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FAO Aquaculture NewsletterDecember 1998 - N°. 20

FAO AQUACULTURE NEWSLETTERFAO AQUACULTURE NEWSLETTER FAO AQU

A farmer in North Sulawesi, Indonesia, inspects his rice paddles and fish ponds

FAO Aquaculture Newsletter

FAO AQUACULTURE NEWSLETTERFAO AQUACULTURE NEWSLETTER FAO AQU

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsViale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, 00100 Italy

Tel: 39-06-57054795 Fax: 39-06-57053020.E-mail: Ziad.Shehadeh@fao.org

INLAND WATER RESOURCES AND AQUACULTURE SERVICE FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

The FAO Aquaculture Newsletter (FAN) is issued three times a year by the Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service, Fishery Resources Division, of FAO’s Fisheries Department, Rome, Italy. It presents articles and views from the FAO aquaculture programme and discusses various aspects of aquaculture as seen from the perspective of both Headquarters and the field programme. Articles are contributed by FAO staff from within and outside the Fisheries Department, from FAO regional offices and field projects, by FAO consultants and, occasionally, by invitation from other sources. FAN is distributed free of charge to various institutions, scientists, planners and managers in Member Countries and has a current circulation of about 3,000 copies. It is also available on the FAO internet Home Page: http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/newslet/newslet.htm

Editor: Ziad H. ShehadehEditorial Board: Jiansan Jia, Mario Pedini, Izzat Feidi

Rohana Subasinghe, Devin M. BartleyLayout and Production: Sylviane Borghesi, José Luis Castilla

Few countries have appropriate legalframeworks and policies for aquaculture. Oftencomprehensive policies and associated legal

frameworks have been overlooked becausedevelopment has been seen mainly in technicalterms and support has been largely focused ontechnical aspects of production. Also, as in manyother sectors, policy-makers have often treatedaquaculture in isolation from other sectors, thusignoring important linkages, including externalities.The need to incorporate political, economic, social,environmental and legal aspects has been neglectedgenerally, with negative consequences for thesector. The recent emergence of industrialaquaculture, the growing competition for resources,and the continuing rapid growth of the sector havefocused attention on the need for policy measuresand regulatory frameworks.

It is essential that appropriate operationalconditions be established, at all levels

(international, regional, national, local and farmlevels) to make it attractive to farmers, fishermenand other entrepreneurs to exploit the potential ofaquaculture in a sustainable manner. Governmentsneed to create and maintain a suitable climate forsustainable growth of the sector; they need tocreate an “enabling environment”. Such anenvironment is complex. It has economic, legal,social and physical components. It should ensureinter alia fair access to resources; mechanisms forconflict resolution; access to information, credit andmarkets. This presupposes that there arefunctioning channels of communication withinstitutions and representatives of other, competingsectors of the economy.

In creating the “enabling environment” it isessential to strike a balance between the need for

development/growth and the need for eco-systemconservation. In this context it is necessary torecognize and deal with the increasing competitionfor resources. The diminishing role of the publicsector as a promoter of development and theglobalisation of markets must also be taken intoconsideration.

T he complex task at hand is to put the principlesof the recently adopted Code of Conduct for

Responsible Fisheries into operation; that is, toclarify how sustainability choices might work inpractice; to incorporate its principles intodevelopment policies and plans; and to elaboratespecific codes of responsible practice containingnorms, standards and guidelines, agreed upon by allstakeholders. Given the diversity of aquaculturepractices, and of the political, social and economicconditions in which they take place, as well as thedifferent perceptions of sustainability, balanced andinformed approaches are required to effectivelyaddress developmental and environmental issues atany one location. Further, the applicability ofvarious approaches needs to be assessed carefully,particularly where there are many small-scalefarmers involved, and in view of the often highlydecentralised nature of the aquaculture industry.

T he FAO Fisheries Department is in the process ofelaborating a strategy for the promotion and

implementation of the Code. A summary of theessential aspects of the strategy was presented in ajoint FAO/World Bank paper entitled ‘TowardsSustainable Development: A Draft Strategy of FAOand the World Bank’ at the Summit of the Seas, St.John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, 1 to 6 September1997. In follow up on Resolution 4/95 of the FAOConference, recalling Article 5 of the Code, theOrganization is also developing an interregionalprogramme, for external assistance, to helpdeveloping countries to implement the Code. Thepurpose of this programme would be to upgradethe fisheries capabilities of developing countries sothat they would be better placed to meet theirobligations under the Code. The Government of theNetherlands and the Government of Norway areproviding support to some components of thisstrategy. It is hoped that other donors willcontribute to this worthwhile programme.

Ziad H. ShehadehSenior Fishery Resources Officer

Fishery Resources Division

EDITORIAL

ENABLING FRAMEWORK FOR AQUACULTURE

CONTENTS

Integrating fisheries and agriculture to enhancefish production and food securityRolf Willmann, Matthias Halwart, Uwe Barg 3

Aquaculture production in ChinaKrishen Rana, Maurizio Perotti, Sara Montanaro and Anton Immink 9

Resource use in aquaculture and inland fisheries 11

Impacts of introductions on the conservation and sustainable use of aquatic biodiversity Devin Bartley and Christine V. Casal 15

The database on introductions of aquatic species (DIAS): The web siteL. Garibaldi and D.M. Bartley 20

Projects and other activities 25

New FAO publications 32

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INTRODUCTION

T here are manifold interactions between fisheriesand agriculture through the common use of land

and water resources and concurrent productionactivities to support rural village communities andsupply urban areas with the needed quantity andvariety of food. Such interactions extend to theinstitutional sphere, as fisheries and agriculture oftenfall within one government ministry. Improvedintegration between the two sectors is therefore animportant means to enhance fish production andfood security. The term “fisheries” is broadly definedhere to include the capture of wild fish stocks frominland and marine waters, the capture of fish stocksthat have been enhanced through stocking and othermeasures and various types of aquaculture. The mostdirect interactions between agriculture and fisheriesoccur where these two sectors compete for the samekinds of resource, especially land and water, andwhere measures aimed at higher agriculturalproduction can alter natural fish habitats.

At present, the reported global capture fisheriesproduction from freshwater ecosystems, includingrivers and lakes, is about 7.5 million tonnes. Actualcatches, however, are believed to be significantlyhigher and could be as much as double the reportedstatistics.2 Except for some industrial commercialfisheries in the Great Lakes of Africa and NorthAmerica, most inland capture fisheries are small-scale by nature and much of the catch is destined forlocal consumption. Inland fisheries activities areoften undertaken by farmers during the agriculturallean season when they provide needed food andincome. Thus, the significance of freshwater catchesfor food security far exceeds what recordedproduction figures alone might suggest3. Theimportance of fish, particularly in the diet of ruralcommunities, can be judged by its contribution tototal animal protein intake. In many Asian countries,over one-half of animal protein intake comes fromfish, while in Africa the proportion is 17.5 percent.

Moreover, recreational fisheries in inland waters aregaining more economic importance in Asia, Europeand North and South America, where they serve asvalued tourist attractions.

In spite of their nutritional and economicimportance and their significant futuredevelopment potential, inland fisheries landingsrelative to outputs from other fishery productionsystems have been waning over the past fewdecade4. The diminished role of inland fisheries hasto some extent resulted from physical and chemicalchanges in the aquatic environment, brought aboutby agricultural practices such as damming, wetlandreclamation, drainage and water abstraction andtransfer for irrigation. Recent experience has shownthat these environmental changes are oftenreversible, in which case fisheries habitats can berestored without compromising agriculturalproduction. In other cases, changes can beanticipated and planned for in a way that enhancesfisheries potential beyond natural productivity. Thefull range of fisheries enhancement techniques –including stocking, the modification of waterbodies, fertilization and the introduction ofgenetically improved species – can only be realizedwhen human-induced changes are planned andimplemented in an integrated manner that preventsharmful effects on fisheries resources and theirhabitats.

Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growingfood-producing sectors, providing an importantsupplement to and substitute for stagnating yieldsfrom wild fish stocks. The importance of aquaculturefor future food security was acknowledged by the1996 World Food Summit, which agreed “topromote the development of environmentallysound and sustainable aquaculture well integratedinto rural, agricultural and coastal development”.Over the last decade, aquaculture productionincreased at an average compounded growth rateof nearly 11 percent per annum. By 1996, totalannual production of cultured fish, molluscs,crustaceans and aquatic plants reached a record

This is an abbreviated version of an articlecontributed by the FAO Fisheries Departmentto the 1998 edition of the annual FAO flagshippublication:THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE1

INTEGRATING FISHERIES ANDAGRICULTURE TO ENHANCE FISHPRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY

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34.12 million tonnes, valued at $46.5 billion. Ofspecial importance is the fact that more than 85percent of total aquaculture food production camefrom developing countries, and in particular fromlow-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs).Production within this group is concentrated inAsian countries, with China being by far the largestproducer.

Annual aquaculture production is projected toexceed 40 million tonnes by 20105. Much of thisincrease is expected to come from the farming offish and crustaceans in ponds, enhanced productionin small and medium-sized water bodies andintegrated fish and crustacean farming, primarilywith rice but also with vegetables and other crops aswell as livestock. Efficiency in the use of water(particularly freshwater) and land resources isbecoming a crucial factor in sustaining high growthrates. In many areas where aquaculture has rapidlyexpanded over the last decade, there is growingpressure on limited land and water resources, andplanning for integrated fisheries and agriculturaldevelopment is therefore of the utmost importance.

THE BENEFITS OF INTEGRATION

The overall objective of integrating fisheries andagriculture is to maximize the synergistic andminimize the antagonistic interactions between thetwo sectors. The former are mainly derived from therecycling of nutrients arising in the course ofagriculture-livestock-fish production processes, fromintegrated pest management and from the optimaluse of water resources.

Antagonistic interactions arise from: the applicationof pesticides and herbicides that harm aquatic livingorganisms; the eutrophication of inland water bodiesand near-shore coastal waters caused by nutrientrunoff (after excessive or inappropriate chemicalfertilizer application); soil erosion, which increasesthe sediment load of natural watercourses;alterations to the hydrological regimes of rivers, lakesand other natural water bodies; drainage of wetlandsand swamps; and the obstruction of fish migrationroutes.

The benefits to be gained from maximizing andminimizing synergistic and antagonistic interactions,respectively, are examined in the next section.Following this is a discussion on how institutionalconstraints can be overcome at various levels toachieve a better integration of the two sectors.

Optimal nutrient use through by-product recycling

Agricultural by-products, such as manure fromlivestock and crop residues can serve as fertilizer andfeed inputs for small-scale and commercialaquaculture. After availability of freshwater, theexistence of livestock and agricultural cropproduction systems is the principal factorinfluencing aquaculture potential in countries andregions6.

Resource scarcity is commonly the overridingincentive directing technical and institutionalchange towards higher levels of efficiency.Sophisticated techniques and institutionalarrangements for managing resource use can befound in areas of both high and low populationdensities, depending on the abundance ofresources. In arid areas with a low populationdensity, for example, complex systems for theallocation of scarce freshwater resources are knownto have existed for centuries7.

Integrated farming in China dates back to morethan 2 400 years ago, when it involved a complexcomplementary system combining fish polyculturewith poultry, livestock and crop production and theintegrated use of manure, grass and other crops asfeed and fertilizer8. Rotational farming of rice andshrimps has a long history in the intertidal zones ofBangladesh, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Viet Namand other Asian countries9. Globally, integratedfarming systems are receiving increasing attention.In Argentina, Brazil, Haiti, Panama and Peru, thetechnical feasibility of rice-fish farming is beingstudied. Concurrent and rotational cultivation offish and crustaceans with rice are also attractinginterest in economically advanced countries: in theUnited States and Spain, while the revival of rice-fishculture is being considered in Italy. Although thescientific foundations of these systems as well astheir regional diversity have yet to be fullyunderstood, there is no doubt about their high levelof efficiency, particularly regarding the use ofnatural resources. The extent of potential efficiencygains from integrated farming systems may begauged by a report of the Indian Council ofAgricultural Research10 citing a twelve-fold increasein economic benefits from integrated rice-fishsystems combined with vegetable or fruit cropsgrown on the bunds, as compared with traditionalrice farming.

Generally, integrated pest management (IPM)practices are recommended for rice-fish farming.The use of pest- and disease-resistant rice varieties isencouraged to minimize the use of pesticide. In rice

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monoculture, the chance of pests reaching apopulation level that economically justifies definitecontrol action is usually low, and the potentialincome to be gained by integrating fish productionshifts the economic threshold to a level that is evenless likely to justify pest control. From the point ofview of IPM, fish culture and rice farming arecomplementary activities because it has been shownthat fish reduce pest populations. In Indonesia,evidence from the Inter-country Programme forIntegrated Pest Control in Rice in South andSoutheast Asia shows that the number of pesticideapplications in rice-fields can be drastically reducedthrough IPM. Such a reduction not only lowers costsbut also eliminates an important constraint to theadoption of fish farming. With savings on pesticidesand additional earnings from fish sales, increases innet income on rice-fish farms are reported to besignificantly higher than on rice monoculture farmsby widely varying margins of 7 to 65 percent11.

In Viet Nam recent, experiments have demonstratedthe effectiveness of carp as a means of biologicalcontrol of snails, both in rice-fields and communalwater reservoirs. In the Republic of Korea, researchersare focusing on the impact that indigenous fishspecies have on malaria vectors in rice-fields12.

Efficient use of water resources

In economic terms, water use efficiency may bemeasured by the net economic benefits attained perunit of water. Fish and crustaceans are grown inartificial water bodies such as village tanks,reservoirs and channels whose primary purpose iswater abstraction, storage and transport for use inagriculture and/or power generation and asdrinking water. Engineering details of constructionas well as seasonal water abstraction and useschedules can influence the potential of thesestructures for fish production. For example, rapiddrawdowns in reservoirs may cause the loss of vitalspawning habitat, thereby limiting fish production.

Under irrigated conditions, water losses associatedwith evaporation and seepage can be minimized byapplying drip irrigation and by storing andtransporting water in covered or undergroundstructures. Since such measures impede fishproduction, however, the advantages of preventingwater evaporation need to be compared with theeconomic and nutritional benefits derived from fish.Except for arid and semi-arid areas, water scarcityand evaporation rates may be too low to justify thecost of installing closed systems and forgoing theopportunities offered by fish production.

Apart from the production of fish, the benefitsgained through enhanced fish culture in reservoirsand channels often derive also from themaintenance of water quality and the physicalfunctions of these bodies. Stocking with grass carp,for example, controls aquatic weeds in irrigationchannels, thereby facilitating water flow andreducing evaporation rates during water transport.Stocking and fish culture can also reduce humanhealth hazards caused by mosquitoes and otherinsects. Moreover, fish can be used to harvest certainplankton species and aquatic weeds, and thusindirectly reduce nutrient levels, thereby minimizingthe harmful effects of eutrophication.

Use of biocides

The extent to which fish are able to toleratepesticides and herbicides, including their residues, isan acknowledged indicator of the potential humanhealth hazards associated with the use of theseproducts in agriculture. Significant advancementshave been made in recent decades in limitingundesired harmful effects of chemicals applied forpest and weed control. In fact, the negative impactof biocides on fisheries is often caused not so muchby their use but rather by their inappropriateapplication, which may have wide-ranging effectson fish and other aquatic organisms. Mortality is notthe only negative effect; equally seriousconsequences of biocide misuse include changes inan organism’s reproduction system, metabolism andgrowth patterns, in food availability and inpopulation size and numbers, etc. If biocides areapplied according to prescription, the risks for fishand fisheries can be minimized. Many governmentshave established lists of recommended pesticidesand herbicides and have laid down regulations onimports and domestic production, while extensionprogrammes and training of farmers in their correctuse have expanded. All these measures help toreduce the risks of pest and weed control forfisheries and human health.

Eutrophication

Nutrient runoff from fertilized agricultural fieldsand urban and industrial sewage discharge are thetwo main causes of nutrient enrichment of inlandwaters, near-shore marine waters and semi-enclosedwater bodies such as the Mediterranean and BlackSeas. The fisheries potential of nutrient-poor waterbodies may initially increase owing to the enhancedavailability of nutrients associated with agriculturalrunoff and other effluent, as has most likelyhappened in the Mediterranean Sea, whichhistorically has been a nutrient-poor water body.

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Overloading or excessive nutrient enrichment,however, can result in eutrophication, which mayseverely affect the reproduction, growth andsurvival of fish and other aquatic organisms bycreating anaerobic conditions and by causingphysical damage and intoxication associated withthe occurrence of harmful algal blooms. Increasinglyfrequent occurrences and larger sizes of harmful,sometimes toxic, algal blooms in coastal marinewaters have caused substantial losses to coastalfisheries and aquaculture over the last two decades.

The contribution of agriculture to nutrient loadingis often relatively small, but it is not insignificant.The introduction of sewage water treatmentsystems in the Austrian, German and Swisscommunities and towns around Lake Constanceover the past 20 years has led to a significantreduction in the lake’s nutrient loading.

Alterations in hydrological systems

Many of the world’s large and small river basins haveundergone major human-induced changes in theirhydrological regimes over the past 40 to 50 years. Insome European river systems such as the Rhine,control measures were taken as far back as 100 yearsago or more. The construction of dams, reservoirs,embankments, barrages and channels for purposes ofwater abstraction and storage, flood control, powergeneration and irrigation have produced largeeconomic benefits. In some cases, these changes havealso yielded large gains for fisheries in reservoirs, suchas in Lake Kariba in Africa, as well as in irrigated rice-fields whose full fisheries potential still remains to berealized in many parts of the world.

In many other instances, modifications in hydrologicalsystems have caused drastic declines in natural fishpopulations and dramatically reduced fish catchesand incomes from fishing. In some cases where fishmigration routes and spawning and nursery areashave been lost, species have become extinct. In manyrivers of Europe, for example, wild stocks of salmon,sturgeon and Allis shad no longer exist.

Past experiences have greatly improved scientificknowledge regarding the short-term and long-termconsequences of different designs and features ofstructural alterations to river basin hydrology. Thisexpertise can now bear fruit by preserving theessential ecological features that sustain wild fishstocks and/or create optimal conditions for fishproduction in new reservoirs and channels.According to current ideas in the field of integratedwater resources management (IWRM), ecosystemssuch as seasonal floodplains and coastal wetlandsand estuaries are major water users that provide

essential permanent and seasonal habitat for fishand serve as repositories of aquatic biodiversity13.Wetlands are also important fish nurseries.

Soil and groundwater salination

In general, most culture-based fisheries andaquaculture activities have no or few significantnegative environmental effects and are highlycomplementary to agriculture. However, shrimpculture practices have been associated with reducedagricultural yields in certain localities where soilconditions allowed saline water to seep throughembankments and pond bottoms into adjacentfields. In addition, excessive abstraction ofgroundwater for various purposes such asagriculture, domestic water supply, industrialactivities and, in some cases, shrimp culture, arecausing seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers.Appropriate planning and allocation of land andwater resources in coastal areas can help minimizethe degradation of groundwater and soil qualityresulting from salination. Furthermore, there arenumerous experiences of the beneficial coexistenceof coastal aquaculture and agriculture; for example,the rotational systems of rice-fish or rice-shrimpculture, where advantage is taken of saltwater-resistant paddy, an abundant freshwater influx inthe rainy season and the opportunity to cultivatebrackishwater aquaculture species.

APPROACHES TO BETTER INTEGRATION

Human resource development and institutionalstrengthening are widely held to be the principalrequirements for improving integration at the levelof individual farms and communities, in river basinand coastal area management and at the level ofsectoral and macroeconomic policies. At the farmlevel, attention needs to focus first on resource useefficiency and the economic incentives thatinfluence farmers when they decide on croppingpatterns and the use of water, fertilizer, pesticidesand herbicides and other inputs. Next, the emphasisshould be on farmers’ knowledge of availableproduction and pest management options as wellas on their ability to apply these. Agriculture andaquaculture offer a large variety of croppingpatterns under different climatic and soilconditions. If they have the right skills, togetherwith access to the necessary inputs, farmers willadopt the farming or aquaculture system that ismost suitable and economically advantageous fortheir specific situation. Extension and training arecrucial for informed decision-making, and physicalinfrastructure, efficient input markets and credit

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facilities are indispensable for the optimaldevelopment and integration of farming andaquaculture systems.

Markets for certain important natural resourceinputs, such as water, and the environment’s capacityto assimilate effluent are often entirely non-existentor distorted because of their common property oropen access nature. The levying of use fees and/orthe introduction of tradable rights have beensuggested to achieve a higher level of efficiency inthe use of water and other natural resources such aswild fish stocks. Resource management through suchmarket-based instruments can entail highadministrative costs because of the need to monitorindividual farmers’ resource use and to institute well-defined and enforceable individual user rights.Where tradable rights are applicable, they mayreinforce an inequitable distribution of incomes andassets, especially where other services (e.g. for credit)are inefficient.

The alternative approaches of co-management andcommunity-based management of commonproperty resources have received increasingattention in recent years because of their assumedgreater efficiency and prevention of undesireddistributional implications. Factors that usersthemselves have identified as being important forsuccessful resource management include: smallgroup size, which facilitates the formulation,observance and monitoring of a collectiveagreement; social cohesion; resource characteristicsthat facilitate the exclusion of outsiders; and visiblesigns of successful collective management14. Thesefactors could well apply to a number of fisheries inreservoirs and other small water bodies, where thepotential for self-management, however, is notutilized because responsibility is not delegated tothe local level and collective rights are notsufficiently protected. Similar favourable conditionsexist in many other situations, for example forresources such as water and mangrove forestswhere, again, the potential for effectivemanagement has yet to be realized. In addition tothe recognition of common rights, community-based and co-management need support throughextension and training services and scientificassessments of resource abundance.

At the level of river basins and coastal areas,integration is aimed at managing sectoralcomponents as parts of a functional whole, explicitlyrecognizing that management needs to focus onhuman behaviour, not physical stocks of naturalresources such as fish, land or water. Integrated riverbasin and coastal area management employs amulti-sectoral strategic approach to the efficientallocation of scarce resources among competing

uses and the minimization of unintended naturalresource and environmental effects15. Land useplanning and zoning, together with environmentalimpact assessment procedures, are vital tools forpreventing the occurrence of antagonistic inter-sectoral interactions and for fostering synergisticand harmonious development while preservingecosystem functionalities. The involvement offisheries agencies in these activities therefore isabsolutely essential.

The participation of all resource users and otherstakeholders at an early stage is indispensable foreffective land use planning and zoning, not leastbecause of their intimate knowledge of local socio-economic conditions and the state of naturalresources. At the government level, the functions ofthe various agencies with regulatory anddevelopment mandates need to be wellcoordinated. Two broad distinctions can be made inthe wide range of possible institutionalarrangements for integrated river basin and coastalarea management:

Multi-sectoral integration. This involves coordinatingthe various agencies responsible for river basin andcoastal management on the basis of a commonpolicy and bringing together the variousgovernment agencies concerned as well as otherstakeholders so that they can work towards commongoals by following mutually agreed strategies.

Structural integration. Here, an entirely new,integrated institutional structure is created byplacing management, development and policyinitiatives within a single institution.

Multi-sectoral coordination tends to be preferred,since line ministries are typically highly protective oftheir core responsibilities and the associated powerbase and funding. The establishment of anorganization with broad administrativeresponsibilities overlapping the traditionaljurisdictions of line ministries as would be the case ifmanagement, policy and development functionswere integrated within a single institution – is oftenlikely to meet with resistance rather than co-operation. Integration and co-ordination should bethought of as being separate but mutuallysupportive16.

However, a caveat has arisen from experiences todate. Integrated planning and institutionalcoordination are often difficult to achieve and canentail significant costs. The difficulties and costsrelate to the often cumbersome bureaucraticstructures and procedures of government agencies;the complexity of the scientific, technical andeconomic issues involved; and the potentially large

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1 This article was prepared by Rolf Willmann, Matthias Halwart and UweBarg. Valuable comments on earlier drafts were received from BramBorn, Richard Grainger, James Kapetsky, Gerd Marmulla and KrishenRana.

2 A household food consumption survey undertaken in north-easternThailand, for example, has revealed that fish consumption was five tosix times higher than reported fish catches from the Mekong River(Mekong Fisheries Network Newsletter, August 1996, 2 (1)).

3 The importance of inland fisheries for food security has beenhighlighted by Coates, D. 1995. Inland capture fisheries andenhancement: status, constraints and prospects for food security.KC/FI/TECH 82p. Contribution to the International Conference onsustainable Contribution of Fisheries to Food Security, Kyoto, Japan, 4-9 December 1995, organized by the Government of Japan, incollaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO).

4 FAO. 1997. Inland Fisheries. FAO Technical Guidelines for ResponsibleFisheries N° 6. Rome, FAO.

5 FAO. 1997. Review of the state of world aquaculture. FAO Fish. Circ. 886,Rev. 2. Rome, FAO. 163p.

6 The development of agriculture implies that at least a minimum amountof physical and institutional infrastructure has already been developed.Kapetsky and Nath conclude that, in general, the conditionsencouraging agriculture favour aquaculture development and viceversa. This fact has been used by these authors and by Aguilar-Manjarrez and Nath in their estimates of aquaculture potential inAfrica and Latin America. See J.M. Kapetsky and S.S. Nath in FAO. 1997.A strategic assessment of the potential for freshwater fish farming inLatin America. COPESCAL Technical Paper N°. 10. Rome; and J. Aguilar-Manjarrez and S.S. Nath in FAO. 1998. A strategic reassessment of fishfarming potential in Africa. CIFA Technical Paper N°. 32. Rome.

7 Many examples of traditional management of water resources and othercommon property or common pool resources can be found in NationalAcademy Press. 1986. Proceedings of the Conference on CommonProperty Resource Management. Washington, DC.

8 Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (NACA). 1989.Integrated fish farming in China. Technical Manual N°. 7.

9 A recent review of the trends in rice-fish farming is provided by M.Halwart. 1998. Trends in rice-fish farming. In FAO AquacultureNewsletter, N° 18: 3-11.

10 K.C. Mathur. 1996. Rainfed lowlands become remunerative through rice-fish systems. Indian Council of Agricultural Research News, 2(1): 1-3.

11 See M. Halwart. 1998. Op. Cit.

12 Ibid.

13 A comprehensive discussion on this issue took place during the ExpertGroup Meeting on Strategic Approaches to Freshwater Management,organized by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs andheld in Harare, Zimbabwe, 27-30 January 1998.

14 See E. Ostrom. 1990. Governing the commons. The evolution ofinstitutions for collective action. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge UniversityPress; and J.-M. Baland and J.-P. Platteau. 1996. Halting degradation ofnatural resources. Is there a role for local communities? Published forFAO by Oxford University Press (Clarendon academic imprint), UK.

15 Fallon Scura, L. 1994. Typological framework and strategy elements forintegrated coastal fisheries management. FAO/UNDP Project INT/91/007“Integrated Coastal Fisheries management”. FI:DP/INT/91/007. FieldDocument 2. Rome. 23p.

16 For this and other aspects of integration, such as conflict managementand economic valuation of natural resources, see the detailed discussionin FAO. 1998. Integrated coastal area management and agriculture,forestry and fisheries. Edited by N. Scialabba. Rome.

17 This has been named “enhanced sectoral management” in a recentsurvey of coastal management programmes. See S. Olsen, K. Lowry, J.Tobey, P. Burbridge and S. Humphrey. 1997. Survey of current purposesand methods for evaluating coastal management projects andprograms funded by international donors. Coastal Management ReportN°. 2200. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, USA. Adetailed discussion of integration aspects with respect to inlandfisheries is provided in U. Barg, I.G. Dunn, T. Petr and R.L. Welcomme.1996. Inland Fisheries. In A.K. Biswas, ed. Water ResourcesEnvironmental planning, management and development. New York,McGraw-Hill.

number of informed decisions that need to betaken. In addition to high administrative costs, thedecision-making process could be protracted andmay unduly slow down economic development.

Many river basin and coastal management issues canbe addressed through sound sectoral management,but taking into full account the impacts of andinterdependencies with other sectors and ecosystemprocesses17; the provision and enforcement ofenvironmental legislation; the need for atransparent and consultative process of land useplanning and siting; and the design of majorinfrastructure projects such as dams. The costs of aformal process for the preparation of a river basin orcoastal area management plan are always likely tobe justified in areas where intense multi-sectoralresource utilization either exists or is planned.

At the macro level, economic policies such assubsidies for production inputs and import andexport duties can have profound impacts on thecharacteristics and level of resource use as well as onthe occurrence of undesirable environmental effects.The advantages of subsidizing chemical inputs suchas fertilizer and pesticides need to be weighed

against the potential harm they can do to aquaticenvironments and to fishery resources, whichprovide food for fishers and fish consumers alike.

CONCLUSION

Modern advances in information and dataprocessing technologies have dramatically increasedthe capacity of humans to analyse complex multipleresource-use options and to link up large numbers ofpeople into integrated decision-making structures.At the same time, new research findings have greatlybroadened the understanding of local communities’ability to co-ordinate common property resource usewhile maintaining their essential social and culturalattributes. Finally, governments have become moreaware of sectoral and environmental inter-dependencies. Such all-round progress has createdconditions favourable to the full realization ofbenefits resulting from the enhanced integration offisheries and agriculture as well as their integrationwith the rest of the economy.

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China’s underestimated nationalaquaculture production and global

contribution addressed andrectified by FAO

AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION IN

CHINA

T he Fisheries Information, Data and Statistics Unit(FIDI) of the Food and Agricultural Organization

(FAO) has been systematically collecting analysingand disseminating data on global aquacultureproduction by weight and value (US$) since 1984. Inparallel, the mechanisms for collecting data and thecoverage and quality of data on production fromaquaculture provided by countries to FAO have beenconstantly under review with the aim of improvingtheir accuracy, quality, scope and relevance to futurenational and global needs as well as ensuringreporting according to international norms andstandards

China continues to dominate world aquacultureproduction. Her share of global aquaculture(including plants) increased from 37.7% or 3.8million tonnes in 1984 to 67.8% or 23.1 milliontonnes in 1996. Therefore any changes in Chineseaquaculture development or reporting may greatlyinfluence global fisheries production. It has recentlycome to light that China has been reportingproduction statistics of three molluscs species: the

blood cockle, Japanese carpetshell, Pacific cupped oyster andunclassified marine molluscs, toFAO as shelled or shuckedweight. Consequently, to date,the contribution of:

• shellfish (molluscs andcrustaceans) to Chinese andglobal aquaculture,

•Chinese aquaculture to theirnational fisheries landings,

•Chinese aquaculture to globalaquaculture and

•Global aquaculture to worldfisheries landings have beenunderstated. This year FAO, inconsultation with the Chinese

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)

Live weightMeat weightJap. carpet shell (live weight)Pacific oysters (live weight)

Krishen Rana, Maurizio Perotti, Sara Montanaro and Anton ImminkFisheries Information, Data and Statistics Unit

Figure 1. Increase in reported Chinese production of the sum ofthree shellfish species and unclassfied molluscs resulting fromconverting meat to whole live weight

N°. 20

10

Ministry of Agriculture, adjustedChinese and global aquacultureproduction statistics and reflectedthese in its databases, time series andsubsequent analysis.

While acknowledging that meat orshucked weight may be appropriateunits for expressing production, thestandard practice of FAO and otherinternational fishery organisations is toreport aquatic production as “nominalcatch” which is the live weightequivalent. When the production ofspecies reported to FAO is known to begiven as dry or shelled weight,appropriate conversion factors areapplied to convert these to live weightequivalent to ensure internationalcomparability. In the case of China, theFAO statistics for three shellfish species:the blood cockle, Japanese carpet shell,Pacific cupped oyster and unclassifiedmarine molluscs, were adjusted fromshucked to live weight equivalents usingconversion factors of 1.35, 2.13, 6.11 and2.13, respectively, provided by theChinese Ministry of Agriculture.

The implication of converting reportedproduction from meat to live weight forChinese production between 1984 and1996 is shown in Figure 1. During thisperiod the total Chinese production (liveweight) statistics of these shellfishincreased from 347 000 tonnes to 4.70million tonnes. Therefore previousreporting of these shellfish by FAOunderestimated their production by 255 000 tonnes or 276% in 1984 and 3.16million tonnes or by 205% in 1996. Inview of the rapid increase in theirproduction after 1990 (see Figure 1) theimpact of these changes are onlyhighlighted here for 1990 to 1996. Theexponential increase between 1990 and1996 is due to a combination of the rapidexpansion rate in the culture of Japanesecarpet shell and particularly the Pacificoyster (Figure 1). Between 1984 and 1996these two species accounted for 71-85%of total shellfish production.

Following the conversion, the reportedproduction statistics of Chinese shellfish(molluscs and crustaceans) increased from1.32 to 2.0 million tonnes or by 52% in1990 and from 3.49 to 6.64 million tonnes

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

1990 1991 1993 1994 1996

(She

llfis

h) P

erce

ntag

e ch

ange

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0

(Tot

als)

Per

cent

age

chan

ge

To Chinese Shellfish Production To World Shellfish Production

To Total Chinese Aquaculture Production To World Aquaculture Production

19951992

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

90 o

ld

90 n

ew

91 o

ld

91 n

ew

92 o

ld

92 n

ew

93 o

ld

93 n

ew

94 o

ld

94 n

ew

95 o

ld

95 n

ew

96 o

ld

96 n

ew

Prod

uctio

n (m

illio

n to

nnes

)

44.046.048.050.052.054.056.058.060.062.0

Cont

ribu

tion

of a

quac

ultu

re

to la

ndin

gs (%

)

National Landings of Fin- and Shellfish Cultured Fin- and Shellfish

Contribution from Culture (New Statistics) Contribution from Culture (Old Statistics)

or by 90.5% in 1996 (Figure 2). The contribution of Chineseshellfish production to global cultured shellfish productionincreased by 18% in 1990 and by 49% in 1996 (Figure 2). Theincrease in the quantity of adjusted shellfish production alsogreatly changed the statistics on estimated total Chineseaquacultural output. The total reported aquacultureproduction, including plants, for China increased from 7.5 to 8.2million tonnes or by 9% in 1990 and from 20.0 to 23.1 milliontonnes or by 15.8% in 1996. The new higher reportedproduction statistics also altered the contribution of culturedfin- and shell-fish to Chinese fin- and shell-fish landings (Figure3). Between 1990 and 1996 their contribution to national fin-and shell-fish landings increased by 1.5 and 3.8%, respectively.

At the global level, the statistics on China’s aquaculturalcontribution to world aquaculture production increased. For1990 its contribution rose from 46.5 to 48.7%, and in 1996from 64.5 to 67.8%. Similarly, the contribution of globalcultured finfish and shell-fish to total world fin- and shell-fishfisheries increased by 0.6% in 1990 and 2.1% in 1996 to 13.3and 21.8%, respectively. Finally, the contribution of globalaquaculture production, including plants, to world aquaticproduction increased by 0.6% in 1990 and by 1.8%, 1996, to 16and 26%, respectively.

Figure 3. Apparent increases in the contribution of aquaculture to Chinese nationallandings. The "old" and "new"on the time axis refers to values based on old and newstatistics, respectively

Figure 2. Increases arising from adjusting meat to live weight for three shellfish species and unclassified molluscs from culture on reported production

11

N°. 20

1. A Symposium on Water for Sustainable InlandFisheries and Aquaculture was convened inconjunction with the Twentieth Session of theEuropean Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission(EIFAC) in Praia do Carvoeiro, Portugal, from 23to 26 June 1998. The Symposium was convenedby Mr R. Müller (Switzerland) and chaired by MrH. Ackefors (Sweden). The Symposium wasattended by 68 participants from 23 countries.

Assessment of quantitative and qualitativecharacteristics of water resources

2. Ground and surface freshwater resources arefinite but demand on them from various sectorsand interests in society is increasing. Growingscarcity is therefore leading to competitionbetween the various users including fisheries andis becoming a major issue in Europe andelsewhere. The intensification of use is alsoleading to greater pressure on water qualitythrough pollution and eutrophication.

3. It was concluded that inland fisheries planners andadministrators need to participate pro-actively infora at all levels concerned with the allocation ofwater and management of living aquaticresources. Such participation is necessary to:

a) ensure that water is assigned for themaintenance of aquatic ecosystems and livingorganisms. Such allocation should include criteriafor water use, including quantity, quality andtiming which should be established on the basisof scientific evidence;

Summary report of the EIFACsymposium on water for

sustainable inland fisheriesand aquaculture

RESOURCE USE IN AQUACULTURE AND

INLAND FISHERIES

N°. 20

12

b) ensure that the aquaculture sector is not penalizedby unrealistic requirements for effluent quality. Itwas recognized that for its part the aquaculturesector would need to be responsible in its approachto improving the quality of its discharges;

c) limit the potential damage resulting fromintroductions and transfers of exotic fish, andother animals and plants within the inlandwaters of Europe; and

d) promote awareness and knowledge of the social,economic and environmental significance ofinland fisheries and aquaculture amongdecision-makers and stakeholders at all levels.

Water requirements of inland aquaculture systems

4. Aquaculture was established originally in regionswhere water resources were readily available butsupplies are now becoming a limiting factor insome areas due to population increase,industrialization, environmental concerns andother factors. Several fish farms have had toconvert from production to nature conservationor recreational areas. Other intensive fish farmsare also having problems in the disposal of theireffluents. Despite these difficulties, the need forfish as healthy food is increasing, and efforts arebeing made in many countries to increase theproportion of fish in the diet. However, givencurrent circumstances, studies and trend analysesindicate that some conventional aquaculturesystems need to evolve and adapt to changingsocial, economic and environmental conditionsin many European countries.

5. Aquaculture must be accepted and legallyrecognized as a legitimate user of water.

6. The availability of freshwater resources foraquaculture production will continue todecrease in the future but new methods andproduction systems are available for the moreefficient use and protection of those waterresources that remain. While there is little needto introduce these into many countries atpresent, medium-and long-term planning ofaquaculture development should consider theirpotential for the future. Research anddevelopment of new types of water efficient fishproduction systems should get priority informulating R&D programmes.

7. The possibility of integrating aquaculture intoirrigation systems should be considered as an

option for improved efficiency of water use.However a flexible approach is suggested whichuses all types of habitat created by existingagronomic practices, the hydrological cycle andthe features of the landscape. The principle ofintegration may also be applied on a wider scale,and more active collaboration among thevarious water users, planners and administratorsis necessary. Collaboration between countries inwhich water shortage already exists and wheresuch problems are anticipated in the futureshould also be promoted in order to exchangeinformation and execute joint projects.

Water requirements for inland fisheries

8. Fisheries scientists have an acceptable level ofknowledge on the theoretical water quantityand quality requirements for fish for manyaquatic ecosystems. Increasing pressures onwater resources, coupled with a heightenedpublic demand for truly sustainabledevelopment, means there are now key cross-disciplinary considerations related to the need tomanage the environment as a whole. There is anincreasing need for a better understanding ofthe different demands placed on the aquaticsystem and how these demands relate to oneanother. There is also a need for improvedcommunication and acceptance of how therequirements of one user will modify andcompromise those of another.

9. Water resources are generally under pressureunder existing demand regimes. There issignificant scope for reducing demand andmanaging impacts in order to comply with newenvironmental awareness. Given current levelsof demand it will not always be possible toprotect the environment fully, but the appraisalprocess must be carried out so as to balancepriorities and apply mitigation measures.

10. Current knowledge is sufficient for technicalinterventions to mitigate continuing damage byother users or to rehabilitate impacted systems.Public incapacity to improve the aquatic systemlies more in the sphere of policy making andallocation among different user groups. The newneed is for political processes that will facilitatecompromise by stakeholders and favourintegrated resource management.

11. Fishery scientists should continue to buildunderstanding of the impacts of hydrologicalchange on fish communities. Robustenvironmental appraisal processes must be

13

N°. 20

carried out to properly balance resourcepriorities, guide decisions on allocation and onany mitigation measures that may be necessary.

12. It is important that concepts of social andeconomic value and use are developed for inlandfisheries so that fisheries interests can beproperly represented in the allocation debate.Collaboration with local stakeholders and withother groups expressing public concern for theenvironment should be sought in order toinfluence planners and politicians.

13. Stocking of new species in stressed systems mayprovide alternative fishery resources butpotential risks to the wider environment shouldbe carefully considered and the appropriateguidelines respected.

Water resources issues and conflicts

14. Increasing demand for aquatic resources by adiverse array of user groups has resulted inenvironmental degradation, loss of habitat andconflict between various stakeholder groups.The mechanisms for assessing the impact ofvarious activities are reasonably well establishedbut overcoming the problems is still complex.This is because mechanisms for resolving conflictswithin fisheries and between fisheries and otherusers are only now being developed. The keyproblem to be addressed is the promotion ofsustainable use of water resources at an optimallevel of exploitation, acceptable to all userswhilst maintaining the potential to meet theneeds and expectations of future generations.

15. If aquatic resources are to be exploited on asustainable basis in the future, concerted effortis needed to resolve the conflicts between usergroups. Where possible, this must be based onavailable scientific evidence, close liaisonbetween user groups, full cost-benefit analysisand transparency in the decision-making process.If this is to be successful it must involve crosseducation of all user groups, recognition ofstakeholder participation and needs, and beimplemented at the local community level. It isrecommended that aquatic resource planningand management tools such as the river basinmanagement plans being developed by theEuropean Union member countries be used tofacilitate the process of integrated waterresource management.

16. The proper representation of fisheries requiresimproved long-term trend analysis, andassessment of economic and social value offisheries and associated externalities. It isrecommended that priority be given todeveloping and promoting economic evaluationof inland fisheries and marketing of its products.There is also the need for robust methods forprioritizing demands for aquatic resources,which balance human requirements against theprotection of the environment and biodiversity.

Strategic planning of water resources

17. World food production has to be increased overthe next three decades to satisfy the additionaldemands of a world population, which isexpected to grow to about eight thousandmillion by 2025. It is not anticipated thatsubstantial increases in supply can be obtainedfrom oceanic fisheries. Therefore, any futuregrowth in fish protein supply will have to comefrom aquaculture and enhancement of wildfisheries. In view of the problems of water supplycaused by growing demand existing aquacultureproduction using conventional methods is likelyto be endangered. Those responsible for theinland fisheries and aquaculture sectors in Europeand elsewhere must take part in the widerdiscussions and decisions concerning future waterresources allocation and water qualitymanagement.

18. It was concluded that:

a) EIFAC member countries should be aware of agrowing demand for fish in the near future thatcannot be filled by catches from the sea or fromnatural inland waters;

b) against the background of growing worldpopulation future demand for fish will have tobe satisfied through aquaculture and fish stockenhancement;

c) therefore those responsible for decisions onground and surface water allocation andmanagement at all administrative and technicallevels must make adequate water available foraquaculture and for maintenance of quantityand timing of stream flows;

d) greater efforts in the development of moreefficient purification systems are needed toprotect ground and surface water fromunacceptable pollution deriving from urban andindustrial drainage systems; and

N°. 20

14

e) there should be a comparable emphasis on riverand lake rehabilitation and improvement tomaintain and enhance valuable recreational,commercial and subsistence fisheries.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

19. The participants at the Symposium on Water forSustainable Inland Fisheries and Aquacultureproposed the following recommendations foradoption by the Twentieth Session of EIFAC:

a) Authorities and those in charge of fisheries andaquaculture development must seekcollaboration with other agencies and othersectors of society in order to improvecoordination of resource management.

b) It is vital that governments empower fisheriesand aquaculture authorities to promote activelythe interests of inland fisheries and aquaculture,as well as adequately participate in resourcemanagement decision-making.

c) Authorities in charge of fisheries and aquacultureneed enhanced capacity to implement policiesand regulations related to management of livingand physical aquatic resources. Greater resourcesmust be made available to these authorities. It isrealized that in many cases these authorities lackmanpower and financial and informationresources to be able to participate actively inintersectoral negotiations and policy-making.There is a need for research and development tofill key information gaps.

d) There is a need for management strategies forwater resources in general that incorporate theneeds of inland fisheries and aquaculture. Thoseresponsible for water allocation should consultwith fisheries and aquaculture authorities.Authorities responsible for fisheries, aquacultureand water resource planning should collaborateto formulate appropriate strategies, identifyoptions for their implementation and identifykey stakeholders who should participate in thisprocess. These strategies must encompass arange of aspects including social, economic andrecreational considerations, biodiversity and thewider aquatic environment.

e) In view of river basin management plans whichhave to be prepared for a deadline of December1999 in the EU member states, authoritiesrepresenting inland fisheries and aquaculturemanagement must identify groups responsiblefor the production of these plans and ensure that

the needs of inland fisheries and aquaculture areadequately represented in the plans.

f) Key government departments must recognizethat inland fisheries have economic, social,biological and other values. For inland fisheriesand aquaculture to be properly represented inthe allocation of resources there is a need forimproved economic and social evaluation offisheries, aquaculture and associated aspects. It isrecommended that priority is given to developingand promoting economic and social evaluation ofinland fisheries, aquaculture production, fishingcommunities, fish populations and aquaticenvironments in general.

The report of the EIFAC Symposium on Water forSustainable Inland Fisheries and Aquaculturewill be published in:Report of the Twentieth Session of the EuropeanInland Fishery Advisory Commission, Praia doCarvoiero, Portugal, 23 - June - 1 July 1998, asFAO Fisheries Report No. 580 (FIPL/R580), and isavailable on the Home Page of the FAO FisheriesDepartment: http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FISHERY/body/eifac/1998rep1.htm

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:Dr Heiner Naeve, Secretary of EIFACe.mail: heiner.naeve@fao.org, or Mr Uwe Barg, Technical Secretary of theSymposiume.mail: uwe.barg@fao.org

15

N°. 20

Alien species2 are receiving internationalattention in fora such as the Convention on

Biological Diversity and the FAO Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries. While much of the recentattention has focused on the adverse impacts, notall alien species are bad. As in agriculture andornamental horticulture, alien aquatic species havecontributed to an improvement of the humancondition in many areas. The production of theAfrican cichlid tilapia is much higher in Asia(>700,000 mt in 1996) than in most areas of Africa(39,245 mt); introduced salmonids in Chile supporta thriving aquaculture industry that is responsiblefor approximately 20% of the world’s farmedsalmon. The practice of using species outside oftheir natural range to increase production orprofitability can be expected to continue. The issueis not to ban alien species, or to abandonregulation of their movement, but rather, as statedin international codes of practice (ICES 1995) andthe Convention on Biological Diversity, to assessthe risks and benefits associated with their use andthen, if appropriate, develop and implement a planfor their responsible use.

Risk assessment will require information from anumber of sources on a number of areas such as thebiology, ecology, and genetics of the alien species.The information will need to be readily availableand understandable to those performing the riskassessment and to policy makers. Risk assessmentmust also include benefit assessment; an accurateaccounting of the benefits derived from exoticspecies is essential. This note details informationfrom two databases that stemmed fromcollaborative efforts of the European Community,ICLARM and FAO – FishBase (Froese and Pauley1997) and DIAS (Database on Introductions ofAquatic Species) (Welcomme 1988; Bartley et al.1997). The records in the databases came fromquestionnaires distributed internationally, from theliterature, and from personal communications. Thepurpose of the paper is to examine what type ofinformation is needed to make reasonable riskassessments and to use the databases to examinethe impacts of alien species.

Impacts

Impacts of introduced species will fall into twobroad categories – i) ecological, which includesbiological and genetic effects and ii) socio-economic(Table 1). However, these two categories are notindependent and socio-economic changes broughtabout by alien species can in turn cause moreecological changes. Thus, a reduction in nativespecies may be from direct interaction with an exoticspecies, or it may result from increased fishingpressure or changes in land use brought about bythe presence of a newly established species.

FishBase is a relational database that allowscomparisons of multiple data-sets. Links of theIntroductions module to the FAO Fishery Statistics(FAO 1998) module revealed that the contributionintroduced fishes make to total fish production isabout 17% (Figure 1).

IMPACTS OF INTRODUCTIONS ON THE CONSERVATION

AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF AQUATICBIODIVERSITY

Devin Bartley1 and Christine V. Casal2

1Fishery Resources Division2Biodiversity and Genetic Resources Programme

ICLARM, Manila, Philippines

The following was presented by D. Bartley at Session 4 of the

International Conference on SustainableUse of Aquatic Biodiversity: Data, Tools

and Collaboration1. ACP-EU FisheriesResearch Initiative, 3 – 5 September,

1998, Lisbon Portugal. The article willalso be distributed on CD ROM alongwith the other contributions from the

meeting through the ACP-EU Fisheries Research Initiative. The

assistance of ICLARM and the otherorganizers is gratefully acknowledged.

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16

Table 1. Some potential adverse effects of alien aquatic species

EFFECT

Reduction or elimination of aquatic species

Change in terrestrial fauna

Change in fishery management

Alteration in habitat

Socioeconomic impacts

MECHANISM - BIOLOGICAL

Competition, hybridization,predation/herbivory, diseasetransmission

Change in abundance of preferred prey

Change in stock composition

Burrowing, sediment mobilization, removal of vegetation

Change in species abundanceor distribution leading tochanges in fishing or consumption practices

MECHANISM - SOCIAL

Change in fishing pressure andaccess to resources; treatmentmeasures to enhance introduced species

Fish farms providing more foodfor birds and animals or killingpredatory birds

Successful introductions lead toother introductions

Change in land use, e.g. creation of fish farms

Change in access rights,landtenure; financial liability fordamages through national and interntional legislation

Table 2. Effects of introduced fishes on ecological and (socioeconomic) environments, by reason for theintroduction. Data represents number of records from FishBase

REASON

IMPACT

ADVERSE

BENEFICIAL

UNKNOWN

BLANK

FISHING

36 (2)

16 (87)

28 (16)

196 (299)

AQUACULTURE

78 (8)

52 (283)

76 (49)

949 (815)

ORNAMENTAL

17 (5)

11 (42)

9 (9)

169 (150)

BIO-CONTROL

23 (9)

11 (19)

8 (2)

106 (122)

UNKNOWN

13 (0)

3 (10)

459

OTHER

40 (12)

6 (15)

21 (3)

283 (328)

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

Africa Asia Europe N. Am. S. Am Oceania fr-USSR

Prod

uctio

n (m

t)

i-Capture

7.7%

0.6%

2.7%

2.1%

2.3%

1.3%

0.8%

Contribution of Introduced Fishes to Total Fishery Production (17.6% in 1996)

i-Aquaculture

Impacts may depend on the objective of theintroduction. Analyses of the database revealsthat aquaculture development was the mostoften cited reason for fish introductions, andthat government organizations were responsiblefor more introductions than any other group.Table 2 presents information that most of theecological effects of introduced species reportedwere negative; however, the socio-economicimpacts were reported to be more oftenbeneficial and there were more positive socio-economic benefits reported than negativeecological impacts.

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N°. 20

Table 3 presents some popular conceptionsregarding impacts of alien species and how thedatabases can provide information to support orrefute the generalizations. The purpose ofchallenging the broad generalizations is not toreplace one generalization with another, but toprovide some estimate of their validity.

The way forward

There are limitations to the present databases thatmust be born in mind when analyzing the data.Many of the data are from questionnairesdistributed internationally and therefore may notbe an accurate sample of species introduced or theactual impact of the introduction. Introductions thatmade a big impact would probably be preferentiallyreported, whereas introductions that did not workor produced only minor impact may be forgotten. Inaddition, the data-sets only report on the firstintroduction across national borders, subsequentintroductions and movements of aquatic specieswithin a country are not included.

FishBase, as the name implies, covers only fishes;DIAS includes other taxa, but is not a relationaldatabase. Efforts to include other taxa in FishBase,or a similar relational database are needed.

An accurate assessment of the impact of an alienspecies will only be possible if an accurateassessment of the “pre-introduction” ecological andsocio-economic environments already exists.

Unfortunately, in many areas of the world andespecially in many inland areas of developingcountries, this information is lacking. Chinese carpwere introduced into barrier lakes in coastalMozambique to establish aquaculture and a fisherywith little or no knowledge of the species existing inthis unusual habitat nor of the level of fishingactivity the lakes already supported.

The Convention on Biological Diversity calls onMembers to prepare and maintain a registry of alienspecies. The format of FishBase and DIAS mayprovide suitable models. The databases mentionedhere focus on the species. This is understandable andeffective for many purposes. However, in assessingrisk from the movement of species from one areainto another, a key factor is the receivingenvironment. National registries would be able tofocus on more than the first introduction and couldcontain information on the environment that thealien has “invaded”.

The amount of information necessary to predictaccurately the impacts of alien species is extensive.Collaboration and sharing of information will beessential in order to take full advantage of thepotential of alien species, while protecting aquaticbiodiversity for present and future generations.

1Editor’s note: editorial changes have been made tothe original document.

2Other terms in use are introduced species andexotic species; all terms refer to species movedacross international borders.

Catfish production in Thailand isbased on the hybrid between theintroduced African and the Thaicatfish. Will hybrids affect nativegene pools?

N°. 20

18

Table 3. Some popular conceptions regarding alien species

STATEMENT

Most introductions fail

Top carnivores are themost dangerous

r-selectd species1 mostlikely to establish

Diverse environmenthinders alienestablishment

Disturbedenvironment helpsalien establishment

Genome size inverselyrelated to invasiveability

INFORMATION FROMDATABASE

Where establishment wasassessed, 65% of theintroductions lead toestablished populations

Herbivores andcarnivores were reportedto cause negativeimpacts in >60% of thecases where impact wasassessed, whereas thefigure for omnivores was81%

Establishment successnegatively correlatedwith max. size

Data-set cannot addressthe issue

Data-set cannot addressthe issue

DNA content andchromosome numberwere not related toestablishment success

POSSIBLE BIASES INDATA

Data fromquestionnaires, i.e.biased reporting

Small sample size ofcarnivore introductions

Larger fishsubsequently removedby fishing or otherfactors afterestablishment; largerfish take longer toestablish noticeablepopulations

REFERENCES

Moyle and Light 1996

Moyle and Light 1996

Pullin et al. 1997

Moyle and Light 1996

Moyle and Light 1996

Baker and Stebbins1965

1 species with high fecundity, short generation time, early age at maturity and usually small size.

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Baker, H.G. and G.L. Stebbins. 1965. The Geneticsof Colonizing Species. Academic Press.

Bartley, D.M., L. Garibaldi, and R.L. Welcomme.1997. Introductions of aquatic organisms: a globalperspective and database. Presented to theAmerican Fisheries Society Symposium: Impacts,threats and control of introduced species incoastal waters, Monterey, California, 28 August,1997.

FAO. 1998. FAO FishStat PC. Fishery Information,Data and Statistics Unit. Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

Froese. R. and D. Pauley, Editors. 1997. FishBase97. Concepts, design, and data sources. ICLARM,Manila, Philippines. 256p.

ICES. 1995. ICES Code of Practice on theIntroductions and Transfers of Marine Organisms.International Council for the Exploration of theSea, Copenhagen, Denmark. 5p.

Moyle, P.B. and T.L. Light. 1996. Biological invasionsof freshwater: empirical rules and assembly theory.Biological Conservation 78: 149 – 161.

Pullin, R.S.V., M.L. Palomares, C.V. Casal, M.M. Deyand D. Pauly. 1997. Environmental impacts oftilapia. ICLARM Contribution No. 1350.

Welcomme, R. L. 1988. International Introductionsof Inland Aquatic Species. FAO Fisheries TechnicalPaper No. 294. Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 318pp.

REFERENCES

Black bass introduced from NorthAmerica along with local redbreasted bream are sold along theroadside in Zimbabwe.

Introduced Atlantic salmon and rainbowtrout have made Chile the world’s secondleading producer of farmed salmon behindNorway; but the effect on native fauna islargely unknown.

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20

T he Database on Introductions of Aquatic Species(DIAS) is the name recently given to the

database begun by Dr. Robin Welcomme in the early80’s on a pioneering Amiga computer to storerecords of aquatic introductions. It was used as themain source for an FAO Technical Paper (Welcomme,1988) which has served as a standard reference inthe field of inland aquatic introductions. In 1991 theresponsibility of the database passed to Dr. DevinBartley who promoted a further collection of databy means of questionnaires to national experts.

Exchange and updating of data was subsequentlyset up between DIAS and FishBase, ICLARM’sdatabase on fish, supported by the European Unionand FAO. An MS-Access application was thencreated to better manage and query the databaseand an analysis of the existing data was carried outand presented to an international congress (Bartley,Garibaldi and Welcomme, in press). In 1997, a Website, hosted in the FAO Fisheries homepage (where itcan be accessed selecting “Databases and Statistics”and then DIAS under “On-line Databases”, ordirectly at http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/statist/fisoft/dias/index.htm), was created toallow interested people outside FAO to consult thedatabase. “Highlights” pages were prepared toprovide basic information to the public on thisincreasingly important topic.

In September 1998, the DIAS site was revised toinclude comments received by the users, add newpages and improve the interface. The data set hasbeen updated to include new records from recentlypublished reviews on introductions (i.e., Coad, 1996,on Southwest Asia; De Moor and Bruton, 1996, onsouthern Africa; Moreau and Costa-Pierce, 1997, oncarps in Africa; Bergot and Vigneux, 1997, on Frenchspeaking countries; Lever, 1996, global) and otherpapers on recent introductions accessed through asearch of the Aquatic Sciences and FisheriesAbstracts (ASFA). The database now contains about3150 records of introductions of aquatic species

from one country to another, excluding movementsof species within the same country. Parasites are notincluded and introductions from ballast water andship-fouling organisms are considered only whenthe introduction of an alien organism has had orcould have significant effect on fisheries andaquaculture, or when the introduction couldseriously affect the environment. The database isstill growing and is probably incomplete, especiallyin the areas of marine organisms, ornamental fishes,and those organisms not used for fisheries and

aquaculture. Users aware of introductions notalready included in the database are kindlyrequested to send the new information through theInput Form provided in the Web site. Thisinformation is first checked and validated and theninserted in the next DIAS update.

The home page of the DIAS Web site is organizedinto two frames. The main frame on the left sidecontains, apart from brief explanatory texts and alist of related Web sites, the icons to open theSearch Form, Input Form, Statistics and Glossarypages. The Search Form (Figure 1) allows to querythe database by scientific name, country (where thespecies was introduced or source of the species),year, reason of introduction, introducer,establishment in the wild, use in aquaculture,ecological and socio-economic effects. Each field canbe searched alone or in combination with others.The Input Form, as mentioned earlier, has beencreated to allow users to contribute to the coverageand precision of the database by providing newintroduction records or corrections of the existingones. The Input Form includes the same fields of theSearch Form, an additional field for furthercomments on the introduction, and fields forpersonal data on the sender. Two other icons lead tothe Statistics pages, regularly updated to includenew data, and the Glossary page, which providesexplanations of some technical terms.

THE DATABASE ON INTRODUCTIONS OF AQUATIC SPECIES (DIAS): THE WEB SITE

L. Garibaldi1 and D.M. Bartley2

1Consultant, FAO Fisheries Department2Fishery Resources Division

21

N°. 20

The smaller frame on theright side of the home pageis titled Highlights onIntroduction. It includes, in amodular format that allowseasy addition of new items,links to other pages wheresome basic information onintroductions is madeavailable. In formatting thisinformation, a simple anddirect style has been used,including maps, charts andtables, adequate to themedium used (the WorldWide Web), in order tocatch the attention of anaudience broader than thatof the specialists.

Figure 2 - Number of introductions by country

Figure 1.

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22

Under Controversy, information is provided on thePositive effects and Negative effects of Nile perch(Lates niloticus) introduction into Lake Victoria.Under the former, data on catch statistics of Nileperch point out the positive effects of theintroduction, while in the latter an extract from ascientific paper stresses the serious negativeenvironmental effects produced. Obviously, muchmore detailed information is available in theliterature on this extensively studied matter; over 50papers have been published on this topic only in thelast 10 years (ASFA, 1996, 1998).

Another item under “Highlights” deals with theImportance for aquaculture, and shows thataquaculture is the main reason of introduction in38.7% of the database records and that almost 10%of the world production from aquaculture derives

from introduced species (Garibaldi, 1996). UnderEnvironmental risks the abstract of a paper (Bartleyand Minchin, 1996) on the use of the precautionaryapproach on introductions stresses the need to use acode of practice when planning new introductionsto minimize possible negative effects on theenvironment. Finally, a new item has been addedunder “Highlights” during the recent revision of theDIAS site. This includes four world maps whichprovide, at a glance, information on the number of introductions by country and introductions for aquaculture purposes (Figures 2 and 4), achronological record of the spread of Cyprinuscarpio from its native range (China, Japan, CentralAsia; Welcomme, 1988) to almost the entire world(Figure 3), and the countries where the tilapiaspecies Oreochromis mossambicus and O. niloticushave been introduced (Figure 5).

Figure 3 - Cyprinus carpio introductions by year

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Figure 5 - Oreochromis mossambicus and O. niloticus introductions

Figure 4 - Species introduced for aquaculture purposes

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Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA),1996. Scientific Abstracts 1988-1996. CambridgeScientific Abstracts, CD-ROM published bySilverplatter International.

Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA),1998. Scientific Abstracts 1997- June 1998.Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, CD-ROMpublished by Silverplatter International.

Bartley, D.M., L. Garibaldi and R.L. Welcomme, (inpress). Introductions of aquatic animal species: aglobal perspective and database. Presented at theAmerican Fishery Society Symposium, Monterey,California, August 1997.

Bartley, D.M. and D. Minchin, 1996. Precautionaryapproach to the introduction and transfer ofaquatic species. In: Precautionary approach tofisheries. Part 2: scientific papers, FAO, Preparedfor the Technical Consultation on thePrecautionary Approach to Capture Fisheries(including Species Introductions), Lysekil, Sweden,6-13 June 1995. FAO Technical Paper, N° 350/2,Rome, FAO, 159-189 p.

Bergot, F. and E. Vigneux (coord.), 1997. Lesintroductions d’espèces dans les milieux

aquatiques continentaux en métropole. Bull. Fr.Pêche Piscic., N° 344-345, 518 p.

Coad, B.W.,1996. Exotic and transplanted fishes inSouthwest Asia. Publ. Espec. Inst. Esp. Oceanogr.,N°. 21, 81-106 p.

De Moor, I.J. and M.N. Bruton, 1996. Alien andtranslocated aquatic animals in southern Africa(excluding Zimbabwe and Mozambique) - revisedchecklist and analysis of distribution on acatchment basis. Ann. Cape Prov. Mus. (Nat. Hist.),vol. 19, part 6, 305-344 p.

Garibaldi, L., 1996. List of animal species used inaquaculture. FAO Fish. Circ., N° 914, Rome, FAO, 38p.

Lever, C., 1996. Naturalized fishes of the world.Academic Press, 304 p.

Moreau, J. and B. Costa-Pierce, 1997. Introductionand present status of exotic carp in Africa.Aquacult. Res., N°. 28, 717-732 p.

Welcomme, R.L., 1988. Internationalintroductions of inland aquatic species. FAO Fish.Tech. Pap., N° 294, Rome, FAO, 318 p.

REFERENCES

The Authors are indebted to Mr. Marco Tusa, FAOWorld Agriculture Information Centre (WAICENT)Group, for his technical assistance in preparingthe database in a format searchable on the Weband the set up of the Search and Input Forms; Mr.

Andrea Vietri, WAICENT Group, for his support;and Mr. Francisco Perez Trejo, WAICENTResponsible, for his supervision. The Authors alsowish to thank all the users who have kindlycontributed new information to the database.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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Regional Programme on “Sustainable Aquaculture for Rural Development” (SARDev)

It has become very clear from various fora that“Sustainable Aquaculture for Rural Development”

with focus on (i) poverty alleviation, (ii) foodsecurity, (iii) environmental and natural resourcesmanagement, and (iv) advancement of women is anappropriate, relevant and timely theme for regionalco-operation. Developmental research on ruralaquaculture was identified as a priority theme forregional co-operation by the 1996 FAO-NACA Surveyand Analysis of Aquaculture Development ResearchPriorities and Capacities in Asia. It was envisagedthat the recommendations of the study andassociated workshop would form the basis ofspecific regional and sub-regional follow-upprogrammes. Accordingly, project concepts wereprepared for this purpose by the workshop.

The development of a Programme on “SustainableAquaculture for Rural Development” (SARDev) wasapproved by the Governing Council of NACA (Hanoi,December 1997), based on a concept prepared by aregional consultation of experts and lead centresconvened by NACA. NACA’s Technical AdvisoryCommittee, at its 5th Meeting, held in India in June1998, reviewed the programme concept, clarified itsobjectives and outputs and the implementationmechanism, and recommended to the Secretariat aplan of action to develop the proposal. In addition,the FAO Asia- Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC), inits twenty-sixth Session (Beijing, September 1998),agreed that small-scale rural aquaculture was aneffective vehicle for rural development andestablished an ad hoc Working Group of Experts onRural Aquaculture to address issues and advise theCommission in this field.

In view of these developments, the Network ofAquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) and FAOhave agreed to collaborate on the establishment ofthe Regional Programme on Sustainable

Aquaculture for Rural Development (SARDevProgramme) for the Asia-Pacific region and havesigned a Letter of Agreement for that purpose. FAOwill play a catalytic role, by assisting in planning andproject formulation, in the context of its RegularProgramme activities in this field. The organizationwill also continue to cooperate with theprogramme, once established, by means of specificjoint activities in areas of mutual interest.

The objectives of the programme would be to:

i) promote the development and utilization ofsustainable aquaculture technology andmanagement systems that are appropriate fortarget rural communities through applied andadaptive research, manpower training andinformation exchange;

ii) develop the capacities of farmers and women inpoor rural communities to adapt and applytechnologies and management systems aimedto produce more food, generate more incomeand manage the environment and productionresources in a sustainable manner; and

iii) strengthen the capabilities of regional, nationaland local institutions including farmers andwomen’s groups involved in technologydevelopment, training, information dissemi-nation and utilization.

NACA and FAO will convene a planning workshop,tentatively scheduled for 29-31 March 1999, inChiang Mai, Thailand. The workshop will:

i) collate national information relevant to theabove 3 purposes including past, ongoing andplanned activities on rural aquaculture, needsand priorities;

ii) discuss the experience of other organizations inrural aquaculture development;

iii) define the Programme scope;

iv) define more precisely the objectives, outputs,targets and activities of the Programme; and

Ziad H. ShehadehFishery Resouces Division

PROJECTS AND OTHER ACTIVITIES

Collaborative Activities with NACA

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v) identify possible 'catalytic' project componentsthat can facilitate the development of theRegional Programme.

Participants will include experts from a number ofcountries in Asia-Pacific , plus experts from FAO-RAPA, FAO-Rome, and NACA, and from regional andinternational organizations with active programmesin small-scale rural aquaculture. They will encompassexpertise in rural aquaculture technologies,extension, rural development, information trans-mission, and gender issues in development.

The conclusions reached at the workshop willprovide guidelines for the joint NACA-FAO projectformulation mission, to be fielded shortly after theworkshop.

Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millenium

The Conference is organized by the Network ofAquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), incooperation with FAO, and hosted by the ThaiGovernment. It will be held on 20-25 February 2 000and will be preceded by an inaugural ceremony on20 February 2 000.

Objectives and outputs

The Conference is global in scope, with reviews ofregional and global trends and perspectives, and aimsto envision the state of aquaculture in the nextcentury. It will work to attain a consensus onperspectives and future trends in aquaculture, anddevelop strategies to address emerging opportunitiesand constraints, including a plan of action forregional and inter-regional cooperation. Therecommendations of the Conference will providegovernments with guidelines for aquaculturedevelopment planning in the next century.

Participation

Governments, NGOs, farmer organizations,industrial houses, R & D institutions, investmentagencies, development assistance organizations,societies, and other support institutions will beparticipating. The organizers expect some 500-600participants to the Conference and triple thisnumber to take part in or visit the AquacultureTrade Fair 2000 which will be held simultaneously.

Programme

The programme of the Conference was finalized atthe Second Steering Committee meeting held at theNACA headquarters on 21-23 January 1999. It wasdescribed by the Steering Committee Chairman, Dr TV R Pillay, as “proactive and forward looking”. [DrPillay was chief organizer of the first globaltechnical conference on aquaculture, (organized byFAO and the Govemment of Japan), held in Kyoto,Japan in 1976.]

The programme of the Conference will consist of thefollowing sessions:

Global and Regional Overviews

The Conference programme starts with threekeynote addresses: (i) a review of the globaldevelopment in aquaculture since the KyotoConference in 1976, (ii) a look at global prospectsbeyond 2 000, and (iii) a presentation of the issuesand challenges facing Asian aquaculture. This will beimmediately followed by the presentation ofaquaculture development status and trends in otherregions including Africa, Latin America, NorthAmerica, Europe (East and West), the Near East andthe Pacific Community.

Policy and Technology

Two parallel sessions will follow the global andregional reviews:

(1) Policy and planning for sustainable aquaculture,which will consist of discussion groups on (i)increasing the contribution of aquaculture to foodsecurity and poverty alleviation, (ii) addressing socialissues, (iii) integrating aquaculture into rural andcoastal development, (iv) involving stakeholders inaquaculture policy-making, planning andmanagement, (v) promoting sustainableaquaculture with economic incentives, and (vi)creating the information base for aquaculture policymaking, planning and management, and (vii)establishing legal, institutional and regulatoryframeworks for aquaculture development andmanagement.

(2) Technologies for sustainable aquaculture , whichwill consist of discussion groups on (i) aquaculturesystems and species, (ii) genetics and broodstock andseed improvement, (iii) health management anddisease control, (1v) nutrition and feeding, (v)culture based fisheries and enhancement, and (vi)systems approach to aquaculture management.

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Two other discussion sessions will focus on:

Aquaculture Products Quality, Safety, Marketing andTrade, and

Aquaculture Development Financing andInstitutional Support

Five important issues will be covered in separatespecial sessions or by special lectures and discusdons:

Special Sessions and Topics

• environment and community-basedmanagement issues in aquaculture,

• human resource development, • demand and supply of aquaculture products • role of development banks in promoting

aquaculture development, and • regional and inter-regional cooperation.

The final day of the Conference will consist ofsummary presentations of the syntheses andrecommendations of the different groupdiscussions, and the workshop conclusions andrecommendations, all to be presented in plenary.

Conference organization

A Programme Committee is being appointed by theSteering Committee to assist in the technicalorganization of the Conference while theGovernment of Thailand will form a nationalorganizing committee to take care of logistics .

Keynote speakers, session chairpersons, speciallecturers, resource persons, and panel discussantsare being invited in line with Conference structure.Technical review papers on topics relevant to thevarious conference session themes are welcome.

NACA will conduct a regional planning workshopfor Asia in September 1999, and the Secretariat ofthe Pacific Community is formulating anaquaculture development strategy for the PacificCommunity which will also be presented at theConference. FAO will hold regional exercises todevelop the review of status and trends in regionsother than Asia and the Pacific. A synthesis of allthese reviews (including that of Asia and the Pacific)will be carried out in a workshop to be held inBangkok in October, 1999. This global synthesis willbe brought into the Conference to provide theglobal overview.

Plenary lectures will precede group discussionsessions. The group discussion sessions will be based

on a resource paper, a panel discussion, and ageneral discussion. Panel discussants will debate thedifferent aspects of the topic, and the general oropen discussion will serve to clarify and suggestresolutions on important issues. Panel discussants willthus be expected to present more specialized papersof a strategic rather than technical orientation.

Contributed technical and experience papers areexpected to provide scientific background andsupport to the topics under discussion. Authors willbe requested to highlight the main points of theirpapers during the general discussion. As in theKyoto conference, the summaries of the technicalpapers will also be part of the proceedings while thefull papers will be in the technical publication of theConference.

For more information, contact:J. Jia (FAO/FIRI)e-mail: jiansan.jia@fao.orgFax: 0039-06-57053020, or

The Secretary General,Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Milleniume-mail: NACA@fisheries.go.thFax: 0066-2-561-1727

Collaborative activities with ICLARM

Study on the Production, Accessibility andConsumption Patterns of Aquaculture Products

The FAO Fisheries Department and InternationalCenter for Living Aquatic Resources Management(ICLARM) have signed a Letter of Agreement for acollaborative macro-analysis of the production,accessibility and consumption patterns of majorfarmed freshwater fish in five Asian countries(Bangladesh, China, India, Philippines and Thailand).The study will be carried out during the period 1 December 1998 - 31 December 1999. Focal pointsfor the study are Dr. Madan Dey (ICLARM), Dr.Erhard Ruckes (Fish Utilization and MarketingService, FAO) and Dr. Ziad Shehadeh (Inland WaterResources and aquaculture Service, FAO). The studywill be carried out in collaboration with professionalcolleagues in the five target countries and will beco-ordinated by the study leader, Dr. M. Dey.

The tentative scope of the study consists of thefollowing components:

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1. Sector overview - production levels & productiontrends. Contribution of aquaculture to nationalfish and protein production and supplies. Trends.Prevalent farm size; farm ownership/tenure(family-based; private-commercial; state-owned;collective; etc.) and estimated contribution tonational aquaculture production. Prevalentproduction systems and main cultured species.Mode of operation (stand-alone/ part of farmingsystem). Objective (subsistence/ market-oriented).

2. Development Policies - macro-economic policiesas they may influence markets and access. Exportearnings vs. products for local consumption.Land ownership/tenure security. Incentives &disincentives.

3. Demand Characteristics - protein consumption:fish vs. other protein sources. Freshwater fish vs.marine fish. Consumption/demand by incomegroup; changes in consumption by income groupover last 20 years. Consumption by aquacultureproducers vs. non-producers. Culturalpreferences and geographic differences. Trends.Elasticities of demand (price and incomeelasticities, cross price elasticities).

4. Marketing - (a) overview of marketing practices.Market structure and channels (rural, urban,export). Marketing margins. Credit. Insuranceschemes in aquaculture. Ownership structure(private/co-operative/municipal/state, etc.). Shortsection on retail developments. (b) Obstacles toaccess: deficiencies in market access which may bedue to low volume, lack of buyers, inadequateinfrastructure and marketing facilities; economicfactors such as weakness of competitive positionand lack of bargaining power in price formation,financial constraints, consumer attitudes. (c)Impact of changes in production centres andmethods of production - shift of production toperi-urban areas near major consumptioncentres. Effects of growing intensification ofproduction on fish prices. Impact of increasedindustrialization of production (i.e. shift to large-scale industrial producers).

5. Socio-economics - purchasing power(rural vs.urban consumers) . Trends. Price levels ofdifferent species (cultured & captured, highvalue and low value) vs. other protein sources.Role of women in fish production, and fish trade.

6. Conclusions and recommendations - consumptionand access implications (for aquaculture products)of noted trends, policy measures, production,disposable income, marketing, etc. Analysis offuture domestic market potential in view of

existing and evolving consumption patterns andmarketing development, and measures requiredto realize the potential. Specific actions by specificactors/sectors. Possible role of government.

A first draft of the study report is expected March 2 000. The two organizations are consideringconvening a workshop on the study theme followingcompletion of the final report of the study.

Farmer-Proven Integrated Agriculture/Aquaculture: A Technology Information Kit

FAO, ICLARM and the International Institute for RuralReconstruction (IIRR) are collaborating on revisingand updating an information kit on farm-provenintegrated agriculture-aquaculture farming techno-logies prepared in 1992 by IIRR and ICLARM butwhich was given only limited circulation at the time .The document will be revised based on review of theorganization and contents of the 1992 document bya number of selected experts in the field, who willadvise, among other things, on potential additions tothe document . The document is intended for use ineducation and extension and to increase theawareness of policy makers and planners aboutopportunities for, and benefits of certain farmingpractices that integrate agriculture and aquaculture..The revised document will be published by the end of1999 or early in the year 2 000.

Technical Report on Integrated Rice-Fish Farming

In a related development, the FAO Regional Officefor Asia and the Pacific (FAO-RAP) has recentlysigned an agreement with ICLARM for thepreparation of a Technical Report on IntegratedRice-Fish Farming. The report will review the statusof rice-fish farming globally, with emphasis on Asia-Pacific region, technologies in practice, socio-economic impacts (on income, food security, ruraldevelopment etc.), research need to be undertakenand institutional support needed for popularizationof the farming system.

EIFAC symposium on fisheries and society: social, economic and culturalperspectives of inland fisheries

The European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission(EIFAC) will hold a Symposium on Fisheries andSociety in connection with its 21st session inHungary in June 2000.

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Rationale

The value of inland fisheries to the people of Europeneeds to be clearly re-stated. The Symposium willassess the contribution of the fisheries andaquaculture sector to providing food, employmentand recreation together with cultural values in suchfields as ethnology, ecology and bio-diversity. With amultiplicity of social, technical, environmental andpolitical pressures affecting inland fisheries at thepresent time, there is an urgent need for greaterunderstanding, recognition and communication ofthe value of fish and fisheries. The principal aim ofthe Symposium will be to make a broad assessmentof the state of inland fisheries in Europe at the endof the 2nd millennium and to set down the essentialsteps to be taken for developments into the 21st

century.

Themes

The symposium will examine social, economic andcultural aspects of inland fisheries, in accordancewith the following themes:

• Sectoral and fishery evaluation• Economic aspects and trends• Social and cultural aspects and trends• Interactions between recreational fisheries,

commercial fisheries and aquaculture• Interactions with other sectors• The future of inland fisheries over the next

decade.

Information Topics

It is anticipated that information will be presentedon the following topics:

• Assessment of fisheries systems• Valuation of social, economic and cultural

components• Harmonisation amongst users• Socio-economic principles of management• Legislation and enforcement• New trends in education and promotion• Future demands on the fisheries sector• User participation in fisheries management• Sectoral and policy assessment

Call for Papers

Contributions are invited within any of these broadheadings. It is suggested that the majority will relateto experiences within countries, both reviewing past

and present and predicting future opportunities.Inter-active discussion during the Symposium willlead to a major statement embracing the entireconcept of the inland fisheries of Europe. Anyonewishing to present a paper or poster display shouldsubmit a title by 31 March 1999 to the Secretary ofEIFAC, Fishery Resources Division, FAO, Via delleTerme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy, e-mailheiner.naeve@fao.org, fax (+39) 065705 3020.

Papers will be accepted in English or French, theofficial languages of EIFAC, but no interpretationwill be provided. An abstract, not to exceed 150words, of the proposed contribution should besubmitted, preferably by e-mail, by 31 August 1999.The Steering Committee will review all abstracts inrelation to the objectives and themes of theSymposium and the authors will be informed of theoutcome by 1 December 1999. Successful authorsmust submit a draft manuscript not later than 1March 2000.

The Convener of the Symposium is Dr MattiSipponen (Finland), fax (+358-14) 443 7335.The Chairman is Dr Karoly Pinter (Hungary), fax(+36-1) 301 4781.

The twenty-sixth session of the Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission

The Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) held itsTwenty-sixth Session and a Symposium on FishUtilization in the Asia-Pacific Region from 24 to 30September 1998 at the Beijing Continental GrandHotel, Beijing, People’s Republic of China. TheSession was attended by the representatives ofsixteen Members of the Commission and observersfrom the Southeast Asian Fisheries DevelopmentCenter (SEAFDEC). The Commission, inter alia,identified emerging issues in fisheries andaquaculture in the region and agreed to establishthree Ad Hoc working groups:

a) Ad hoc Working Group of Experts in FoodSafety;

b) Ad hoc Working Group of Experts in CaptureFishery Data Collection; and

c) Ad hoc Working Group of Experts in RuralAquaculture.

The deliberations on aquaculture are reported inthe following verbatim excerpts from the report ofthe session:

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• The Commission noted that aquaculture haddeveloped rapidly during the past decade witheight out of the top ten global producers locatedin Asia. The general impression was that thepotential for further growth and developmentof aquaculture is good and that increasedproduction could reduce the shortfall created bythe decrease in supply from capture fisheries.The Commission fully agreed that the strategicissue for aquaculture development issustainability. Sustainability in aquaculture couldbe achieved only by resolving the issues ofimmediate concern that included improvedresource use and input supply, strengthening ofthe aquaculture information system, improvedhealth management of cultivable species,accelerated research and improved training. Inaddition, there were requirements for extensionservices, integration of rural aquaculture withthe agriculture and livestock sectors, improvedquality and safety of aquaculture products;integrated planning for aquaculturedevelopment and promotion of small-scaleaquaculture for rural food security.

• Several Members were of the view that thefuture role of APFIC should include thepromotion of technical cooperation amongstcountries in the region in the acceleration ofsustainable aquaculture development. A numberof examples of the positive impacts ofappropriate technology transfer from onecountry to another were cited, including thosefor converting wastelands for aquaculture, cageculture and fish disease control through properfarm management, and small-scale backyardhatcheries for fish and shrimp.

• The Commission agreed that good extensionwork played an essential role in sustainableaquaculture development and noted that severalMembers were still in need of assistance in thestrengthening of their aquaculture extensionsystems. The technologies for breeding,fry/fingerling rearing and grow-out wereavailable; however, what was lacking was theeffective transfer of these technologies fromresearch laboratories to the farmers. It waspointed out that technical cooperation among

the Members could help in transferringsuccessful extension experience from onecountry to another.

• The Commission agreed that small-scale ruralaquaculture should be considered as an effectivevehicle for rural development by making asustainable contribution to rural food securitythrough the production of fish for food and thegeneration of employment and income. It waspointed out that the major constraints, such aslack of seed and extension services, had to bedealt with.

• Several Members suggested that, for landlockedcountries and countries whose capture fisherieswere overexploited, special emphasis should begiven to the development of aquaculture. It wasalso pointed out that some cold water species(Tor putitora (Mahseer) and Tor tor) in theHimalayan range are overexploited and are indanger of extinction. It was suggested thatspecial efforts be made for artificial breedingand culturing of these species.

• The Commission agreed that the measures forassurance of quality and safety of aquacultureproducts should be applied not only to productsfor export but also to products for localconsumption. In this connection, however,special care should be taken in integratingaquaculture with livestock rearing (for example,integrating fish culture with pig rearing).

• Some Members underlined that aquaculturemight cause some pollution and negativeecological impact and suggested that, tominimize this impact, aquaculture farm designand operation should be standardized. It wasalso pointed out that the introduction of exoticspecies for culture may create an undesirableimpact on local ecosystems. Consequently, suchintroductions should be carried out with extremecare and following the international rules,regulations and procedures related to thetransfer of live animals and quarantineguidelines.

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DOMESTICATING AQUACULTURE SPECIES

A WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY WORKSHOP

28 - 29 April 1999

Convenor: Bonnie Brown (Virginia Commonwealth University, USA)

Instructors: Jim Parsons (Blue Lakes Trout, USA)John Benzie (Australian Institute of Marine Science, AUSTRALIA)

Topics will include selection protocols and theories, quantitative genetic overview, molecular assistedstrategies, steps to domesticate local (wild) aquatic animals/plants, and case histories tailored to theatendees. There is no charge for attending this workshop; however, space is limited to 24 participants sobe sure to include the application below with your conference registration.

PLEASE CONSIDER MY APPLICATION TO ATTEND THE DOMESTICATION WORKSHOP ON 28-29 APRIL DURING THE WORLD AQUACULTURE ‘99 CONFERENCE IN SYDNEY.

Send completed application form as soon as possible to: World Aquaculture ‘99 Conference Manager 21710 Seventh Place West, Bothell, WA 98021.

For other information please contact: Bonnie Brown, Tel: 1 804 828 1562, Fax: 1 804 828 0503, e-mail: blbrown@atlas.vcu.edu or Devin Bartley, Tel: 39 06 5705 4376,Fax: 39 06 5705 3020, e-mail: devin.bartley@fao.org

Note:space is limited in the workshop and applicants are encouraged to send forms in early to ensureparticipation. There is no fee for the workshop other than normal WAS registration.

Name

Address

Phone Fax e.mail

List species you are interested in improving:

Relation to the aquacultre industry:

Co-sponsored by Chesapeake Scientific and theFood and Agriculture Organization of the UN, theWorld Aquaculture Society presents a new formatof technical programme. This two-day workshopwill provide hands-on instruction to farmers on

how to decide on appropriate domestication/breedimprovement strategies and is designed tospecifically address the needs of farmers, includingthose in developing nations.

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European Inland Fisheries Commission. 1998. Reportof the Symposium on Water for Sustainable InlandFisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Fisheries Report N°.580, Suppl. Rome, FAO. 56p.

The document reports on the main discussions,conclusions and recommendations of theSymposium, which was held in Praia do Carvoeiro,Portugal on 23-26 June 1998, in concomitance withthe Twentieth Session of the European InlandFisheries Commission (EIFAC). (The main conclusionsand recommendations of the Symposium aresummarized elsewhere in this newsletter.) Thereport also incorporates abstracts of thecontributions sumitted to the Symposium and thefull addresses of participants.

Coche, A.G. 1998. Supporting aquaculturedevelopment in Africa: Research Network onIntegration of Aquaculture and irrigation. CIFAOccasional Paper N°.23. Accra, FAO. 141p.

This is the report of a mission fielded in October-November 1997 to visit Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali,Zambia and Zimbabwe, previously identified aspotential contributors to a research network on theintegration of aquaculture and irrigation, includingfishery enhancement in small water bodies.Available resources for aquaculture and irrigationresearch, as well as the development status of these

two sub-sectors, were identified and evaluated.Interest and willingness to participate in thenetwork were ascertained.

The main findings were the following:

• In general, resources are very limited except forinfrastructure in Ghana and Zambia, wherehuman resources are also expected to improvein the near future.

• Government resources to support aquaculturedevelopment are rather limited, particularly inBurkina Faso, Mali and Zimbabwe. Althoughsome private initiatives exist in Mali andGhana, they are particularly developed inZambia. This contributes to make Zambia oneof the main aquaculture producers in Sub-Saharan Africa.

• Currently, most SWB (small water bodies)fishery enhancement activities are privateinitiatives, either at village level, in Mali andGhana, or at farm level, in Zambia andZimbabwe.

• Guidelines are now being finalized by ALCOMfor the rapid evaluation of SWB fisherypotential and for community-based enhan-cement/management of SWB fish resources insouthern African countries.

• Several types of integration of aquaculture andirrigation have been tried in Mali and Ghana

NEW FAO PUBLICATIONS

Ziad H. ShehadehFishery Resources Division

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on a relatively small scale. The Zambia SPFS(Special Programme on Food Security) isactively carrying out trials on small-scale fishfarming integration in wetland areas.

• Large scale schemes with surface irrigation andfull or partial water control are particularlydeveloped in Mali, but also in Zambia andZimbabwe, where more than 20 000 ha areavailable.

• The largest irrigation potential exists in Ghana.Good potential is also present in Mali andZambia. The SPFS is well ahead in Zambia andhas been initiated in the field in Burkina Faso.In Mali, Ghana and Zimbabwe, it is still in thepreparatory phase.

The recommendations of the mission were as follows:

• National institutions to become involved in theAfrican Research Network for the Integrationof Aquaculture and Irrigation have beenidentified as follows:

Burkina Faso: Institut de Développement RuralMali: Institut d’Economie RuraleGhana: Water Research InstituteZambia: Mount Makulu Regional Research

Centre

• In Zimbabwe, the ALCOM Programme shouldtake overall responsibility, both at regionalSADC level and at national level, incooperation with the Department of nationalParks and Wildlife Management and AGRITEX.

• The new network should collaborate closelywith existing networks, in particular ARID,FARMESA and SADC/FANR networks.

• Future actions should include the preparationof national syntheses and the organization of aseminar of irrigation and aquaculturespecialists, to discuss the organization andresearch priorities of the network.

Johnson, G. and L. Verheust. 1998. Naming, typing,correcting and linking of the DCW inland watercoverage for Africa. ALCOM Working Paper N°. 19.Harare. 27p.

This paper accompanies the digital dataset of inlandwater in Africa, extracted from the Digital Chart ofthe World. It describes the data and materials whichwere used, methods employed, results achieved andthe lessons learnt from the exercise. The creation ofthe dataset was done in the framework of the FAOFisheries activity “Spatial modeling for theassessment and management of inland fisheries”. Itwas funded by the Inland Water Resources andAquaculture Service, FAO, Rome, and executed byALCOM in the context of work on a SADC WaterResource database.

Inland water polygons from the Digital Chart of theWorld for Africa were named, typed and corrected,then linked to two different water body databases.The output of the exercise is a corrected water bodypolygon file with two new identifiers which can belinked to a database file with names, types,comments and identifiers for the water bodies in theFAO Lakes and Rivers Fisheries database and theALCOM Surface Water Body database. The datasetallows easy extraction of selected polygons from themaster dataset.

For more information, or to obtain the latestdigital watershed data, readers should contactALCOM at:

MAILING ADDRESS:

Telephone: P.O. Box 3730 Harare, ZimbabweFAX: 263-4-792782E-Mail: ALCOM@harare.iafrica.com

HOMEPAGE:http://www.zamnet.zm./zamnet/alcom/alcom.htm

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Van der Mheen-Sluijer, J. 1998. Fish and water inRural Communities. ALCOM Working Paper N°. 21. Harare. 112p.

The paper describes a tool which was developed toprovide guidelines for assessing the role of pondsand small water bodies in rural communities inAfrica. It examines, on the one hand, the resourceshouseholds allocate to fish farming and/or fishingand, on the other, it shows how to analyze theimportance of the outputs produced: fish as a sourceof animal protein and income, and stored water. Italso explores the role of fishponds and small waterbodies for households not engaged in fish farmingor fishing. The paper gives a detailed description ofthe development of the questionnaires for eachtarget group (fish farmer, fisher, non-fish farmer andnon-fisher), and how the results can be analyzedusing SPSS/PC+. It also includes a brief overview ofwhich statistical procedures can be used for the kindof data generated by such a study.

Since the paper gives a detailed description of themost important steps involved in such a study, it canbe used for the capacity building of local institutionsthat may implement similar studies in their country.And since it clearly spells out the proceduresinvolved and their rationale, other users can makeinformed decisions on how to adapt the interviewschedules and spreadsheets for monitoring orevaluating the importance of fish and water in theirown environment.

For more information, or to obtain the diskcontaining the three questionnaires, the codebookand spreadsheets for data analysis, contact ALCOMat the address provided for the precedingpublication.

Nilsson, H. 1998. Information channels in fishfarming extension, Eastern Province, Zambia, andManica Province, Mozambique. ALCOM FieldDocument N°. 41. Harare.

The document reports on the results of a study oninformation channels in fish farming extension,which was carried out in 1996. The aim was to assess

the effectiveness of the various agents and sourcesof information involved. Alternative agents ofinformation were also investigated.

Government extension agents were perceived byfarmers as the source of highest quality information.In some instances, this was confirmed by the study.Farmer-to-farmer extension was often of reasonablequality despite the negative perceptions of thefarmers. However, fellow farmers did not transferinformation on subjects like pond construction andfeeding practices as well as other sources ofinformation. On the other hand, fellow farmerswere the most accessible extension agent and wereused by many respondents for day-to-day exchangeof information.

Farmer clubs and informal and social get-togethersamong farmers were identified as potential fora forinformation exchange. Constraints and drawbacksfaced by government agents and village–basedextension agents were identified.

Wetengere, K. and H. van Herwaarden. 1998.Development of semi-intensive fish farming inMorogoro Region, Tanzania. ALCOM Working PaperN°. 22. Harare.

The report presents the results of the pilot project“Development of semi-intensive aquaculture forsmall scale farmers”, that was executed by ALCOMin collaboration with the Fisheries Division of heMinistry of Natural Resources and Tourism inMongoro region, Tanzania. The project started in1993 with a duration of 3 years. The objective of thepilot project was to develop suitable semi-intensivefish farming techniques and extension packages forsmall-scale farmers and to incorporate these into therural extension system.

The report describes the region, the extensionapproach used, and the various extension methodstested during the project. It analyses the results andproposes recommendations for the development ofaquaculture in Tanzania.