and sandalwood. The incisions would be sewn closed, and the entire body would be covered with turpentine and rose and chamomile oil, then layered again with the aromatic powder. The body would be wrapped in linen, and placed in a lead coffin, filled with dry sweet herbs. If the herbs were not available, a powder of lime and ashes of oak wood could also be used. It was said this procedure would preserve a body for as long as was necessary.

In the 1600s, two Dutch practitioners developed the method of arterial injection to introduce a preservative substance into the vascular system. Jan Swammerdam was trained in medicine but dedicated his career to the examination of insects and small animals. He experimented widely with different substances, finally finding that a mixture of alcohols, turpentine and wax created an effective preservative.

Swammerdam’s technique was applied to humans by Frederick Ruysch, who used it to preserve entire bodies or parts of bodies, typically for use as teaching aids, but also, in some cases, to restore high status individual’s bodies for funeral purposes. His skills were required, for example, when a famous British admiral was killed at sea near Holland and not recovered from the water immediately. There was much concern that his badly decomposed body could not be preserved for travel or restored to a presentable appearance for the viewing at the funeral, but Ruysch was said to have done a masterful job restoring the body to a natural appearance and color. His refinement of Swammerdam’s techniques remains something of a mystery, and it is suspected that he may have used some amount of arsenic in his formula.

Stephen Blanchard, also Dutch, published a book about dissection, extolling on this new method of preservation called “embalming” in a 1688 text that mentions the use of spirits of wine and turpentine as preservatives, with diagrams of the necessary instruments for introducing the liquid into the body. His first step in one of the descriptions requires that the intestinal tract be flushed with water forced into the mouth and out through the anus, followed by spirits of wine, which are blocked from flowing out the rectum and maintained in the body. Large veins and arteries were also opened and blood was flushed out with water, then also injected with spirits of wine. This the first written account of a technique

that includes the injection of the blood vessels for embalming purposes.

Secret formulas for embalming fluids were not uncommon. A successful Flemish embalmer named Ludwig De Bils was particularly secretive and concerned about his competitors stealing his formula. Unbeknownst to him, one of these competitors, a German physician named Gabriel Clauderus, visited De Bils’ anatomical museum and touched one of the preserved bodies with a moistened finger. Later, he tasted it, and found it had a salty flavor, suggesting a large portion of the formula might be salt. De Bils never did disclose his methods, and Clauderus went on to publish a method of embalming that did not require evisceration but used a mixture of “ashes of tartar” and “sal ammoniac” dissolved in water, a potion he called “balsamic spirit.” He would inject the fluid into all the body cavities and immerse the cadaver for a period of up to two months, then finish treatment by drying the body in the sun or other heating source.

The British islesThe British Isles developed different techniques than those most popular in the Netherlands. The Company of Barber-Surgeons, the medical association of the day, was given the sole authority to embalm and perform anatomical dissection in England, but others also engaged in the practice.

William Hunter was born in Scotland but found success as an obstetrician in London, where he was appointed physician-extraordinary to Queen Charlotte of England in the mid-1700s. His most critical advice for students was to begin the embalming process within eight hours of death in the summer and 24 hours in the winter. He taught the following embalming method for purposes of funeral viewing and anatomical study:

The first step was injection of the femoral artery with a combination of “oil of turpentine,” “Venice turpentine,” chamomile and lavender oil, and vermilion dye, used until the skin took on a rosy appearance. The body would remain untouched for a few hours, after which the thoracic and abdominal cavities were opened, the viscera removed, and the liquid pressed out of them. The viscera itself would be injected and immersed in camphorated spirits of wine, then returned to the body along with a powder made of camphor, resin and niter. This powder would also be inserted into the eyes, ears, nose and other cavities. The skin of the entire body was rubbed with rosemary and lavender oil and the body was placed on a bed of plaster. Bodies used for anatomical study would be placed in a box for a period of about four years and checked for decomposition. If some was noted, the body was placed on a bed of gypsum.

Both Hunter’s brother and nephew were also prominent embalmers. The nephew, Matthew Baillie, modified the methods used by his uncles to provide comparable preservation in a shorter period of treatment. He used the same solution, similarly injected into the femoral artery, then left undisturbed a few hours. At that point, however, he made a small incision in the bowel and

introduced water through a small tube to wash out the contents of the bowels. He also ligated the rectum and small bowel and filled the intestinal tract with camphorated spirits of wine. The lungs were also filled by way of the trachea. The bladder was emptied and refilled with a powder of camphor, resin and niter, and it was layered on the viscera before closing the incision. The eyeballs were pierced and emptied, then packed with the powder mixture, along with the mouth and ears, then the skin rubbed down as above.

In the mid-1800s, John Morgan, a professor of anatomy at the University of Dublin in Ireland, formally established two principles for producing the best embalming results: injection of the solution into the largest artery possible and use of pressure to push the solution through the blood vessels. He also was among the first to make use of a pre-injection solution as well as a controlled drainage technique. Morgan’s method required that the body be opened so the heart was visible, then an 8-inch pipe was inserted into the left ventricle or aorta. The pipe was connected to yards of tubing ending in a fluid container hung above the corpse. The force of gravity acting on the liquid above the body would exert about 5 pounds of pressure, adequate to the purpose of permeating the body.

By the later 1800s, a number of embalming methods were becoming more common in other parts of Europe. In Italy, the practitioner Tranchina, from Naples, used and promoted solutions using arsenic, which he injected into the arteries for funeral viewing and anatomical study. He typically used 1 pound of arsenic mixed with 5 pounds of an alcoholic wine, some of which would be injected into the femoral artery without any previous removal of blood. In some cases, he injected the fluid into the right common carotid artery so that the solution would permeate the head as well as the body. The lungs were filled by way of the trachea. He would also incise the abdomen to empty the bowel and moisten the area with the preservative solution. According to records, the body would be completely dried in six weeks.

Gerolamo Segato of Florence, Italy, was said to have turned a human body to stone by introducing silicate of potash into the body tissues, followed by immersion of the body in a weak acid solution. The specific details are unknown, but the story appears to have a factual base.

Jean Nicolas Gannal, who began his career as a pharmacist’s assistant, became a highly revered inventor and expert in the field of chemistry. In 1831, it was requested that he find an effective way to preserve bodies for anatomical study. After much experimentation, he found a formula of 6 quarts of a solution of aluminum acetate, administered through the carotid artery, preserved the body without the need to drain blood or eviscerate. In some cases, the bodies would be immersed in this solution until they could be dissected. When used for funeral presentation purposes, the process was the same, except that Gannal would add a small amount of arsenic and carmine to the original solution, about 2 gallons of which would be injected upward, then downward, in the carotid artery. A number that

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were disinterred over a year later were said to be in exactly the same state as on the day of burial.

Gannal worked on a number of famous cases for the Paris police, preserving murder victims so that some information about the death or the murderer might be discovered. He was also associated, indirectly, with the passage of the first law prohibiting arsenic in preservative materials, which occurred in 1846 when his use of arsenic become a complicating factor in a high-profile murder case in which arsenic was thought to be the poisoning agent. Additionally the medical community was concerned about the potential risk of poisoning to people handling the body.

In the mid-1800s, J.P. Sucquet advocated the use of zinc chloride as a preservative, using about 5 quarts of a 20 percent solution in water, which he introduced into the body through the popliteal artery and the abdomen. Rights to this very successful method, proven to keep a buried body in excellent condition for at least two years, were sold to two Americans, Charles D. Brown and Joseph Alexander.

Richard Harlan, an American medical doctor who met Gannal, and was presented with his book, “History of Embalming,” was so taken with it that he requested permission to publish the book in English in the United States. Embalming practices traveled relatively quickly from Europe and the United Kingdom to the United States, in part due to the publishing of Gannal’s book in Philadelphia in 1840, and in another part due to the fact that Sucquet’s embalming methods and materials had been purchased as a business venture by two savvy doctors from New York – Brown and Alexander. Most significantly, however, the history of embalming in the United States was changed by the onset of the Civil War, in the year 1881, which increased the demand for an effective way to preserve bodies for funeral purposes.

Early American embalmers and embalming methodsAt this time, in the U.S., there was almost no embalming of the dead for funeral purposes. Preservation of the body typically meant the use of ice, which required cold weather. At the beginning of the Civil War, no plans were provided for returning the fallen to their homes. In previous battles against the Native Americans and during the Mexican-American War (1846-48), the military dead were buried where they fell in battle. In the early days of the war, family members were able to claim the deceased by themselves by going to the hospital or battlefield and bringing the body home for burial. When battles were far from the troops’ homes, the process of returning the body to the family became far more difficult. In some cases, the remains would be returned to family members if they had formerly requested it and could arrange the transportation of the remains back to the troop’s home state, but this was often a very difficult thing to accomplish.

At the same time, there was great concern about the dangers of contact with dead bodies and fear of contamination. People who worked with

decomposing bodies in cemeteries and churches became ill, but no one understood the mechanism by which this occurred. Embalming, it was thought, would make handling corpses a much safer venture. Concerned with these issues, President Lincoln directed the troops to use embalming to allow the return of the Union dead to their homes. As it never became a policy in the South, virtually all those embalmed during the Civil War were Northerners.

Initially, the process for embalming called for arterial embalming when possible, usually injecting the femoral or carotid, without drainage or any cavity treatment. If the nature of the wounds or degree of decomposition made arterial embalming impossible, the trunk would be eviscerated (if necessary) and refilled with sawdust or powdered charcoal or lime. Then the body would be placed in a coffin entirely filled with sawdust for transport home.

Embalmers of the time utilized a variety of methods and solutions and manufactured all their own chemicals, including arsenic, zinc chloride, bichloride of mercury, aluminum salt, sugar of lead, and a variety of salts, alkalis and acids. To make zinc chloride, practitioners would immerse sheets of zinc in hydrochloric acid until the necessary solution was achieved.

Dr. Thomas Holmes, born and educated in New York, became one of the most well known names in the field through his experience in the war. As a coroner’s physician in the 1850s, he had experimented with a variety of different chemicals and embalming techniques. He developed a very effective solution (which he later marketed as “Innominata”), that he used to embalm the first prominent military figure killed in the war (in 1861), a young colonel named Elmer Ellsworth. Funeral services were held in three different cities, requiring that the body travel a lengthy distance before burial in a fourth city. His appearance was discussed favorably in the press, providing a good introduction of embalming to a previously uninformed public.

This series of viewings of the body became something of a tradition, and was repeated with other war heroes, culminated with slain President Abraham Lincoln. Holmes also embalmed the next colonel who died in the war. His body also toured the country to be viewed with great publicity before the funeral. By 1864, all deceased patients at the Washington, D.C., Military Hospital, Holmes’ headquarters, were routinely embalmed and the grave marked so that the body could be disinterred and sent to the family, if desired.

In all, it is estimated that Holmes prepared more than 4,000 bodies during the war.

After the war, Holmes turned to business, selling “Innominata,” his embalming solution, to interested undertakers. While he found that undertakers were intrigued by the preservative qualities of his product, they did not have the surgical skills required for common embalming techniques. Holmes, followed by others in the field, found that they could sell more of their product by emphasizing its disinfection qualities, the fact that it could be used for external applications, such as washing the body

and face, and could also be easily poured into the mouth and nose to permeate the lungs and stomach. Holmes also patented many embalming-related inventions, such as a canvas corpse removal bag that was coated in rubber, and an innovative injection method that improved on the hypodermic syringes currently available that needed constant refilling. In some cases, a pump that provided continuous flow would be used, but it was rare during this time.

Dr. Richard Burr became famous as the embalmer photographed by Matthew Brady in front of an embalming tent near the battlefield. Despite this claim to fame, Burr had not been happy with Brady’s presence, even accusing him of accidentally setting fire to the embalming tent. Unfortunately, Burr, along with a number of other embalmers employed by the military, also gained a reputation for poor service and inflated costs, according to many complaints. In response, Gen. U.S. Grant ordered that all embalmers be excluded from military areas until he had come up with a reasonable set of rules and regulations, which became the first step toward the licensing of embalmers and undertakers.

A U.S. Army General order stated that only those with special licensing by the army would be able to remove bodies from the field or embalm. Those who wanted to work as embalmers for the military had to post a performance bond and had to furnish a list of prices for materials and labor to the appropriate military officials. Applicants for license were also required to describe the process and materials used as well as the length of time the preservative would be effective, and documentation or evidence to support their claims.

In some places, specific prices were dictated. For example, in Tennessee and Alabama, the following fees applied:

“Embalmers must post a bond of $1000 guaranteeing skillful performance of work. Disinterment (only between the middle of October and the middle of May) for a price of $15. Furnish metal burial cases, marked and dropped off for express service for a price of $75. Zinc coffins an additional $40.”

The following men are a small number of the many innovators who contributed to the evolution of embalming around this time:

■ Daniel Prunk went to college and medical school in Ohio, practiced medicine for a number of years, then signed up for service as an assistant surgeon for the Volunteer Infantry in 1861. Licensed by the army in 1865 to practice embalming and undertaking, he set up locations in Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama. Prunk’s embalming formula used zinc chloride, to which he added arsenious acid, which was injected warm with no dilution or blood drainage. Prunk wrote one of the earliest descriptions of cavity treatment that advised puncturing the stomach to allow gases to escape, especially important, he noted, when shipping a corpse a long distance. He also recommended that an individual with a large abdomen and discolored bowel have

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fluid introduced into the peritoneal cavity, and described an ingenious method of using a silk string like a drawstring to close the cavity once injection was complete.

■ Benjamin Lyford was an embalmer during the Civil War who patented a complicated embalming system in 1871 that required that the body be enclosed in a sealed container that would be emptied of air by a pump. He was one of the first embalmers to recommend that cosmetics be used to normalize the facial features.

■ G.W. Scollay patented a method of embalming just after the Civil War that involved the use of gaseous compounds injected through the vascular system, and was one of the earliest proponents for a gaseous rather than liquid preservative.

The early professionThe Civil War and assassination of President Lincoln had familiarized the general public with the concept and appearance of an embalmed body, but embalming was still comparatively rare. The profession was poorly organized, had no formal schools or training programs, with little uniformity in embalming techniques. Patents for chemical embalming fluids showed that many used mercury and arsenic.

Most companies employed traveling salesmen who also demonstrated the products they were selling. The man who sold you preservative fluids would also instruct you in the technique of arterial embalming. They might sell other items also. Here is a list of prices for embalming tools and materials from 1877:

■ Rubber gloves – $2 pair. ■ Anatomical syringes with three cannulas in a

case – $22. ■ Surgical instruments in cases – $5. ■ Wax eyecaps and mouth closers – $1 each. ■ Embalming fluid – $5 for 12 pint bottles

(might also be available in 10-gallon kegs at $3 per gallon).

noted embalmers and publications Until the early 20th century (the 1900s), embalming usually occurred in the deceased’s home, or perhaps at the hospital. But as early as the 1870s, two professional journals, The Sunnyside, established in 1871, and The Casket in 1876, highlighted funeral homes that had morgues with appropriate facilities for embalming, including running water and cooling rooms. These magazines, which also presented advertisements for embalming products and tools as well as articles of interest to those in the funerary business, depicted the funeral home of the future as one that would meet a range of needs, a place for preparation of the body, viewing, services and burial.

RenouardDr. August Renouard, a regular contributor to The Casket and eventually renown as an embalming expert, was originally a bookkeeper for a furniture store and undertaking establishment in Colorado. Renouard was responsible for the transportation of bodies back east and south for

burial and soon saw the need for an effective way to preserve bodies. He requested permission of his employer to arterial embalm the bodies before shipment, and his work received instant acclaim from the undertakers around the country receiving the bodies, which, it was said, appeared to be sleeping. Renouard was not shy about marketing his chemical formulas and methods, and it was not long before undertakers around the country were happily purchasing his products.

Renouard developed a popular correspondence course and provided personal instruction in embalming, but no instructional textbook of undertaking and embalming was yet widely available in the U.S. Because of his expertise and public acclaim, the management of The Casket asked him to write a book that could be used as a practical guide. “The Undertakers Manual,” published in 1878, was a detailed 230-page compendium of anatomy, chemistry and embalming information, with instructions on practice and descriptions of available instruments and equipment.

In 1880, Michigan became the first state to form an undertakers association. In 1881, it changed its name to the Funeral Directors Association, and other states followed, organizing similarly under the same name. In 1882, representatives from all the state associations met in Rochester, N.Y., and formally founded the National Funeral Directors Association, a significant step in the professional growth of the field. Renouard himself provided demonstrations of embalming at the first national convention, which set the precedent for embalming demonstrations at state and national meetings afterward.

In 1894, Dr. Renouard moved to New York City and founded the U.S. College of Embalming. The school was unusual in that each student would remain enrolled until he was able to embalm with what were considered sufficiently professional skills. Renouard’s son, also an embalming instructor, worked at the training school for many years.

Renouard’s special embalming fluid, it was advertised, would not harden the body, but would make it firm and preserve features in a lifelike manner, providing a natural color to the face. Further, it was noted, the solution was not affected by freezing, would not injure the hands, was a powerful antiseptic and disinfectant, and contained no arsenic, mercury, zinc or formaldehyde.

Clark and sullivanJoseph Henry Clark, born in Indiana in 1840, was initially employed as a casket salesman who began to sell embalming fluids as a sideline. He found sales were greatly facilitated by a demonstration of embalming methods, as it helped end-users understand how to properly utilize the materials to get the desired effects. He enrolled in an anatomy course in Cincinnati to begin learning the necessary information, working closely with a Dr. C.M. Lukens, and eventually founded the Clarke School of Embalming at Cincinnati in 1882. Initially, the

school was more like a traveling show, as Clarke traveled most of the year, providing instruction around the country. In 1899, the school’s name was changed to the Cincinnati College of Embalming, and Clarke became a permanent lecturer at that location. He was considered an excellent instructor and writer, and held a number of patents associated with embalming.

Felix Sullivan, born in Canada, was the son of an undertaker who came to the United States to enlist in the New York Calvary during the Civil War. Deserting service near the end of the war, Sullivan worked for a number of casket companies in New York, eventually becoming a funeral director and studying anatomy, then a skilled embalmer. Sullivan saw how successful Clarke’s course had become, and enrolled in it in 1882, then proceeded to create his own course of instruction patterned after it, which also sold successfully. He became Clarke’s greatest rival.

Sullivan was never in one place of employment long and was known to have a volatile temper, but became famous as an expert embalmer in a number of famous and difficult cases. A “mad bombing” in Chicago that took a number of lives required Sullivan to restore members of the police and one of the bombers, who had had a dynamite cap explode in his mouth. The other bombers were hung, and all the dead were prepared by Sullivan, who was highly praised for their natural appearance. Sullivan lectured and demonstrated embalming before large classes in many cities, but was censored for a period after he was found in a compromising situation with a woman who was not his wife, and was charged with wife and child desertion. After treatment for alcoholism, he returned to a successful career.

Clark and Sullivan disliked each other intensely, at one point becoming enmeshed in a heated conflict regarding Ulysses S. Grant’s embalming. Clarke had been contacted to handle the embalming by the undertaking company arranging the funeral, but was ill on the day of the death and bedridden for a number of weeks. Another member of the undertaking company completed the embalming instead, using Clarke’s proprietary embalming chemical. After the body was embalmed, Gen. Grant’s clergyman and Felix Sullivan arrived and insisted the body be re-embalmed. Sullivan claimed to pull out all the fluid previously injected and replace it with the fluid made by the company he represented. Sullivan was also called in to re-embalm President Garfield after the first procedure was considered inadequate.

The dodge familyTwo brothers, George and A. J. Dodge, originally in other businesses, found themselves the owners of the Egyptian Embalming Chemical Co., in repayment of a debt owed them. They took to the new venture with interest, studying anatomy and chemistry, then deciding to go to Boston to learn embalming. Both became practitioners, with A.J. becoming particularly well known as an embalmer, teacher and author of embalming texts.

In 1839, both brothers resigned from the Egyptian Chemical Co. and purchased the Oriental School for

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Embalming, a traveling school with headquarters in Boston. Two years later, the Oriental school was renamed the Massachusetts College of Embalming. A.J. eventually left that institution to found the New England Institute of Anatomy, Sanitary Science, and Embalming, a nonprofit educational institution.

A.J.’s previous training in chemistry made him aware of the importance of research, and he was always thinking of ways to improve existing products and techniques. In 1921, his company began publishing an industry journal called The Dodge Magazine. Dodge seminars soon became important parts of many funeral director and embalmers’ educations, and introduced the idea of a full-service funeral home. A.J. Dodge’s son, Walter, opened the Dodge Chemical Co. in Detroit at the same time his father was opening one in Boston. A younger son joined as a salesman, and the company expanded, branching into all parts of the U. S. as well as Canada. By 1982, it existed in Mexico, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.

other noted embalmersThe early 1900s saw the first significant move toward creating systematic treatments for unsightly injuries or disease. Around this time, a New York embalmer named Joel E. Crandall developed a restorative art technique specific to head trauma that was adopted into some embalming program curricula. He will be discussed further in the section, “Restorative Art,” below.

Carl Lewis Barnes was born in Pennsylvania to an undertaking family. He manufactured embalming chemicals, studied medicine and eventually opened an embalming school, but is probably best known for his invention of a number of embalming tools, including the “handless injector” system. This contraption consisted of a collapsible rubber fluid bag, hung in such a way that gravity would force fluid into the artery or vein, and pressure could be increased further by pressing the bag. He also developed the “Kant Slip Arm Plate,” a tube holder and shut-off device in one, which strapped to the arm below the point of incision to hold the arterial nozzle and rubber tubing in place.

While women were much less likely to be employed outside the home in this era, embalming was not an uncommon profession for women, with a number reaching great prominence in the field. The Bernard School of Embalming in New Jersey was founded by Mrs. E.G. Bernard; Linda D. Odou founded the Odou Embalming Institute in New York City; and Lena R. Simmons founded the Simmons School of Embalming in Syracuse, N.Y.

Modern inventions Since the development of arterial injection of the blood vessel in late 17th century, little else has proven more effective to prepare the body. There have, however, been experiments with a great variety of methods and materials. In one “shocking” method, electric current was applied to a corpse in attempts to mimic the effect of lighting. It was not a success as a corpse apparently does not effectively conduct an electrical current and therefore cannot produce

the contraction of small muscles that might restore normal color to discolored areas or prevent further blood coagulation, as was hoped.

A machine that vibrated the body to facilitate the removal of blood was a sensation for a short time, but sometimes had the disadvantage of moving the body from one end of the table to the other, or shaking instruments so violently that they could not be useful.

Early in the days of modern embalming, with the advent of arterial injection, there was some concern about the trunk viscera. Should it be removed and preserved separately, then replaced? This typically required immersion of the organs in a preservative powder or liquid, and additional powder or liquid placed in the cavity after replacement of the organs. The alternative method was to keep the trunk intact and treat it with the same preservative solution, introduced directly into the trunk cavity as well as through immersion of the body in the solution.

In the mid-1870s, the invention of the trocar by Samuel Rodgers helped to usher in a new system for treatment of the cavities. The trocar was patented in two forms, with the latter issued specifically for a system of embalming that included the introduction of the trocar into the naval so that a preservative could be distributed to all the organs of the trunk simultaneously. Rodgers also suggested the cavity treatment be followed by injections into the limbs, also using the trocar. The trocar’s ease of use made it appealing to those who felt uncomfortable performing arterial embalming, which required more anatomical knowledge and dexterity. For a brief time, there was some conflict between the “bellow punchers” who treated the cavity with the trocar, and “throat cutters” who chose to embalm arterially. Unfortunately, both systems might fail singly, but would successfully work together, so, eventually, the two systems were combined, with initial arterial injection followed by treatment of the cavity.

As more embalming was performed in the funeral home, more professional devices became widely available. The vast majority of embalming pumps or injectors in the late 1800s utilized gravity. One popular device was the gravity bowl, which utilized a container hung above the body and connected to the arterial tube with rubber tubing, with the height of the bowl determining the amount of pressure exerted. Unlike the hand pump, which required constant manual pumping, the gravity bowl could be continuously filled, and therefore did not require the constant attention of the embalmer or an assistant. By the mid-1930s, electric-powered injection machines were popular, with the fluid often gravity-fed to the pump. These machines were increasingly substantial, often made of metal and culminating in the “Porti Boy,” in 1939, the most popular injection machine in history, only to be surpassed in the 1960s by extreme high-pressure injection machines, such as the Sawyer.

New embalming equipment, such as a battery-powered electric pump that injected embalming chemicals, a jaw closer, and a plastic screw-like device called a trocar button were invented in the first few decades of the 1900s. The trocar

button successfully provided a waterproof seal for trocar punctures or more exotic wounds, such as bullet holes.

As embalming in funeral homes become more common, more were designed with a reliable water source that could be used to create the necessary suction for aspiration. In many cases, a trocar was connected to rubber tubing that was attached to a sink faucet. In the 1950s, these methods were abandoned in favor of electric aspirators that provided more reliable suction and pressure than water, which might lose pressure in periods of high water use.

The pros and cons of formalinThe use of highly poisonous chemicals with attractive characteristics has long been debated in the field of embalming, with many choosing to expose themselves to an unknown degree of risk. At the end of the 1890s, embalming fluid advertisements were introducing the ingredient formalin, a saturated solution of formaldehyde combined with other ingredients. While not wholeheartedly welcomed, it became the standard, while other preservatives with appealing but dangerous qualities, like mercury and arsenic, were prohibited.

Certainly, formalin formulas had drawbacks: Formalin-based fluids, embalmers soon learned, required special handling and use to provide the desired results. For example, blood had to be removed and washed out of the body before injection of the preservative. Also, they found, it was critical that the body be properly positioned before the injection, as hardening made it very difficult to model the hands or limbs into a natural position. In cases of jaundice, formalin might react with bile to produce green skin.

The primary criticism of formalin fluids, however, was the concern associated with inhalation of formaldehyde fumes, which commonly caused mucosal irritation, or formaldehyde absorption though the skin, which was known to cause skin irritation. Other potential risks were relatively unknown at the time, but it was assumed that environmental management of the workplace (better ventilation, use of gloves, masks, and so on) could reduce known risks to a reasonable level.

As embalming moved from the bedroom to the funeral home, there were better ventilation systems and more refined formaldehyde solutions to address some of these early problems. Increasingly, specific formulas of preservative were developed for specific uses. In the 1980s, a number of national organizations developed regulatory guidelines for the embalming industry. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) adopted rules regarding embalming procedures, and OSHA provided regulatory guidelines outlining necessary protection for funeral home personnel. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also regulated the industry, issuing rules concerning the use of formaldehyde by embalmers. Because of the potential risk of formaldehyde to the safety of those who work with it, there is a long history of

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investigation into other materials or methods that preserve as well. While a number of companies claim to have found alternatives to formaldehyde that are equally effective, none appear to have taken its place.

A recent study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Society reviews new data regarding formaldehyde exposure and is currently prompting all the regulatory agencies listed above to review and revise their guidelines for formaldehyde exposure in the workplace (see Part II: Is Embalming Dangerous?).

A formal curriculumAs funeral services became more encompassing and funeral homes more common, commercial companies developed to meet the new needs of embalmers and funeral directors. The research in this subject area was typically referred to as “mortuary science,” with the discipline developing to such a degree that by the end of the 1800s, trade journals with technical and marketing information were surprisingly widespread. Chemical companies employed lecturers and demonstrators as salesman, and, throughout the 1800s, many undertakers who wanted to learn to embalm did so by taking a period of a few days to attend sessions of traveling schools, sponsored by these embalming chemical companies. These courses typically covered only the most basic skills, given the short amount of time. Many undertakers also turned to home-study courses.

After the Civil War, training often occurred in funeral homes through a type of assistantship or apprenticeship. Each funeral home might experiment with its own materials, tools and techniques, passing down what worked in a system of trial and error, with many unique systems. To ensure safety in the profession as well as satisfaction for the bereaved, standardization in materials and techniques became a priority. By the early 1900s, schools of mortuary science were just beginning to develop a common standard for coursework and examination. It was also about this time that the first dedicated embalming schools opened.

In 1927, the first mortuary school accreditation was created by the Conference of Funeral Service Examining Boards, a collection of the existing state licensing boards. The National Council on Mortuary Education was established in 1942 by the National Funeral Directors Association and the National Association of Embalming Schools and Colleges. Basic course content for anatomy and embalming and the mortician’s oath were initially drafted in 1948. The development of standard curricula was complicated by the fact that each individual, trained in a different manner, might complete a task in a different fashion with different tools and materials. Review is ongoing to assure to the greatest extent possible that only the safest, most effective products and methods are used. The American Board of Funeral Service Education continues to review and amend the required course content.

Modern restorative art Modern restorative techniques (renamed “restorative art,” in the 1930s) became an important sub-discipline

of aftercare services in the early 1900s, filling a critical need in cases where the body exhibits obvious signs of trauma or disease, or battle wounds from war. Modern restorative art plays a role in comforting the bereaved by presenting family members with a loved one who appears as familiar in death as in life.

In 1912, the subject gained a name and a formal progenitor in an issue of the New York Sunnyside, a popular trade journal of the day. Joel E. Crandall, a well-known embalmer, introduced “demisurgery,” which he described as “the art of building or creating parts of the body which have been destroyed by accident, disease, decomposition or discoloration, and making the body perfectly natural and lifelike.”

Increasingly, the science of demisurgery became a necessary part of the funeral professional’s toolkit. Five years after Crandall introduced the service in the Sunnyside, another professional journal, The Casket, noted the necessity of making bodies “presentable” as an integral part of the responsibilities of the embalmer and referred to Joel Crandall as the only person competent to teach the necessary techniques.

Initially, Crandall was simply a traditional embalmer, albeit a highly skilled one. In his early 30s, he began to record his experimental methods in repairing mutilated bodies, techniques he had refined over the past decade. Initially, he had used materials common to funeral sciences at the time, such as plaster of Paris, but found it inadequate for his needs. While it could be used to fill deep underlying areas close to bone, it could not be used as he wanted, to fill in damaged or missing skin. Instead, Crandall learned to create waxy putties and concealing cosmetic preparations to mimic the look of intact healthy skin.

His early work focused on bodies mutilated so beyond recognition that family members and undertakers usually felt they could not be viewed. Largely by trial and error, Crandall addressed the problems encountered in mutilated bodies with solutions that are used, with some adaptation, to this day. One of his learning methods made use of plaster “heads” that were damaged and repaired, a practice adopted by embalming school laboratories and used until quite recently.

While Crandall may not have been the first to use hidden stitches to close cuts or remove pieces of skin or other tissues that interfered with the natural presentation of the face or body, he was among the first to formally include such methods in the category of restorative technique. Part of his skill was due to his manufacture and development of innovative instruments and materials, including a demisurgical grip that included a set of basic instrument and brushes as well as cosmetic preparations, false hairpieces (including prefabricated mustaches and eyelashes), and preformed wax facial features that could be modified by less skillful embalmers or technicians.

Crandall’s first step in restorative work was always to study a recent photograph of the deceased. One of his most famous cases was Col. Jacob Astor, a passenger on the Titanic. He and others pulled from the sea in 1912 were taken by way of Nova Scotia to New York for

burial services. Given the amount of time the body was in the water and the delay in treating the corpse, the job was substantial. Crandall was able to restore Astor’s discolored face to a natural appearance with the use of cosmetics, allowing the casket to be open for viewing.

By 1913, Crandall owned a demisurgical supply company, a school in New York City and an undertaking company in New Jersey. Over the next decade, he lectured on the subject of demisurgery at the Demisurgical Institute of New York and developed a correspondence course. In 1917, some of Crandall’s restorative techniques were filmed to be shown at conventions for teaching purposes. This led to a popular lecture circuit. Unfortunately, much of this information has been lost or was never formally published.

A number of embalming schools at the time claimed to teach aspects of restorative arts, and some argued that Crandall was not the founder of the science of demisurgery, as he claimed when he opened the Demisurgical Institute of New York in 1918. Schools in Boston, Cincinnati and New York stated that the subject was a part of their curricula for years, although, if it was covered, it was not promoted in any of the advertising or published list of subjects covered until 1912. By that year, Crandall was already an established leader in the field, lecturing on demisurgical techniques at the New York State Embalmers Convention.

Called names including “dermasurgery,” “plastic surgery,” “plastic work,” “derma sculpture” or “artistic embalming” (“demisurgery” was too closely associated with Crandall’s empire), many prominent embalming schools began to teach courses on restorative techniques, providing information on decoloration and specific postmortem surgical procedures. Not everyone in the field of funeral services agreed. C.A. Renouard, for example, felt, as a matter of principle, that cosmetics and, in many cases, surgical procedures should not be used. Many years later, however, near the end of his life, he changed his mind, even recommending courses in restorative art to students and colleagues.

While specific details of Crandall’s techniques are incomplete, it is likely his influence that spurred many embalming schools to incorporate some type of restorative art into their curriculum, as it became more expected and desired by consumers. By 1918, effects of World War I were causing people to ask whether demisurgery had applications for U.S. war casualties. Crandall felt that all war dead should be embalmed as soon after death as possible, so they could be restored later at the necessary time and place for a memorial service.

One of the most striking impacts Crandall made in the field was his use of before and after photographs, showing his repair of mutilated bodies. Numerous cases were quite severe, requiring substantial reconstruction. While an inspiration to many in the field, showing just what could be achieved, there were also those who found the results so impressive that competitors accused him of doctoring the photos. Crandall was incensed by this accusation, requiring all individuals involved with the restoration (including family members,

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lawyers, the undertaker and photographers, among others) to sign affidavits attesting to the authenticity of the photographs.

Crandall’s other great contributions to the field were his confident knowledge that a great many “unpresentable” cases could be restored to viewing condition, as well as his innovations in materials and techniques. The first half of the 20th Century saw a growth in the number and types of products and equipment available, sold by innovative marketing techniques such as before-and-after photos, as well as demonstrations and lectures, like those that had been used to promote embalming decades before. Many in traditional embalming considered the subdiscipline a new art form, and interest in demisurgery, its tools, materials and especially cosmetics soared.

Sales of prefabricated (usually wax) features and assistive materials and tools boomed in the late 1920s and ′30s, with a number of companies vying for Crandall’s business. These products, such as Eckel’s “molding masks,” included generic prefabricated eyes or noses that required the individual responsible for the body to do some shaping based on a photo. In the late 1940s, a dental plastic surgeon and instructor of restorative science suggested that a better match for many features could be achieved through the use of family members’ features. In other words, siblings or parents who resembled the deceased could be used to create molds. It was as close to a custom fit as could be achieved, given the very similar size and shape of features in most families.

Some methods developed early in the 1900s are still used today, while others became outdated almost immediately. Methods that once suggested great promise, such as skin grafting from one part of the body to another, never worked as well as hoped. In 1926, the Montez Manufacturing Co. in Michigan developed an electric-heated spatula meant for smoothing and modeling wax and reducing body swelling that held great promise but failed on both counts. It not only tended to make the skin surface too shiny, it also was ineffective in reducing swelling tissues. Most practitioners went back to their previous method, which required a bowl of hot water and an alcohol lamp to heat the spatula to the desired temperature. This too had drawbacks, as it became hard to control when it cooled, which would cause wax to roll and lose its adhesive ability.

The majority of prominent figures in the field in these early days agreed on only a few basic points. Most recommended use of a highly concentrated fluid and completed basic restoration before arterial injection, and taught that a significant waiting period was necessary between the completion of arterial treatment and final cosmetic application. The field was still highly experimental and flexible, with virtually no standardization.

Due to the prevalence of jaundice in the early 1900s for a period of about a decade, there was much in the literature about the difficulty in preparing a body with jaundice. The most commonly used arterial fluids were formalin-based, and turned the body from the original jaundiced tone of yellow to green once embalmed.

While there may still be complications with a jaundiced body even today, the issue has been addressed a number of ways, with more or less success. Bleaching solutions such as phenol and chlorine have been tried, but one of the few early successful treatments (according to some) was a treatment by J.H. De Normandie of New York in 1924, who used a secret solvent injected into the carotid artery combined with a topical ointment and the use of hot moist towels on the face. The formula was never revealed.

Famous names, publications, and inventions in early restorative artIn 1915, Albert Worsham demonstrated the use of cotton and collodion to fill shallow cavities and build facial features, all of which would then be covered with a layer of wax. Worsham’s claim to fame was the restoration of a mangled lion tamer in 1917, in which he had to recreate ears, much of the facial features and both arms, as well as close the ripped-open abdomen. The same year, C. O. Dhonau developed a treatment for addressing swollen or black eyes by pressing out the collected blood using a slit on the underside of the lids, then applying a 50 percent phenol mixture to lighten the area and shrink swelling.

By the mid 1920s, articles on restorative art appeared frequently in professional journals associated with embalming, those of chemical manufacturers and other vendors. A number who contributed to the technical literature were C.F. Callaway, who, starting in 1927 wrote many articles, lectured on and demonstrated restorative techniques, as well as William G. Collier, who invented restorative wound fillers and wrote articles for The Casket and Sunnyside. Collier’s topics addressed facial cancers, loss of limbs, common procedures and cosmetic techniques. A.O. Spriggs (who worked for the Champion Co.), contributed a series entitled “The Art of Plastic Surgery” that discussed such topics as hidden suturing methods, restorative techniques for gunshot wounds, and the correct injection of fluids. All the articles were eventually compiled into a textbook, published in 1934, called “Champion Restorative Art.”

Clarence G. Strub published over a thousand articles and two texts, “The Principles of Restorative Art,” a 32-page practical textbook, and “The Principles and Practice of Embalming.” Both are the model for modern books on the study because of their clarity and simplicity, and both became primary texts for colleges of mortuary science. Another seminal work, published in the early 1930s, is C.O. Dhonau and G. Joseph Praeger’s “Manual of Restorative Art,” which was also updated in 1955.

In the 1930s,Worsham designed a course including about 30-40 hours of laboratory work that employed mutilated human heads previously used in anatomy and dissection courses. Between classes, these items were stored in preservative fluids, providing real conditions for practice in filling cavities, forming facial features and applying cosmetics. Almost two decades later, in 1948, lab materials had evolved, with the Postgraduate Institute of Restorative Art of Chicago using specially created “mutilated heads” crafted from rubber and plastic, which allowed

students to suture, apply wax and cosmetics in a realistic way.

Increasingly, institutions of mortuary science provided more hours of restorative art, but special schools devoted to cosmetic preparation and restorative art also became more common. In 1937, for example, The Embalmers Graduate College in Chicago offered a 30-hour course of restorative techniques and cosmetic application. Along with legitimate programs such as the Chicago college came less authentic educational opportunities. In 1926, Dhonau, a noted expert in the field of restorative arts, called it a scandal that fluid manufacturers were issuing diplomas for demisurgery to individuals who simply attended their free clinics, in the same way that decades earlier, fluid manufacturers were criticized for issuing diplomas to those who had viewed their embalming seminars. Dhonau and others in the field called for professionalism and high standards in restorative art education.

There were still cases in these days of bodies embalmed in the family home without the use of gloves or other protective measures. In some cases, family members attended. The potential risk associated with casual treatment of a dead body became a critical issue for Edward C. Johnson, a funeral service professional who became infected during an embalming and nearly had to have a finger amputated. He recovered, and eventually became very well known in the field of restorative art, writing scholarly articles on the history of embalming and funerals in the United States, and founding the Postgraduate Institute of Restorative Art in 1948 in Chicago. Professor Johnson, his wife, Gail, and daughter Melissa – all of whom were licensed funeral directors and embalmers – coauthored his publications and traveled the world with him presenting embalming and restorative art lectures and demonstrations. The family was also critical in transporting the American victims of the Jonestown, Guyana, suicides that shook the world in 1978.

New products introduced in the 1930s helped to revolutionize restorative techniques. There had always been a problem with application of cosmetics over a wax surface, an issue addressed in part by the invention of the airbrush or power sprayer as early as 1911. These devices were originally powered by carbon dioxide cylinders, then, in 1934, by a manually operated spray applicator sold with its own specific cosmetic set. A few years later, an industrial and artistic airbrush equipment manufacturer created an airbrush kit designed especially for embalmers. The Paasche Co. kit contained an electric air compressor, an airbrush applicator for restorative art wax, a set of cosmetic tools, and a number of preformed facial features. Also at the time, the Dodge Chemical Co. introduced a needle injector and needles that were fashioned for securing the mouth, also offering instruments, cosmetics, wax and chemicals used for restorative art.

In 1943, Sheridan Mayer published “Restorative Art,” a basic text in many educational institutions that was revised a number of times. He also wrote the “Workbook on Color and Mortuary

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Cosmetology,” published a few years later, and the textbook “Color and Cosmetics” in 1973. His background was unusual in the field; trained as an artist and sculptor, he was also employed as a theatrical cosmetician and makeup expert. Perhaps his greatest contribution to restorative art was his encouragement of a uniform curriculum and standards for instructional and testing purposes. While not an embalmer, he prepared sample syllabi and curricula as well as examination questions that became standards in the field of study.

By the mid-century, the two major trade journals, The Casket and Sunnyside, both published a monthly article that ran for 14 years. Called “Restoration Clinic,” it described treatments for specific difficulties, with before and after photos to show results.

Gladys P. Curry, author of the 1947 “Textbook of Facial Reconstruction,” became internationally known for her ability to identify dead bodies after infamous disasters, such as a fire in a night club that killed more than 500 people, or the bodies of decomposing crewmembers of a submarine lost in 1939. Her book provides useful illustrations and photographs that break down reconstruction into a series of steps, rebuilding each layer of the face from the bare skull to the muscles, to the soft tissues of the face and neck, eventually refining the skin surface and adding hair to achieve the most natural look. The Curry system was used for years by embalmers to assist law enforcement agencies in identifying skeletal remains. While the book is dedicated specifically to reconstruction of the soft tissues of the head and neck with clay or wax and does not discuss restorative difficulties or the use of embalming with reconstruction, it is an excellence reference on modeling techniques and restorative techniques for purposes of identification.

Education in restorative methods was facilitated by the introduction of visual aids, such as photographs and film, which could show the sequence and results of each technique or step. The earliest known film example is Joel Crandall in 1912, but other filmmakers followed, such as Worsham and Renouard, using black and white film, before the 1920s, and K. Angstadt, filming in color, in the 1930s. Angstadt was a skilled restorative artist from Pennsylvania who demonstrated techniques in silent film with subtitles. His excellent technique and skill were evident in a number of complicated restorations, including replacing a jaw that had been removed, reducing swelling of the face and hands, and replacement of eyelids and lashes that had been ravaged by infection. In the 1940s, two educational color films were produced. One, from the Los Angeles College of Mortuary Science, shows how to create plaster masks that can be used for practicing restoration techniques and describes modeling methods that are very effective in producing natural facial features.

It might be said restorative art formally “arrived” as a discipline in 1945, when it was the subject of the address at the National Funeral Directors Association Convention in Chicago, with content stressing the value and necessity of these procedures.

infamous cases of early modern restorative artJohn Dillinger, Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow (“Bonnie and Clyde”) were killed by law enforcement agents in the summer of 1934. Dillinger, taken to the Cook County Morgue in Chicago, was met there by an instructor from Worsham’s College, who was requested to make a death mask of Dillinger for the FBI. Bonnie and Clyde were embalmed in Louisiana, after which Clyde’s body went to Dallas, where his head, which was shattered by over 100 bullets, was restored, while Bonnie, who had received more than 50 bullet wounds, was taken to a different funeral home in Dallas. Extensive restorative work was completed on both, and both were viewed by an estimated 50,000 individuals.

PART ii: is embalming dangerous?This section discusses risks associated with embalming, highlighting recent findings associating long-term exposure to formaldehyde to a higher risk of myeloid leukemia among embalmers. These findings, as well as recent OSHA investigations showing violations in workplaces that use formaldehyde, emphasize the potential risk – to one’s safety and one’s business – that can occur without proper attention to formaldehyde regulations. These findings are followed by a review of proper ventilation for funeral home preparation rooms, and an article discussing health risks associated with older cemeteries or contact with corpses embalmed from around the time of the Civil War until the early 1900s, when arsenic was commonly included in embalming fluids.

National Cancer Institute findingsThe November 2009 Journal of the National Cancer Institute published some disturbing new findings about exposure to formaldehyde. In this recent study, researchers at the National Cancer Institute investigated the relation of mortality to work practices and formaldehyde exposure levels among a number of professionals, including embalmers. In a case-control study among funeral industry workers who had died between 1960 and 1986, researchers compared those who died from lymphohematopoietic malignancies and brain tumors with those who died from other causes. Lifetime work practices and exposures to formaldehyde were obtained by interviews with next of kin and coworkers.

This study was the first epidemiological investigation, to the authors’ knowledge, to relate cancer risk to duration of employment, work practices and estimated formaldehyde exposure levels in the funeral industry.

The study found that death from myeloid leukemia increased with increasing years of embalming experience. There was an almost fourfold increased risk of death from myeloid leukemia among persons who performed embalming for more than 34 years. There was a threefold risk of death from myeloid leukemia in persons performing more than 3,068 embalming procedures. There was also a threefold risk for those estimated to have exposures exceeding 9,253 parts per million-hours.

However, they did not find a statistically increased risk for mortality from brain tumors or other lymphohematopoietic malignancies.

so what is the current status of formaldehyde use in the embalming profession?Funeral professionals and organizations responsible for protecting their welfare continue to monitor the international, federal and state regulatory landscape for changes or limits on the use of formaldehyde for embalming purposes in the United States.

The National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) has performed a preliminary analysis of the report that will likely be updated after further review. The NFDA has published two articles regarding the recent formaldehyde study results, which can be found on its website at these links. The first reviews the most recent research findings regarding cancer and formaldehyde, and the second outlines best management practices for workplaces using formaldehyde, including appropriate ventilation standards (which are also presented in the next section):

■ http://www.nfda.org/additional-tools-embalming/1901-formaldehyde-understanding-the-newest-study-on-cancer-and-exposure-in-funeral-service.html

■ http://nfda.org/additional-tools-embalming/1749-formaldehyde-best-management-practices.html

The NFDA is also completing a ventilation study to evaluate prep room ventilation systems to ensure they are providing the maximum protection for embalmers from formaldehyde exposure during embalming.

Given that the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has declared formaldehyde a carcinogen and the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is reviewing the recent data regarding formaldehyde exposure and leukemia, it is expected that both the EPA and OSHA will propose new regulations limiting the use and exposure limits for formaldehyde based on all these studies.

Workplace violationsGiven the widespread knowledge that formaldehyde exposure can be dangerous, there is surprising laxity regarding storage and use of the product. In October 2009, the OSHA cited a large Massachusetts company for 41 alleged violations of workplace safety and health standards at its Cambridge production plant. The embalming fluid manufacturer faces $138,000 in fines for inadequate safeguards involving formaldehyde stored and used in manufacturing processes at the plant as well as for various chemical, mechanical and electrical hazards identified during comprehensive OSHA inspections conducted over the past several months.

OSHA found that the plant lacked a process safety management (PSM) program and procedures to proactively assess and address hazards associated with processes and equipment using large amounts of formaldehyde and that the plant also lacked controls and other safeguards to

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reduce the levels of formaldehyde to which some workers were overexposed.

OSHA also identified numerous deficiencies in the plant’s respiratory protection, emergency response, hazardous energy control, chemical hygiene and chemical hazard communication programs.

Ventilation requirementsAlthough ventilation requirements for preparation rooms may be changing in the near future, be sure your workplace meets minimum safety standards according to the following guidelines.

Ventilation guidelines and calculations for funeral home preparation rooms1

Ventilation guidelinesVentilation requirements for funeral home preparation rooms are not specifically addressed in current OSHA guidelines. However, the National Mechanical Code of the Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA) and the Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning Handbook of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) specify ventilation criteria for autopsy rooms. These criteria for autopsy rooms can serve as useful guidelines for effectively ventilating funeral home preparation rooms.

■ BOCA requires a minimum of 12 air changes per hour for autopsy rooms. The BOCA Code also requires that the air shall be exhausted to the outdoors, at an approved location on the exterior of the building.

■ ASHRAE recommends a minimum of 12 air changes per hour be supplied to autopsy rooms, and that at least two of the air changes per hour be outdoor air. ASHRAE also specifies that the room be negatively pressurized in relation to adjacent areas.

■ The National Funeral Directors Association recommends, as an accepted industry practice, no fewer than 10-15 air changes per hour for preparation rooms.

■ A source of makeup air should also be provided in preparation rooms to prevent excessive negative pressurization and to improve air mixing within the room.

Ventilation calculationsAir changes per hour (ACH) – To determine the number of air changes per hour occurring in an existing preparation room:1. Calculate volume of preparation room:

□ Length (ft) x width (ft) x height (ft) = room volume (ft3).

2. Calculate exhaust vent area in ft2: □ If rectangular: length (in) x width (in) =

vent area (in2). □ If circular: 3.141 x [radius (in)]2 = vent

area (in2). □ Vent area (in2) x 0.00694* = vent area (ft2).

▪ (* = factor for converting in2 to ft2).3. Calculate volumetric airflow of exhausted air

in cubic feet per minute (CFM):[NOTE: This will require airflow measurements using a velometer or equivalent instrument to determine average air velocity in feet per minute

(ft/min) across the face area of the preparation room exhaust vent. More sophisticated measurement methods, such as duct static pressure, may also be used. Alternatively, a volumetric airflow hood can be used to directly obtain CFM.]

□ Air velocity (ft/min) x vent area (ft2) = CFM (ft3/min).

4. Convert CFM to cubic feet per hour (CFH): □ CFM (ft3/min) x 60 (min/hr) = CFH (ft3/hr).

5. Calculate air changes per hour (ACH): □ CFH (ft3/hr) I room volume (ft3) = ACH

(air changes per hour). □ Sample calculation for air changes per

hour (ACH). ▪ Preparation room is 30 ft. long x

20 ft. wide x 10 ft. high with an 18-inch-diameter circular exhaust fan vent having an average face velocity of 860 FPM.

▪ Room volume = 30 ft x 20 ft x 10 ft = 6,000 ft3.

▪ Vent area = 3.141 x (9 in)2 = 254.4 in2 x 0.00694 = 1.77 ft2.

▪ CFM = 860 FPM x 1.77 ft2 = 1,522 CFM (ft3/min).

▪ CFH = 1,522 CFM x 60 min/hr = 91,320 CFH (ft3/hr).

▪ ACH = 91,320 CFH I 6,000 ft3 = 15.2 ACH.

Ventilation system capacity – To determine the ventilation system capacity in cubic feet per minute necessary to obtain a desired number of air changes per hour.1. Calculate volume of preparation room:

□ Length (ft) x width (ft) x height (ft) = room volume (ft3).

2. Calculate cubic feet per hour (CFH) needed: □ VOLUME (ft3) x ACH (desired) = CFH

(needed).3. Convert to cubic feet per minute (CFM) needed:

□ CFH I 60 (min/hr) = CFM (needed).

sample calculation for ventilation system capacityPreparation room is 26 ft. long x 18 ft. wide x 9 ft. high and it is necessary to determine the number of cubic feet per minute that must be exhausted to obtain 15 air changes per hour.

■ 4,212 ft2 x 15 ACH = 63,180 CFH (ft3/hr) ■ 63,180 CFH I 60 min/hr = 1,053 CFM (ft3/min)

Calculation of the outside supplied air changes recommended by ASHRAE can be performed in the same manner as those for exhausted air.

Hidden dangersThe following article cautions those working near old burial sites or treating embalmed bodies from certain periods, particularly the Civil War, to protect themselves from risk of exposure to arsenic through contact with the embalmed bodies and possible contamination of ground water and soil. Please pass the information along to anyone you feel might benefit from it.

old cemeteries, arsenic, and health safety2

Embalming human remains for burial has taken a long road to its present state as an art that now

minimizes health and environmental concerns of burials. Along the way, health and safety were not always considerations. From the Civil War until about 1910, arsenic was the main ingredient in the embalming fluids used widely throughout the country. Although effective, arsenic is toxic and persistent, and elemental arsenic will never degrade into harmless byproducts.

Progress in embalming practices during the late 1880s has left a legacy that can potentially harm the health of archeologists or cemetery workers, and impact the environment. Awareness of this potential problem is the first step in alleviating any real damage that might occur.

Arsenic embalming began as a sanitary practice and a practical means to preserve the body until burial or for transport. Considering that the alternative was ice, arsenic embalming seemed like a significant improvement. What the embalming practitioners or undertakers did not consider were the long-term effects of placing significant amounts of arsenic in concentrated burial areas – cemeteries.

The arsenic that endures today can pose significant danger to forensic archeologists, cemetery workers, or individuals that may be utilizing potentially contaminated groundwater supplies.

In the U.S., the widespread use of arsenic in embalming fluids began in the Civil War period. Dr. Thomas Holmes, the “father of American embalming,” was engaged by the medical department of the Union Army to set up battlefield embalming stations to enable the bodies of Union dead to be returned home. Numerous embalmers were trained in these new techniques, which included preparation of embalming fluids. Although fluid composition was often a trade secret, arsenic was the primary embalming agent because it effectively killed or halted the microorganisms responsible for decomposition. Other embalming compositions were used less frequently and contained similar toxic materials, such as mercury or creosote.

At the end of the Civil War, successful embalmers returned to their hometowns and took their craft with them. This expansion of arsenic-based embalming gradually came to encompass all areas of the country.

From 1856 to 1873, six patents were issued for fluids that contained arsenic, from as little as four ounces to as much as 12 pounds of arsenic per body. Individual embalmers could also create their own formulas by going to the local pharmacy to get the necessary quantities of arsenic. The 1878 publication, “The Undertaker’s Manual,” contained several embalming fluid formulas, the majority of which were arsenic based. A popular formula of the time contained about four ounces of arsenious acid (an arsenic trioxide) per gallon of water, with two or more gallons of fluid recommended for proper embalming.

Chemical embalming spread most rapidly in the 1880s, when fluids were compounded and sold commercially. Fluid compounders sent salesmen on the road to demonstrate fluid use and broaden their customer base. The salesmen provided

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at least rudimentary instruction in embalming techniques and helped continue the growth of chemical embalming.

The demand for chemical embalming stimulated the creation of embalming institutes or schools. Some of the earliest were the Rochester (New York) School of Embalming and the Cincinnati School of Embalming. Correspondence courses overcame geographic barriers and embalming practitioners began providing services in every state. For example, chemical embalming in Iowa began about 1879. An enterprising young undertaker from Iowa City, Dr. William Hohenschuh, took a correspondence course from Dr. Auguste Renouard, founder of the Rochester School of Embalming. Dr. Hohenschuh spread the technique to his fellow undertakers, and by 1899 there were at least 240 registered embalmers in Iowa.

Burial practices during this time also have a bearing on problems associated with the release of arsenic. Initially, burials were primarily in wood coffins that were placed directly in the ground. Throughout the latter 1880s, use of metal burial containers, such as the Fisk metallic burial case and combination metal and wood caskets, increased. In either case, no burial vaults that enclosed the coffin were used. Embalming and metal containers added cost to funeral arrangements, and were generally only used by those who could afford them. In many cases, burial of non-embalmed persons in wooden caskets was still the only viable option. Yet embalming became increasingly affordable and popular.

Both wooden and metal caskets will eventually degrade and begin to allow contact of the embalmed remains with the environment. Arsenic, a basic element, will not change or degrade, but must remain with the remains or move into the environment. As the containers corrode, water moving downward through the soils of cemeteries can dissolve arsenic from the burials and move arsenic into the soil or groundwater. This slow spread of arsenic from numerous sources in an old cemetery can lead to serious environmental and health problems.

To understand the potential impact, assume a hypothetical cemetery in a modest-sized town. It is reasonable for the period 1880 to 1910 to assume that 2,000 people died in that time period.

If half of those were embalmed with arsenic, using six ounces of fluid per person, the cemetery contains 380 pounds of arsenic. If the embalmers in the area used more arsenic, such as three pounds per person, then the cemetery would contain over one ton of arsenic. In either case, this is a significant amount of a potent, toxic material to find in the ground at one location.

In the early 1900s, arsenic use was banned from embalming. The driving force for the ban was the concern for health of embalming practitioners and interference with autopsies after embalming had occurred. Today, arsenic is prevalent in or near old cemeteries. Some of the most compelling evidence is the recent analysis of the remains of an embalmed Civil War soldier. The tissue sample revealed that arsenic was present at a concentration of 28,000 parts per million, or 2.8 percent. This is firm

documentation that arsenic embalmed remains can carry the arsenic residue for many years.

Evidence of elevated levels in the environment near old cemeteries is only now beginning to emerge. Limited sampling of old hand-pump wells that still exist at many smaller cemeteries has been conducted in Iowa. These wells typically access the shallow groundwater aquifer, and if still functional, can provide an initial indication of arsenic presence. One problem with these old wells is that they are often located up gradient or peripheral to the burial area of interest and do not provide the ideal groundwater sample.

Fourteen hand-pump wells at a variety of Iowa cemeteries were sampled for arsenic. The U.S. Geological Survey staff in Iowa City did not expect detectable levels of arsenic in shallow groundwater samples. Two of the samples contained arsenic at 30 parts per billion, above the new proposed drinking water standard for arsenic.

Installing groundwater monitoring wells near cemeteries can provide a better indication of the impact of arsenic. In one study at Hamilton College in Clinton, N.Y., up-gradient and down-gradient wells were installed outside of the college cemetery, which contains at least 68 graves from before 1910. Samples from the wells indicate elevated levels of arsenic down-gradient from the cemetery. Zinc, copper and lead also increased down-gradient.

What significance does the presence of arsenic have for archeologists, cemetery workers and others that may come into contact with contaminated soil or human remains at old burial sites or cemeteries? Because the main routes of exposure are ingestion, inhalation and skin contact, there can be important health and safety implications for personnel working at sites where arsenic is present in sufficient concentrations.

Acute arsenic poisoning by ingestion can occur as the result of hand contact with dusts or objects containing arsenic compounds, and subsequent hand-to-mouth contact. Another common mechanism includes the dust settling on objects that later have contact with the mouth, including the tops of soda cans, cigarettes in a shirt pocket or eating utensils. The smallest recorded fatal dose is 130 mg, although recovery has occurred after much larger doses.

Most ingested arsenic is quickly absorbed through the stomach and intestines and enters the blood stream. A common effect of arsenic ingestion is irritation of the digestive tract, leading to pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Other effects characteristic of oral exposure include abnormal heart function and impaired nerve function, causing a “pins and needles” sensation in the feet and hands.

The inhalation route of exposure may be operative at dry, dusty sites, or during the handling of objects coated with dust. Inhalation exposure to arsenic can produce the same types of systemic health effects as oral exposure, although symptoms and effects are usually milder. The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration Action Level for arsenic inhalation exposure is 0.005 mg/cubic meter.

Direct dermal contact with arsenic compounds may result in mild to severe irritation of the skin (dermatitis), as well as irritation to the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and throat. Dermatitis of the face and eyelids is sometimes accompanied by conjunctivitis, with redness, swelling and pain.

Due to the level of toxicity associated with arsenic, it is important to take precautionary measures when working in and around burial sites that may contain arsenic-embalmed remains. Protective measures include using protective work clothing and equipment, housekeeping and hygiene practices. Individual project requirements may differ; Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards, in particular 29 CFR 1910.1028, can give further guidance on proper procedures. Protective work clothing would include coveralls or similar full-body work clothing, gloves and shoes or shoe coverlets. Face shields or vented goggles should be worn when necessary to prevent eye irritation. Protective clothing and equipment should be replaced at least weekly, and preferably on a daily basis. Disposable clothing is preferred because laundering clothing and gloves can result in additional exposure problems.

Disposal of arsenic-contaminated materials must comply with federal, state, and local hazardous waste regulations. Engineering controls, such as exhaust ventilation, will not be available to control dust exposure in many applications. In that case, respiratory protection should be used to control dust exposures within acceptable limits. The minimum level of respiratory protection would be a half-mask air-purifying respirator equipped with high efficiency filters. Efforts must be taken to keep the inside of the respirator free of dust, and filters should be changed frequently, usually at least daily. Surfaces should be kept as free from dust as practical. Use of compressed air, sweeping or brushing should be avoided, because these methods will increase ambient air dust levels. Vacuuming is an effective method; however, special high-efficiency equipment should be used.

Smoking, eating or drinking should not be allowed in any work areas where arsenic may be present. Hands and face should be washed prior to eating, drinking or smoking. Protective clothing must be removed and handled carefully to avoid the generation of dust. A separate area for storage of street clothes should be available, and a shower should be taken at the end of each work period. These general guidelines are a starting point for protective measures needed to work at old cemeteries or with materials from old cemeteries that may contain arsenic embalmed remains. It is recommended that a certified industrial hygienist be consulted before beginning a project for specific measures.

Without an extensive review of public agency or private funeral establishment records, accurate determinations of the number and location of arsenic-embalmed bodies present in the nation’s graveyards is impossible. Even if records were made available, they may not contain sufficient information to verify use of arsenic and the effort to obtain such information would be enormous.

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The best opportunities to ascertain the presence and impact of arsenic in old cemeteries can come through cooperative efforts of forensic and other archeology experts with environmental scientists. Opportunities to collect and analyze soil and groundwater samples from excavations should be utilized. Not only will this provide information on the dangers to the environment, it will also provide critical information needed for proper protection of those engaged in archeological endeavors that could expose them to arsenic.Endnotes1. http://www.state.nj.us/health/surv/documents/fuhomevent.pdf;

http://www.nj.gov/health/surv/documents/fuhomevent.pdf2. John L. Konefes and Michael K. McGee; Additional

assistance by Melissa Johnson Williams; http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/19-10/19-10-6.pdf

ReferencesCrane, O.N., M.P. Hatfield, A.B. Perrigo and H. Samson. The National Funeral Director’s Official Text Book. Chicago: Donohue & Henneberry, 1886.

Gannal, J.N. History of Embalming and of Preparations in Anatomy, Pathology, and Natural History. Philadelphia: Judah Dobson, 1838.

Halsted, M. A Legacy of Excellence (History of Des Moines Funeral Directing). Des Moines: Hamilton’s Funeral Home, 1984.

Hebenstein, R.L. and W.M. Lamers. The History of American Funeral Directing. Milwaukee: The National Funeral Directors Association/Bulfin Printers, 1955

Johnson, E.C. A History of the Art and Science of Embalming. Casket and Sunnyside. 1955.

Johnson, E.C., G.R. Johnson and M.J. Williams. Dr. Homes Method of Preserving Remains. The American Funeral Director. February, 1989.

Mayer, Robert G, Embalming History, Theory, and Practice, McGraw Hill, 4th Edition 2006.

Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, volume 2A. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1981.

Renouard, A. The Undertaker’s Manual: A treatise of Useful and Reliable Information; Embracing Complete and Detailed Instructions for the Preservation of Bodies. Rochester, N.Y.: A.H. Nirdlinger & Co., 1878.

Strub, C.G., and L.G. Frederick. The Principles and Practice of Embalming. Dallas: L.G. Frederick, 1965.

U.S. Patent Office. U.S. Patent #15,972, 1856; Patent #30,576, 1860; Patent #38,747, 1863; Patent #44,495,1864; Patent #81,755, 1868; Patent #144,602, 1873. Washington, DC.

Wilson, L.E. History of 75 years of Funeral Service. Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa Funeral and Embalmers Association, 1963.

HisToRy oF EMBAlMing And REsToRATiVE ARTs

Final Examination Questions

Select True or False for questions 21-30 and mark your answers on the Final Examination Sheet

found on Page 37, or complete your test online at www.elitecme.com.

21. Our earliest knowledge of embalming is that which occurred in the Canary Islands among the Guanche.

True False

22. The first step for the ancient Egyptian embalmer was the removal of the brain, typically with the use of a metal hook or spoon inserted through the nostrils into the brain, or less commonly, through the eye socket.

True False

23. Some of the success of Egyptian preservative methods could likely also be attributed to a hot, dry climate that discouraged bacterial growth.

True False

24. Populations of the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley, including the Persians, Syrians and Babylonians, submerged recently deceased individuals of importance in a container of plaster to preserve the body, especially for a long journey.

True False

25. Guanche embalmers were gender-specific – only male practitioners could attend to men’s corpses, and female practitioners to women’s corpses.

True False

26. Xaxos bodies show very minimal shrinkage in body size and are quite heavy.

True False

27. By 1864, all deceased patients at the Washington, D.C., Military Hospital Holme’s headquarters, were routinely embalmed and the grave marked so that the body could be disinterred and sent to the family, if desired.

True False

28. In the mid-1870s, the invention of the trocar by Samuel Rodgers helped to usher in a new system for treatment of the cavities.

True False

29. At the end of the 1890s, embalming fluid advertisements were introducing the ingredient formalin, a saturated solution of formaldehyde combined with other ingredients.

True False

30. OSHA has issued guidelines for ventilation requirements in funeral preparation rooms for at least two decades.

True False

FGA03HEE14

Page 38 Elite

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