Falstaff (opera)

For other musical works based on Falstaff, see Falstaff(disambiguation).

Falstaff (Italian pronunciation: [ˈfalstaf]) is an opera inthree acts by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). The libretto was adapted by Arrigo Boito fromShakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor and scenesfrom Henry IV, parts 1 and 2. The work premiered on 9February 1893 at La Scala, Milan.Verdi wrote Falstaff, which was the last of his 28 operas,as he was approaching the age of 80. It was his secondcomedy, and his third work based on a Shakespeare play,following Macbeth and Otello. The plot revolves aroundthe thwarted, sometimes farcical, efforts of the fat knight,Sir John Falstaff, to seduce two married women to gainaccess to their husbands’ wealth.Verdi was concerned about working on a new opera at hisadvanced age, but he yearned to write a comic work andwas pleased with Boito’s draft libretto. It took the collab-orators three years frommid-1889 to complete. Althoughthe prospect of a new opera from Verdi aroused immenseinterest in Italy and around the world, Falstaff did notprove to be as popular as earlier works in the composer’scanon. After the initial performances in Italy, other Eu-ropean countries and the US, the work was neglected untilthe conductor Arturo Toscanini insisted on its revival atLa Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in New York fromthe late 1890s into the next century. Some felt that thepiece suffered from a lack of the full-blooded melodiesof the best of Verdi’s previous operas, a view stronglycontradicted by Toscanini. Conductors of the generationafter Toscanini to champion the work included Herbertvon Karajan, Georg Solti and Leonard Bernstein. Thework is now part of the regular operatic repertory.Verdi made numerous changes to the music after the firstperformance, and editors have found difficulty in agree-ing on a definitive score. The work was first recorded in1932 and has subsequently received many studio and liverecordings. Singers closely associated with the title rolehave included Victor Maurel (the first Falstaff), MarianoStabile, Giuseppe Valdengo, Tito Gobbi, Geraint Evansand Bryn Terfel.

1 Composition history

1.1 Conception

By 1889 Verdi had been an opera composer for morethan fifty years. He had written 27 operas, of whichonly one was a comedy, his second work, Un giorno diregno, staged unsuccessfully in 1840.[1] His fellow com-poser Rossini commented that he admired Verdi greatly,but thought him incapable of writing a comedy. Verdidisagreed and said that he longed to write another light-hearted opera, but nobody would give him the chance.[2]He had included moments of comedy even in his tragicoperas, for example inUn ballo in maschera and La forzadel destino.[3]

Boito in 1893

For a comic subject Verdi considered Cervantes's DonQuixote and plays by Goldoni, Molière and Labiche, butfound none of them wholly suitable.[2] The singer VictorMaurel sent him a French libretto based on Shakespeare’sThe Taming of the Shrew. Verdi liked it, but repliedthat “to deal with it properly you need a Rossini or aDonizetti".[n 1] Following the success of Otello in 1887he commented, “After having relentlessly massacred somany heroes and heroines, I have at last the right tolaugh a little.” He confided his ambition to the librettist ofOtello, Arrigo Boito.[2] Boito said nothing at the time, buthe secretly began work on a libretto based on The MerryWives of Windsor with additional material taken fromHenry IV, parts 1 and 2.[2] Many composers had set theplay tomusic, with little success, among themCarl Dittersvon Dittersdorf (1796), Antonio Salieri (1799), Michael

1

2 1 COMPOSITION HISTORY

William Balfe (1835) and Adolphe Adam (1856).[6] Thefirst version to secure a place in the operatic repertoirewas Otto Nicolai's The Merry Wives of Windsor in 1849,but its success was largely confined to German operahouses.[7]

Boito was doubly pleased with The Merry Wives as a plot.Not only was it Shakespearian, it was based in part onTrecento Italian works – Il Pecorone by Ser GiovanniFiorentino, and Boccaccio's Decameron. Boito adopted adeliberately archaic form of Italian to “lead Shakespeare’sfarce back to its clear Tuscan source”, as he put it.[8] Hetrimmed the plot, halved the number of characters in theplay,[n 2] and gave the character of Falstaff more depth byincorporating dozens of passages from Henry IV.[8][n 3]

Verdi received the draft libretto a few weeks later,by early July 1889, at a time when his interest hadbeen piqued by reading Shakespeare’s play: “Benissimo!Benissimo! ... No one could have done better than you”,he wrote back.[13] Like Boito, Verdi loved and reveredShakespeare. The composer did not speak English, buthe owned and frequently re-read Shakespeare’s plays inItalian translations by Carlo Rusconi and Giulio Carcano,which he kept by his bedside.[14][n 4] He had earlier setoperatic adaptations of Shakespeare’s Macbeth (in 1847)and Othello (in 1887) and had considered King Lear as asubject; Boito had suggested Antony and Cleopatra.[15]

What a joy! To be able to say to the Audience: “WEARE HERE AGAIN!! COME AND SEE US!!"“”

Verdi to Boito, 8 July 1889[13]

Verdi still had doubts, and on the next day sent anotherletter to Boito expressing his concerns. He wrote of “thelarge number of years” in his age, his health (which headmitted was still good) and his ability to complete theproject: “if I were not to finish the music?" He said thatthe project could all be a waste of the younger man’s timeand distract Boito from completing his own new opera(which became Nerone).[13] Yet, as his biographer MaryJane Phillips-Matz notes, “Verdi could not hide his de-light at the idea of writing another opera”. On 10 July1889 he wrote again:

Amen; so be it! So let’s do Falstaff! Fornow, let’s not think of obstacles, of age, of ill-nesses! I also want to keep the deepest secrecy:a word that I underline three times to you thatno one must know anything about it! [He notesthat his wife will know about it, but assuresBoito that she can keep a secret.] Anyway, ifyou are in the mood, then start to write.[16]

1.2 Composition

Boito’s original sketch is lost, but surviving correspon-dence shows that the finished opera is not greatly differentfrom his first thoughts. The major differences were thatan act 2 monologue for Ford was moved from scene 2to scene 1, and that the last act originally ended with themarriage of the lovers rather than with the lively vocal andorchestral fugue, which was Verdi’s idea.[17] He wrote toBoito in August 1889 telling him that he was writing afugue: “Yes, Sir! A fugue ... and a buffa fugue”, which“could probably be fitted in”.[18]

Falstaff, by Charles Robert Leslie

Verdi accepted the need to trim Shakespeare’s plot tokeep the opera within an acceptable length. He was sorry,nonetheless, to see the loss of Falstaff’s second humil-iation, dressed up as the Wise Woman of Brentford toescape from Ford.[n 5] He wrote of his desire to do jus-tice to Shakespeare: “To sketch the characters in a fewstrokes, to weave the plot, to extract all the juice fromthat enormous Shakespearian orange”.[20] Shortly afterthe premiere an English critic, R A Streatfeild, remarkedon how Verdi succeeded:

The leading note of [Falstaff]'s characteris sublime self-conceit. If his belief in him-self were shattered, he would be merely a vul-gar sensualist and debauchee. As it is, he isa hero. For one terrible moment in the lastact his self-satisfaction wavers. He looks roundand sees every one laughing at him. Can it bethat he has been made a fool of? But no, heputs the horrible suggestion from him, and ina flash is himself again. “Son io,” he exclaimswith a triumphant inspiration, “che vi fa scal-tri. L'arguzia mia crea l'arguzia degli altri.” ["I

1.2 Composition 3

am not only witty in myself, but the cause thatwit is in other men”, a line from Henry IV part2.] Verdi has caught this touch and indeed ahundred others throughout the opera with as-tonishing truth and delicacy.[21]

In November Boito took the completed first act to Verdiat Sant'Agata, along with the second act, which was stillunder construction: “That act has the devil on its back;and when you touch it, it burns”, Boito complained.[22]They worked on the opera for a week, then Verdi and hiswife Giuseppina Strepponi went to Genoa. Nomore workwas done for some time.[23]

The writer Russ McDonald observes that a letter fromBoito to Verdi touches on the musical techniques usedin the opera – he wrote of how to portray the charactersNannetta and Fenton: “I can't quite explain it: I wouldlike as one sprinkles sugar on a tart to sprinkle the wholecomedy with that happy love without concentrating it atany one point.”[24]

The first act was completed by March 1890;[25] the restof the opera was not composed in chronological order, ashad been Verdi’s usual practice. The musicologist RogerParker comments that this piecemeal approach may havebeen “an indication of the relative independence of indi-vidual scenes”.[26] Progress was slow, with composition“carried out in short bursts of activity interspersed withlong fallow periods” partly caused by the composer’s de-pression. Verdi was weighed down by the fear of beingunable to complete the score, and also by the deaths andimpending deaths of close friends, including the conduc-tors Franco Faccio and Emanuele Muzio.[26] There wasno pressure on the composer to hurry. As he observedat the time, he was not working on a commission from aparticular opera house, as he had in the past, but was com-posing for his own pleasure: “in writing Falstaff, I haven'tthought about either theatres or singers”.[26] He reiteratedthis idea in December 1890, a time when his spirits werevery low after Muzio’s death that November: “Will I fin-ish it [Falstaff]? Or will I not finish it? Who knows! Iam writing without any aim, without a goal, just to pass afew hours of the day”.[27] By early 1891 he was declaringthat he could not finish the work that year, but in May heexpressed some small optimism, which by mid-June, hadturned into:

The Big Belly ["pancione", the name givento the opera before the composition of Falstaffbecame public knowledge] is on the road tomadness. There are some days when he doesnot move, he sleeps, and is in a bad humour.At other times he shouts, runs, jumps, and tearsthe place apart; I let him act up a bit, but if hegoes on like this, I will put him in a muzzle andstraightjacket.[28]

Boito was overjoyed, and Verdi reported that he was stillworking on the opera. The two men met in October

Victor Maurel as Iago in Boito and Verdi’s Otello

or November 1891,[29] after which the Verdis were inGenoa for the winter. They were both taken ill there,and two months of work were lost. By mid-April 1892the scoring of the first act was complete and by June–July Verdi was considering potential singers for roles inFalstaff. For the title role he wanted Victor Maurel, thebaritone who had sung Iago inOtello, but at first the singersought contractual terms that Verdi found unacceptable:“His demands were so outrageous, exorbitant, [and] in-credible that there was nothing else to do but stop the en-tire project”.[30] Eventually they reached agreement andMaurel was cast.[n 6]

By September Verdi had agreed in a letter to his publisherCasa Ricordi that La Scala could present the premiereduring the 1892–93 season, but that he would retain con-trol over every aspect of the production. An early Febru-ary date was mentioned along with the demand that thehouse would be available exclusively after 2 January 1893and that, even after the dress rehearsal, he could with-draw the opera: “I will leave the theatre, and [Ricordi]will have to take the score away”.[32] The public learnedof the new opera towards the end of 1892, and intenseinterest was aroused, increased rather than diminishedby the secrecy with which Verdi surrounded the prepa-rations; rehearsals were in private, and the press was keptat arm’s length.[33] Apart from Verdi’s outrage at the waythat La Scala announced the season’s programme on 7December – “either a revival of Tannhäuser or Falstaff"– things went smoothly in January 1893 up to the pre-miere performance on 9 February.[34]

4 2 PERFORMANCE HISTORY

2 Performance history

Verdi directing the rehearsals of Falstaff

2.1 Premieres

The first performance of Falstaff was at La Scala inMilanon 9 February 1893, nearly six years after Verdi’s pre-vious premiere. For the first night, official ticket priceswere thirty times greater than usual.[35][n 7] Royalty, aris-tocracy, critics and leading figures from the arts all overEurope were present.[35] The performance was a hugesuccess under the baton of Edoardo Mascheroni; num-bers were encored, and at the end the applause for Verdiand the cast lasted an hour.[n 8] That was followed by atumultuous welcome when the composer, his wife andBoito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan.[35]

Over the next two months the work was given twenty-two performances in Milan and then taken by the originalcompany, led by Maurel, to Genoa, Rome, Venice, Tri-este, Vienna and, without Maurel, to Berlin.[37] Verdi andhis wife left Milan on 2 March; Ricordi encouraged thecomposer to go to the planned Rome performance of 14April, to maintain the momentum and excitement that theopera had generated. The Verdis, along with Boito andGiulio Ricordi, attended together with King Umberto Iand other major royal and political figures of the day. Theking introducedVerdi to the audience from the Royal Boxto great acclaim, “a national recognition and apotheosisof Verdi that had never been tendered him before”, notesPhillips-Matz.[38]

During these early performances Verdi made substan-tial changes to the score. For some of these he alteredhis manuscript, but for others musicologists have had torely on the numerous full and piano scores put out byRicordi.[39] Further changes were made for the Paris pre-miere in 1894, which are also inadequately documented.Ricordi attempted to keep up with the changes, issu-ing new edition after new edition, but the orchestral andpiano scores were often mutually contradictory.[39] TheVerdi scholar James Hepokoski considers that a definitivescore of the opera is impossible, leaving companies andconductors to choose between a variety of options.[39] Ina 2013 study Philip Gossett disagrees, believing that theautograph is essentially a reliable source, augmented bycontemporary Ricordi editions for the few passages thatVerdi omitted to amend in his own score.[40]

Poster for original cast performance, Trieste, 1894

The first performances outside the Kingdom of Italy werein Trieste and Vienna, in May 1893.[41] The work wasgiven in the Americas and across Europe. Antonio Scottiplayed the title role in Buenos Aires in July 1893; GustavMahler conducted the opera in Hamburg in January 1894;a Russian translation was presented in St Petersburg inthe same month.[42] Paris was regarded by many as theoperatic capital of Europe, and for the production therein April 1894 Boito, who was fluent in French, madehis own translation with the help of the Parisian poetPaul Solanges.[42] This translation, approved by Verdi,is quite free in its rendering of Boito’s original Italiantext. Boito was content to delegate the English and Ger-man translations to William Beatty Kingston and Max

2.3 Re-emergence 5

Kalbeck respectively.[42] The London premiere, sung inItalian, was at Covent Garden on 19 May 1894. Theconductor was Mancinelli, and Zilli and Pini Corsi re-peated their original roles. Falstaff was sung by ArturoPessina; Maurel played the role at Covent Garden thefollowing season.[43] On 4 February 1895 the work wasfirst presented at the Metropolitan Opera, New York;[44]Mancinelli conducted and the cast included Maurel asFalstaff, Emma Eames as Alice, Zélie de Lussan as Nan-netta and Sofia Scalchi as Mistress Quickly.[45]

2.2 Neglect

Bohumil Benoni as Falstaff, 1894

After the initial excitement, audiences quickly dimin-ished. Operagoers were nonplussed by the absence ofbig traditional arias and choruses. A contemporary criticsummed it up: "'Is this our Verdi?' they asked themselves.'But where is the motive; where are the broad melodies... where are the usual ensembles; the finales?'"[41] Bythe time of Verdi’s death in 1901 the work had fallen outof the international repertoire. The rising young conduc-tor Arturo Toscanini was a strong advocate of the work,and did much to save it from neglect. As musical direc-tor of La Scala (from 1898) and the Metropolitan Opera(from 1908), he programmed Falstaff from the start ofhis tenure. RichardAldrich, music critic ofThe NewYorkTimes, wrote that Toscanini’s revival “ought to be markedin red letters in the record of the season. Falstaff, which

was first produced here on Feb. 4. 1895, has not beengiven since the following season, and was heard in thesetwo seasons only half a dozen times in all.”[46] Aldrichadded that though the general public might have had dif-ficulty with the work, “to connoisseurs it was an unendingdelight”.[46]

In Britain, as in continental Europe and the US, the workfell out of the repertoire. Sir Thomas Beecham revived itin 1919, and recalling in his memoirs that the public hadstayed away he commented:

I have often been asked why I think Fal-staff is not more of a box-office attraction,and I do not think the answer is far to seek.Let it be admitted that there are fragments ofmelody as exquisite and haunting as anythingthat Verdi has written elsewhere, such as theduet of Nanetta and Fenton in the first act andthe song of Fenton at the beginning of the finalscene, which have something of the lingeringbeauty of an Indian summer. But in compar-ison with every other work of the composer,it is wanting in tunes of a broad and impressivecharacter, and one or two of the type of “OMiaRegina”, “Ritorna Vincitor”, or “Ora per sem-pre addio” might have helped the situation.[47]

Toscanini recognised that this was the view of many, buthe believed the work to be Verdi’s greatest opera; he said,“I believe it will take years and years before the generalpublic understand this masterpiece, but when they reallyknow it they will run to hear it like they do now for Rigo-letto and La traviata.”[48]

2.3 Re-emergence

Toscanini returned to La Scala in 1921 and remained incharge there until 1929, presenting Falstaff in every sea-son. He took the work to Germany and Austria in thelate 1920s and the 1930s, conducting it in Vienna, Berlinand at three successive Salzburg Festivals. Among thoseinspired by Toscanini’s performances were Herbert vonKarajan and Georg Solti, who were among his répétiteursat Salzburg. Toscanini’s younger colleague Tullio Serafincontinued to present the work in Germany and Austriaafter Toscanini refused to perform there because of hisloathing of the Nazi regime.[49]

When Karajan was in a position to do so he added Fal-staff to the repertoire of his opera company at Aachen in1941,[49] and he remained a proponent of the work forthe rest of his career, presenting it frequently in Vienna,Salzburg and elsewhere, and making audio and videorecordings of it.[50] Solti also became closely associatedwith Falstaff, as did Carlo Maria Giulini; they both con-ducted many performances of the work in mainland Eu-rope, Britain and the US and made several recordings.[51]

6 4 SYNOPSIS

The conductor Arturo Toscanini, who strove to return Falstaff tothe regular repertory

Leonard Bernstein conducted the work at theMet and theVienna State Opera, and on record.[52] The advocacy ofthese and later conductors has given the work an assuredplace in the modern repertoire.[n 9]

Among revivals in the 1950s and later, Hepokoski singlesout as particularly notable the Glyndebourne productionswith Fernando Corena and later Geraint Evans in the titlerole; three different stagings by Franco Zeffirelli, for theHolland Festival (1956), Covent Garden (1961) and theMetropolitan Opera (1964); and Luchino Visconti's 1966version in Vienna.[54] A 1982 production by Ronald Eyre,more reflective and melancholy than usual, was staged inLos Angeles, London and Florence; Renato Bruson wasFalstaff and Giulini conducted.[55] Among more recentplayers of the title role Bryn Terfel has taken the part atCovent Garden in 1999, in a production by GrahamVick,conducted by Bernard Haitink.[56] and at the Metropoli-tan Opera in a revival of the Zeffirelli production, con-ducted by James Levine in 2006.[57]

Although Falstaff has become a regular repertoire workthere nonetheless remains a view expressed by John vonRhein inThe Chicago Tribune in 1985: "Falstaff probablyalways will fall into the category of 'connoisseur’s opera'rather than taking its place as a popular favorite on theorder of La Traviata orAida."[58] As noted byOperabase,during the 2012–13 season, the work appeared at number32 of the 50 operas most often performed; in the 2009–10 season it ranked at number 24.[59]

3 Roles

4 SynopsisTime: The reign of Henry IV, 1399 to 1413[62]

Place: Windsor, England

4.1 Act 1

A room at the Garter Inn

Falstaff and his servants, Bardolfo and Pistola, are drink-ing at the inn. Dr Caius bursts in and accuses Falstaff ofburgling his house and Bardolfo of picking his pocket. Heis ejected. Falstaff hands a letter to each of his servantsfor delivery to Alice Ford and Meg Page, two wealthymarried women. In these two identical letters, Falstaffprofesses his love for each of the women, although it is ac-cess to their husbands’ money that he chiefly covets. Bar-dolfo and Pistola refuse, claiming that honour preventsthem from obeying him. Falstaff dispatches his page,Robin, to deliver the letters. Falstaff delivers a tirade athis rebellious followers (L'onore! Ladri...! / “Honour!You rogues...!") telling them that honour is a mere wordand is of no practical value. He chases them out of hissight.Ford’s garden

Alice andMeg have received Falstaff’s letters. They com-pare them, see that they are identical and, together withMistress Quickly and Nannetta Ford, resolve to punishFalstaff. Meanwhile, Ford has been warned of the let-ters by Bardolfo and Pistola. All three are thirsty for re-venge and are supported by Dr Caius and Fenton, a younggentleman. To Ford’s disapproval, Fenton is in love withNannetta. Finding amoment to be alone, the young loversexchange banter. They are interrupted by the return ofAlice, Meg and Mistress Quickly. The act ends with anensemble in which the women and the men separatelyplan revenge on Falstaff.

4.2 Act 2

A room at the Garter Inn

Falstaff is alone at the inn. Bardolfo and Pistola, now inthe pay of Ford, enter and pretend to beg for forgivenessfor past transgressions. They announce to their masterthe arrival of Mistress Quickly, who delivers an invita-tion to go to Alice’s house that afternoon between thehours of two and three. She also delivers an answer fromMeg Page and assures Falstaff that neither is aware ofthe other’s letter. Falstaff celebrates his potential suc-cess (“Va, vecchio John” / “Go, old Jack, go your ownway”). Ford arrives, masquerading as “Signor Fontana”,supposedly an admirer of Alice; he offers money to the

4.3 Act 3 7

fat knight to seduce her. Falstaff is puzzled at the request,and “Fontana” explains that if Alice succumbs to Falstaff,it will then be easier for Fontana to overcome her virtu-ous scruples. Falstaff agrees with pleasure and revealsthat he already has a rendezvous arranged with Alice fortwo o'clock – the hour when Ford is always absent fromhome. Falstaff goes off to change into his best clothes;Ford is consumed with jealousy (È sogno o realtà? / “Isit a dream or reality?"). When Falstaff returns in his fin-ery, they leave together with elaborate displays of mutualcourtesy.

Engraving by Ettore Tito of act 2, scene 2, from the original pro-duction. Ford and the servants creep towards Fenton and Nan-netta, who they think are Falstaff and Alice, behind the screen,while the women stifle Falstaff in the laundry basket.

A room in Ford’s house

The three women plot their strategy (“Gaie Comari diWindsor” / “Merry wives of Windsor, the time hascome!"). They are in high spirits, but Alice notices thatNannetta is not. This is because Ford plans to marry herto Dr Caius, a man old enough to be her grandfather;the women reassure her that they will prevent it. Mis-tress Quickly announces Falstaff’s arrival, and MistressFord has a large laundry basket and a screen placed inreadiness. Falstaff’s attempts to seduce Alice with talesof his past glory (“Quand'ero paggio del Duca di Nor-folk” / “When I was page to the Duke of Norfolk I wasslender”) are cut short, as Mistress Quickly reports theimpending arrival of Ford with a retinue of henchmento catch his wife’s lover. Falstaff hides first behind thescreen, and then the women hide him in the laundry bas-ket. In the meantime Fenton and Nannetta hide behindthe screen. The men hear the sound of a kiss behind it.They assume it is Falstaff with Alice, but instead theyfind the young lovers. Ford orders Fenton to leave. In-side the hamper Falstaff is almost suffocating. While themen resume the search of the house Alice orders her ser-vants to throw the laundry basket through the window intothe River Thames, where Falstaff endures the jeers of thecrowd.

4.3 Act 3

Before the inn

Falstaff glumly curses the sorry state of the world. Somemulled wine soon improves his mood. Mistress Quicklyarrives and delivers another invitation to meet Alice. Fal-staff at first wants nothing to do with it, but she persuadeshim. He is to meet Alice at midnight at Herne’s Oak inWindsor Great Park dressed up as Herne the Hunter. Heand Mistress Quickly go inside the inn. Ford has realisedhis error in suspecting his wife, and they and their allieshave been watching secretly. They now concoct a plan forFalstaff’s punishment: dressed as supernatural creatures,they will ambush and torment him at midnight. Ford pri-vately proposes a separate plot to Caius: Nannetta willbe disguised as Queen of the Fairies, Caius will wear amonk’s costume, and Ford will join the two of them witha nuptial blessing. Mistress Quickly overhears and quietlyvows to thwart Ford’s scheme.Herne’s Oak in Windsor Park on a moonlit midnight

Fenton arrives at the oak tree and sings of his happiness(“Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola” / “From my lips, asong of ecstasy flies”) ending with “Lips that are kissedlose none of their allure.” Nannetta enters to finish the linewith “Indeed, they renew it, like the moon.” The womenarrive and disguise Fenton as amonk, telling him that theyhave arranged to spoil Ford’s and Caius’s plans. Nan-netta, as the Fairy Queen, instructs her helpers (“Sul fild'un soffio etesio” / “On the breath of a fragrant breeze,fly, nimble spirits”) before all the characters arrive on thescene. Falstaff’s attempted love scene with Alice is inter-rupted by the announcement that witches are approach-ing, and the men, disguised as elves and fairies, soundlythrash Falstaff. At length he recognises Bardolfo in dis-guise. The joke is over, and Falstaff acknowledges that hehas received his due. Ford announces that a wedding shallensue. Caius and the Queen of the Fairies enter. A sec-ond couple, also in masquerade, ask Ford to deliver thesame blessing for them as well. Ford conducts the dou-ble ceremony. Caius finds that instead of Nannetta, hisbride is the disguised Bardolfo, and Ford has unwittinglyblessed the marriage of Fenton and Nannetta. Ford ac-cepts the fait accompli with good grace. Falstaff, pleasedto find himself not the only dupe, proclaims in a fugue,which the entire company sings, that all the world is folly,and all are figures of fun (Tutto nel mondo è burla... Tuttigabbati! / “Everything in the world is a jest...”).

5 Music and drama

Verdi scored Falstaff for 3 flutes (third doubling piccolo),2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2bassoons, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 4 trombones, timpani, per-cussion (triangle, cymbals, bass drum), harp, and strings.In addition, a guitar, natural horn, and bell are heard

8 5 MUSIC AND DRAMA

from offstage.[63] Unlike most of Verdi’s earlier operaticscores, Falstaff is through-composed. No list of num-bers is printed in the published full score.[63] The scorediffers from much of Verdi’s earlier work by having nooverture: there are seven bars for the orchestra beforethe first voice (Dr Caius) enters.[64] The critic RodneyMilnes comments that “enjoyment … shines from ev-ery bar in its irresistible forward impulse, its effortlessmelody, its rhythmic vitality, and sureness of dramaticpace and construction.”[65] In The New Grove Dictionaryof Opera, Roger Parker writes that:

the listener is bombarded by a stunning di-versity of rhythms, orchestral textures, melodicmotifs and harmonic devices. Passages that inearlier times would have furnished material foran entire number here crowd in on each other,shouldering themselves unceremoniously to thefore in bewildering succession.[26]

First edition cover

The opera was described by its creators as a commedialirica.[n 10] McDonald commented in 2009 that Falstaffis very different – a stylistic departure – from Verdi’searlier work.[67] In McDonald’s view most of the musi-cal expression is in the dialogue, and there is only onetraditional aria.[67] The result is that “such stylistic econ-omy – more sophisticated, more challenging than he had

employed before – is the keynote of the work.” McDon-ald argues that consciously or unconsciously, Verdi wasdeveloping the idiom that would come to dominate themusic of the 20th century: “the lyricism is abbreviated,glanced at rather than indulged. Melodies bloom sud-denly and then vanish, replaced by contrasting tempo oran unexpected phrase that introduces another character oridea”.[67] In McDonald’s view the orchestral writing actsas a sophisticated commentator on the action.[67] It hasinfluenced at least one of Verdi’s operatic successors: in1952 Imogen Holst, musical assistant to Benjamin Brit-ten, wrote, after a performance of Falstaff, “I realised forthe first time how much Ben owes to [Verdi]. There areorchestral bits which are just as funny to listen to as thecomic instrumental bits in A. Herring!"[68]

The extent to which Falstaff is a “Shakespearian” operahas often been debated by critics. Although the action istaken from The Merry Wives of Windsor, some commen-tators feel that Boito and Verdi have transmuted Shake-speare’s play into a wholly Italian work. The sopranoElisabeth Schwarzkopf believed there was nothing En-glish or Shakespearian about the comedy: “it was all donethrough the music”.[69] In 1961 Peter Heyworth wrote inThe Observer, “Because of Shakespeare we like to thinkof Falstaff as a work that has a certain Englishness. In factthe opera is no more English thanAida is Egyptian. Boitoand Verdi between them transformed the fat knight intoone of the archetypes of opera buffa.”[70] Verdi himself,however, felt that the Falstaff of the opera is not a conven-tional Italian buffo character, but portrays Shakespeare’sfuller, more ambiguous Falstaff of the Henry IV plays:“My Falstaff is not merely the hero of The Merry Wivesof Windsor, who is simply a buffoon, and allows himselfto be tricked by the women, but also the Falstaff of thetwo parts ofHenry IV. Boito has written the libretto in ac-cordance.” [2] A contemporary critic argued that the text“imitated with marvellous accuracy the metre and rhythmof Shakespeare’s verse”,[21] but Hepokoski notes Boito’suse of traditional Italian metric conventions.[n 11]

Another recurrent question is how much, if at all, Verdiwas influenced by Wagner's comic opera Die Meis-tersinger. At the time of the premiere this was a sen-sitive subject; many Italians were suspicious of or hos-tile to Wagner’s music, and were protective in a national-istic way of Verdi’s reputation.[72] Nevertheless, Verdi’snew style was markedly different from that of his popu-lar works of the 1850s and 1860s, and it seemed to someto have Wagnerian echoes.[72] In 1999 the critic AndrewPorter wrote, “That Falstaff was Verdi’s and Boito’s an-swer to Wagner’s Meistersinger seems evident now. Butthe Italian Falstaff moves more quickly.”[8] Toscanini,who did more than anyone else to bring Falstaff into theregular operatic repertoire, commented:

the difference between Falstaff, whichis the absolute masterpiece, and Die Meis-tersinger, which is an outstanding Wagnerian

9

opera. Just think for a moment how many mu-sical means – beautiful ones, certainly – Wag-ner must make use of to describe the Nurem-berg night. And look howVerdi gets a similarlystartling effect at a similar moment with threenotes.[73]

Verdi scholars including Julian Budden have analysedthe music in symphonic terms – the opening section “aperfect little sonata movement”, the second act conclud-ing with a variant of the classic slow concertante ensem-ble leading to a fast stretto, and the whole opera endingwith “the most academic of musical forms”, a fugue.[74]Milnes suggests that this shows “a wise old conservative’swarning about the excesses of the verismo school of Ital-ian opera” already on the rise by the 1890s.[75] Amongthe solo numbers woven into the continuous score areFalstaff’s “honour” monologue, which concludes the firstscene, and his reminiscent arietta (“Quand'ero paggio”)about himself as a young page.[76] The young lovers, Nan-netta and Fenton, are given a lyrical and playful duet(“Labbra di foco”) in Act I;[75] in Act III, Fenton’s im-passioned love song, “Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola”briefly becomes a duet when Nannetta joins him.[75] Shethen has the last substantial solo section of the score,the “fairy” aria, “Sul fil d'un soffio etesio”, described byParker as “yet another aria suffused with the soft orches-tral colours that characterize this scene”.[26]

The score is seen by the critic Richard Osborne as richin self-parody, with sinister themes from Rigoletto andUn ballo in maschera transmuted into comedy. For Os-borne the nocturnal music of Act III draws on the ex-amples of Weber, Berlioz and Mendelssohn, creating amood akin to that of Shakespeare’s AMidsummer Night’sDream. Osborne views the whole opera as an ensem-ble piece, and he comments that grand soliloquy in theold Verdian style is reserved for Ford’s “jealousy” aria inAct II, which is almost tragic in style but comic in effect,making Ford “a figure to be laughed at.”[77] Osborne con-cludes his analysis, "Falstaff is comedy’s musical apogee:the finest opera, inspired by the finest dramatist, by thefinest opera composer the world has known”.[78]

6 Recordings

Main article: Falstaff discography

There are two early recordings of Falstaff’s short ari-etta “Quand'ero paggio”. Pini Corsi, the original Ford,recorded it in 1904, andMaurel followed in 1907.[79] Thefirst recording of the complete opera was made by ItalianColumbia in March and April 1932. It was conductedby Lorenzo Molajoli with the chorus and orchestra ofLa Scala, and a cast including Giacomo Rimini as Fal-staff and Pia Tassinari as Alice.[80] Some live stage per-formances were recorded in the 1930s, but the next stu-

dio recording was that conducted by Toscanini for broad-cast by NBC in 1950, released on disc by RCA. The firststereophonic recording was conducted by Herbert vonKarajan for EMI in 1956.[79]

Among the singers whose performances of the title roleare on live or studio recordings, Italians include RenatoBruson, Tito Gobbi, Rolando Panerai, Ruggero Rai-mondi, Mariano Stabile, Giuseppe Taddei and GiuseppeValdengo; Francophone singers include Gabriel Bac-quier, Jean-Philippe Lafont and José van Dam; Ger-mans includeWalter Berry, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau andHans Hotter; and UK and US singers include GeraintEvans, Donald Gramm, Bryn Terfel, Leonard Warrenand Willard White.[53]

7 Notes, references and sources

Notes

[1] Authorities differ on the date of Maurel’s offering. Alger-non St John-Brenon in The Musical Quarterly in 1916 putthe date at 1886, before the premiere of Otello.[4] KarenHenson in 19th-Century Music in 2007 quotes letters from1890 that show Maurel’s offer of the French libretto asdating from that year, while it was still a secret that Verdiwas working on Falstaff.[5]

[2] Boito eliminated the characters Master George Page,William Page, Justice Shallow, Slender, Sir Hugh Evans,Nym, Peter Simple and John Rugby. He turned Fen-ton into a conventional juvenile lead, rather than Shake-speare’s less romantic and more mercenary character.Mistress Quickly became simply a neighbour of the Fordsand Pages, rather than Caius’s servant.[8] Subplots involv-ing these characters were cut, including Caius’s discoveryof Simple in his closet (I.iv), his duel with Evans (III.i),William’s Latin lesson (IV.i), and the theft of a Germanduke’s horses (IV.v).[9]

[3] There is a tradition that Shakespeare wrote The MerryWives of Windsor at the command of Elizabeth I, whoexpressed a wish to see “Sir John in Love”.[10] The charac-ter was familiar to Elizabethan audiences from both partsof Henry IV and there was disappointment when Shake-speare omitted him from Henry V.[10] The Merry Wiveswas written in haste, and most critics in the 18th cen-tury and afterwards found the character of Falstaff crudelydrawn by comparison with the more ambiguous figure inthe two earlier plays. In 1744 Corbyn Morris wrote thatin The Merry Wives, Falstaff is “in general greatly be-low his true character”.[11] In later studies of the charac-ter by Maurice Morgann (1777) and William Richardson(1789) the Falstaff of The Merry Wives is almost com-pletely ignored.[12] After Boito’s time many critics contin-ued to share the views of Morris and his successors; JohnDover Wilson (1953) was dismissive,[12] and W H Audencalled The Merry Wives “Shakespeare’s worst play”.[10] AL Rowse (1978) took a more favourable view: “It is thesame old reprobate, with the same virtuosity of languagein recounting his misadventures as that with which he hadregaled Prince Hal.”[10]

10 7 NOTES, REFERENCES AND SOURCES

[4] The house, near Busseto, remains in the possession of theVerdi family. The composer’s rooms are preserved intactand are open to the public. Verdi’s volumes of Shake-speare remain by his bedside.[14]

[5] Some editions of Shakespeare give the name as“Brainford”.[19]

[6] Maurel’s compliance stopped short of playing the title rolein the original company’s tour when it played in Germany.As a Frenchman, with the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War still an offence to French national pride, herefused to perform in Germany.[31]

[7] Reserved seats on the platea (main floor) were raised from5 lire to 150 lire, with similar increases in other parts ofthe house.[35]

[8] Althoughmost of the music is through-composed, with noobvious breaks where an encore could be taken, Verdi hadagreed in advance that the women’s quartet “Quell'otre!quel tino!" and Falstaff’s brief song “Quand'ero paggio”could be encored. Hepokoski speculates that the conduc-tor may have slowed and then briefly stopped the music toallow the audience to applaud.[36] At later performancesVerdi allowed other sections of the score to be encored,including Nannetta’s “Sul fil d'un soffio etesio”.[36]

[9] Among leading conductors of later generations who havebeen associated with Falstaff are Claudio Abbado and SirColin Davis, both of whom recorded the work twice.[53]

[10] Although the term translates literally into English as “lyriccomedy”, Leoncavallo used it for his version of La bohème(1897), which ends tragically, and Puccini used the termfor his bittersweet La rondine (1917).[66]

[11] Thus, the young lovers generally sing to one another inquinari (five-syllable lines), the merry wives do their plot-ting in senari (six-syllable lines) and Ford and his cohortsare given ottonari (eight-syllable lines).[71]

References

[1] Budden, Vol. 1, pp. 69–74

[2] Klein, John W. “Verdi and Falstaff", The Musical Times,1 July 1926, pp. 605–607 (subscription required)

[3] Baldini, p. 220

[4] St John-Brenon, Algernon. “Giuseppe Verdi”, The Musi-cal Quarterly, January 1916, pp. 130–162

[5] Henson, Karen. “Verdi versus Victor Maurel on Falstaff”,19th-Century Music, November 2007, pp. 113–130 (sub-scription required)

[6] Melchiori, pp. 90–91

[7] Rice, John A. “Falstaff (i)", and Brown, Clive. “LustigenWeiber von Windsor, Die”, The New Grove Dictionary ofOpera, Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.Retrieved 2 March 2014 (subscription required)

[8] Porter, Andrew. “Roll Up! Here We Come Again!", pro-gramme booklet, Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, 6December 1999, pp. 10–14

[9] Hepokoski, p. 26

[10] Rowse, p. 444

[11] Vickers, p. 122

[12] Melchiori, p. 89

[13] Verdi to Boito, 6 and 7 July 1889, in Phillips-Matz 1993,p. 700. (Capital letters and punctuation used here are asin the book)

[14] Gallo, Denise (2010). “Repatriating 'Falstaff': Boito,Verdi and Shakespeare (in Translation)", Nineteenth-Century Music Review, November 2010, pp. 7–34

[15] Steen, p. 453

[16] Verdi to Boito, 10 July 1889, in Phillips-Matz, pp. 700–701

[17] Hepokoski, p. 22

[18] Verdi to Boito, 18 August 1889, in Phillips-Matz, p. 702

[19] Shakespeare and Alexander, Act IV, scene ii

[20] Wechsberg, p. 229

[21] Steatfeild, p. 111

[22] Boito to Verdi, 30 October 1889, in Phillips-Matz, p. 703

[23] Hepokoski, pp. 22–26

[24] Boito to Verdi, in McDonald 2009, p. 8

[25] Hepokoski, p. 35

[26] Parker, Roger. “Falstaff (ii)", The New Grove Dictionaryof Opera, Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press.Retrieved 17 May 2015 (subscription required)

[27] Verdi to Maria Waldmann, 6 December 1890, in Philips-Matz, p. 707: Waldmann was a young singer with whomVerdi corresponded

[28] Verdi to Boito, 12 June 1891, in Philips-Matz, p. 709

[29] Hepokoski, p. 36

[30] Verdi to Teresa Stolz, 9 September 1892, in Phillips-Matz, p. 712

[31] “Verdi’s Falstaff at Berlin”, The Times, 2 June 1893, p. 5

[32] Verdi to Ricordi, 18 September 1892, in Phillips-Matz,pp. 714–715

[33] “Verdi’s Falstaff, The Times, 8 December 1892, p. 5

[34] Phillips-Matz, p. 715

[35] Hepokoski, pp. 55–56

[36] Hepokoski, pp. 126–127

[37] Hepokoski, p. 56

[38] Phillips-Matz, pp. 717–720

[39] Hepokoski, p. 83

11

[40] Gossett, Philip. “Some Thoughts on the Use of Auto-graph Manuscripts in Editing the Works of Verdi andPuccini”, Journal of the American Musicological Society,Spring 2013, pp. 103–128 (subscription required)

[41] Hepokoski, p. 129

[42] Hepokoski, pp. 76–77

[43] “Performance History”, programme booklet, Royal OperaHouse, Covent Garden, 6 December 1999, p. 43

[44] Kimbell, p. 461

[45] “Verdi’s great Falstaff, The New York Times, 5 February1895

[46] Aldrich, Richard. “To be Given at a Special SaturdayNight Performance at the Metropolitan”, The New YorkTimes, 7 March 1909

[47] Beecham, p. 178

[48] Civetta, Chapter 3: “Falstaff” section.

[49] Osborne, pp. 150–151

[50] Osborne, pp. 406, 409, 420, 655 and 815.

[51] Solti, pp. 79 and 191; and Hepokoski, p. 134

[52] Hepokoski, pp. 135–136

[53] “FalstaffDiscography”, Opera Discography. Retrieved 21July 2013

[54] Hepokoski, pp. 136–137

[55] Higgins, John. “Autumnal mastery of Verdi’s emotionalrange”, The Times, 16 April 1982, p. 9

[56] Milnes, Rodney. “In the belly of the best”, The Times, 8December 1999, p. 44

[57] Clark, Robert S. Music Chronicle, The Hudson Review,Winter, 2006, pp. 633–634 (subscription required)

[58] Rhein, John von. “Solti, CSO brilliant in spirited Fal-staff", The Chicago Tribune, 27 April 1985

[59] “2012–13 season”, Operabase.com. Retrieved 23September 2013

[60] List of singers taken from Budden, Vol 3, p. 416.

[61] Budden, Vol 3, p. 430

[62] Kimbell, pp. 461–462; and Latham, Alison. “Synopsis”,programme booklet, Royal Opera House, Covent Garden,6 December 1999, p. 43

[63] Boito and Verdi, introductory pages

[64] Boito and Verdi, pp. 1–2

[65] Milnes, p. 7

[66] Maehder, Jürgen. “Bohème, La (ii)" and Budden Julian.“Rondine, La”, The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Ox-ford Music Online, Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2March 2014 (subscription required)

[67] McDonald 2009, p. 7

[68] Grogan, p. 169

[69] Osborne, p. 406

[70] Heyworth, Peter. “Falstaff and the Verdi canon”, The Ob-server, 14 May 1961, p. 26

[71] Hepokoski, p. 31

[72] Hepokoski, pp. 138–139

[73] Toscanini, Arturo, quoted in Lualdi’s L'arte di dirigerel'orchestra (1940) reprinted in Sachs, p. 247

[74] Milnes, pp. 7–8

[75] Milnes, p. 8

[76] Osborne, pp. 16 and 18

[77] Osborne, p. 13

[78] Osborne, p. 15

[79] Walker, Malcolm. “Discography” in Hepokoski, pp.176–177

[80] Notes to Naxos Historical CD 8.110198–99 (2002)

Sources

• Baldini, Gabriele (1980). The Story of GiuseppeVerdi: Oberto to Un ballo in maschera. Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22911-1.

• Beecham, Thomas (1959). A Mingled Chime. Lon-don: Hutchinson. OCLC 470511334.

• Boito, Arrigo; Giuseppe Verdi (1980) [1893]. Fal-staff in Full Score. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-24017-6.

• Budden, Julian (1984). The Operas of Verdi, Vol-ume 1: From Oberto to Rigoletto. London: Cassell.ISBN 978-0-304-31058-6.

• Budden, Julian (1984). The Operas of Verdi, Vol-ume 3: From Don Carlos to Falstaff. London: Cas-sell. ISBN 978-0-304-30740-1.

• Civetta, Cesare (2012). “Falstaff” The RealToscanini – Musicians Reveal the Maestro. NewYork: Hal Leonard. ISBN 978-1-57467-241-1.

• Grogan, Christopher (2010) [2007]. Imogen Holst:A Life in Music. Woodbridge, UK and New York:Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-599-8.

• Hepokoski, James (1983). Giuseppe Verdi “Fal-staff”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-23534-1.

12 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Kimbell, David (2001). “Falstaff”. In Holden,Amanda. The New Penguin Opera Guide. NewYork: Penguin Putnam. ISBN 978-0-14-029312-8.

• McDonald, Russ (2009). To astonish the world,Notes to Glyndebourne DVD recording. Waldron,Heathfield, UK: Opus Arte. OCLC 610513504.

• Melchiori, Giorgio (1999). “Introduction”. TheMerry Wives of Windsor. Arden Shakespeare. Lon-don: Thomson. ISBN 978-0-17-443561-7.

• Milnes, Rodney (2004). Falstaff: notes to LSO Liverecording. London: London Symphony Orchestra.OCLC 57210727.

• Morris, Corbyn (1744). An Essay Towards Fixingthe True Standards of Wit, Humour, Raillery, Satire,and Ridicule. London: J Roberts and W Bickerton.OCLC 83444213.

• Osborne, Richard (1989). Karajan conducts Fal-staff. London: EMI. OCLC 42632423.

• Osborne, Richard (1998). Herbert von Karajan: ALife in Music. London: Chatto and Windus. ISBN978-1-85619-763-2.

• Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane (1993). Verdi: A Biog-raphy. London and New York: Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 978-0-19-313204-7.

• Rowse, A L (1978). “The Merry Wives of Wind-sor”. The Annotated Shakespeare, Volume 1. Lon-don: Orbis. ISBN 978-0-85613-087-8.

• Sachs, Harvey (1988). Toscanini. New York:Harper and Row. ISBN 978-0-06-091473-8.

• Shakespeare, William (1994). “The Merry Wivesof Windsor”. In Peter Alexander. Complete worksof William Shakespeare. Glasgow: HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-00-470474-6.

• Steen, Michael (2003). The Lives and Times of theGreat Composers. New York: Icon Books. ISBN978-1-56159-228-9.

• Streatfeild, R A (1895). Masters of Italian Music.London: Osgood McIlvain. OCLC 2578278.

• Vickers, Brian (2002). William Shakespeare: TheCritical Heritage, Volume 3: 1733–1752. London:Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-78355-7.

• Wechsberg, Joseph (1974). Verdi. London: Wei-denfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-76818-0.

8 Further reading• Osborne, Charles (1969). The Complete Operas

of Verdi. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN0306800721.

• Toye, Francis (1931). Giuseppe Verdi: His Life andWorks. London: Heinemann. OCLC 462427571.

• Werfel, Franz; Paul Stefan (1973). Verdi: The Manand His Letters. New York: Vienna House. ISBN0844300888.

9 External links• [http://operabase.com/oplist.cgi?from=01+01+2001&is=Falstaff&by=Verdi&sort=D List ofperformances of Falstaff by Verdi] on Operabase.

• Falstaff (Verdi): Scores at the International MusicScore Library Project

• Libretto at giuseppeverdi.it

• Kingston, W. Beatty (translator), Falstaff: A LyricalComedy in Three Acts. Libretto with original Englishtranslation at archive.org.

• Detailed information on the key arias at aria-database.com

• Detailed Falstaff discography at operadis-opera-discography.org.uk

• Victor Maurel’s 1907 recording of “Quand'ero pag-gio”, at the Bibliothèque nationale de France

13

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Falstaff (opera) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falstaff_(opera)?oldid=697714487 Contributors: -- April, Someone else, Edward,Александър, Charles Matthews, Viajero, Steinsky, Bearcat, JackofOz, Ivan Svircevic, Mu, Antandrus, Byrial, Bender235, El C, Pearle,Arthena, BaronLarf, Xover, Tabletop, Missmarple, Nandesuka, Squeemu, DrG, DrGeoduck, Joonasl, Gareth E. Kegg, Chobot, Quentin X,Seasee, Malcolma, Gadget850, Npeters22, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Ian Rose, Chris the speller, Kleinzach, Al Pereira, Roscelese, Viva-Verdi,Colonies Chris, Grover cleveland, GuillaumeTell, Tim riley, Curly Turkey, Ohconfucius, BrownHairedGirl, Mathiasrex, Michael Bednarek,Voceditenore, JHunterJ, Kyoko, InedibleHulk, Oos, Smpflueger, Leujohn, Cydebot, Aristophanes68, Watermaren, Ssilvers, Thijs!bot,Wikid77, TonyTheTiger, Deipnosophista, Mentifisto, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, QwertyUSA, Noyder, Brian Joseph Morgan, Raggatt2000,Whjayg, Luca priorelli, Hugo999, Nrswanson, Julian BH, David Couch, SieBot, Moreschi(AWB), Orthorhombic, Jvs, Shakko, Adam Cuer-den, Xav71176, DionysosProteus, Brianboulton, Shoemaker’s Holiday, Arturo57, Duijvenbode, Addbot, Vega2, Ice Scream, Luckas-bot,Yobot, Juqipedia, AnomieBOT, Psantosj, RandomAct, Cliftonian, Uctelevision, Srich32977, FrescoBot, Singingdaisies, Robert Meekings,Dallasuapace, RedBot, Gerda Arendt, Lotje, Cassianto, Jfmantis, GabeMc, EmausBot, 4meter4, Your Lord andMaster, Corriamtutti, Clue-Bot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tdimhcs, SchroCat, Toccata quarta, ChrisGualtieri, Tahc, Inglok, TFA Protector Bot, Kernosky, Ardalazzagal,Eustachiusz, Monkbot, FACBot, Renamed user ea6416fc, KasparBot, Srednuas Lenoroc, Rodrigo di Posa and Anonymous: 68

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