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7/30/2019 Expository Practical Teaching
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Praxis II: Principles of
Learning & Teaching
K-6 & 7-12Review Session, part 2
Dr. Mark Hawkes
Dakota State University
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Study Topics
Student Motivation and the Learning
Environment
Instructional Strategies
Assessment Strategies
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
MotivationDefinition: Forces which energize,
direct, and sustain behavior
Situated Motivation: The influence of
the environment to motivate a personto behave in particular ways.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Sources of Motivation Extrinsic—motivated by external factors
Intrinsic—factors inherent in the task
being performed
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Deficiency needs prior to growth need
Almost always yields better outcomes in termsof learning and understanding
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Sources of MotivationSelf-Efficacy—The extent to which a
student believes they are capable of
successfully completing a task.Self-Determination—The extent to
which a student believes they can
make choices regarding the directionof their lives and choice of activities.
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Students:
Process informationfor long-term storage
Realize learning is aprocess trying hard
and working throughtemporary setbacks
Most benefit fromclassroom experience
Students:
Avoid challenging
tasks
Shoot for only
minimal performanceoutcomes
Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation to Learn:
Meaningfulness of ActivitiesLearning Goals vs. Performance Goals
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Encouraging Motivation Present subject matter to in ways that
relates to the student’s current and future
interests (hot cognition) Show personal enthusiasm for the subject
Demonstrate to students that you believe
they are genuinely interested in thesubject and are motivated to learn
Focus students’ attention on learninggoals
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: AffiliationDefinition: The desire to like and be liked
by others, to seek out friendly relationships
Learning Implication: Find ways to helpstudents learn subject matter and meet
affiliation needs at the same time
Strategies: Role play, debates, cooperativelearning, competitions among two or more
teams . . .
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: ApprovalDefinition: A desire to gain acceptance and
positive judgments from other people
Learning Implication: Students may beengage in a task to please an authorityfigure
Strategies: Praise students frequently for the things they do well keeping in mind thebalance of approval student desire frompeers as opposed to teachers.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: AnxietyDefinition: Feeling of uneasiness about an
event because you do not know about the
outcomeState vs. Trait Anxiety
Facilitating vs. Debilitating Anxiety
Learning Implication: Highly anxiousstudents tend to achieve at lower levelsthat those at which they are capable of achieving
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Addressing Anxiety Set realistic expectations for performance
Challenge students within their ―zone of
proximal development‖—tasks within their reach
Teach learning strategies
Provide supplementary resources
Provide feedback about specific behaviors
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Locus of ControlDefinition: explanations of an ―attributes‖ success
or failure
• Locus• Stability
• Controllability
Influencing factors on attribution: pastsuccesses and failures, rewards andpunishment, expectations, messages aboutsuccess or failure (earned or unearned?)
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Locus of Control
Attribute
accomplishments to ownabilities and efforts
Seek challenging goals,
seek challenges, persist
in failure
Achieve better over the
long run.
Attribute successes to tooutside anduncontrollable factors
Students generallyunderestimate their ownability
Students set easy goals,avoid challenges, andrespond to failure incounterproductive ways.
Mastery Orientation vs. Learned Helplessness
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Operant Conditioning
Definition: when behaviors are followed by
desirable consequences they tech to
increase in frequency. When behaviorsproduce results, they decrease or
disappear.
Response precedes reinforcementReinforcement is contingent on the desired
behavior
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Operant Conditioning
S R
The response occurs
as the result of the
stimulus—the learner
has no control over whether the response
occurs
R S
The response is
usually voluntary—the
learner can control
whether or not itoccurs
Classical vs. Operant
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: OC Reinforcements
Reinforcer : Any response the increases thefrequency of a particular behavior Primary vs. Secondary
Continuous vs. Intermittent
Shaping
Positive Reinforcement—concrete, social,
activity. Extrinsic/Intrinsic. Negative Reinforcement—increase of behavior
through removal of a stimulus.
Punishment—Presentation/Removal.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Reinforcements Bogus concerns:
Reinforcement is bribery
Reinforcement develops dependence onconcrete rewards for appropriate behavior
Reinforcing one student teaches other
students to be badChanging a problem behavior does not
change it’s underlying cause
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Reinforcements Real Concerns:
Extrinsic reinforcement may encourage
students to accomplish a task in a minimallyacceptable way rather than in a maximally
beneficial manner
Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior may
undermine any intrinsically reinforcing value
that the activity has for the students
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Punishment Presentation Punishment—The
presentation of an aversive stimulus after
the behavior. Removal Punishment—Involves the
removal of a pleasant stimulus after the
behavior.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Punishment Problems May only temporarily suppress the behavior
Relationship between the undesired response
and punishment may not be recognized Negative emotional responses
May lead to aggression
Does not illustrate the correct behavior May cause physical or psychological harm
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Punishment Effective forms:
Verbal reprimand
Response Cost (withdrawal of a reinforcer)
Logical consequence
Time out
In-house suspension
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Motivation: Punishment Guidelines Avoid vindictive kinds of punishment
Choose a punishment strong enough to
discourage the behavior Identify expectations and consequences
Don’t bluff and punish immediately
Explain why behavior is unacceptable
Punish each and every time the behavior occurs Teach and reinforce desirable alternatives
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment . . .
Classroom Management Establish daily routines
Promote Self-Regulation (monitoring,
selection of tasks, evaluation) Give timely feedback
Authoritatively developed classroom rules
and consequences Pacing and structure of lesson
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Organizing Knowledge: Concepts Conceptualizing—mentally grouping or
categorizing objects or events.
Identifying Defining Features—all positiveinstances of the objects; correlational feature.
Prototyping—constructing an image of a typical
example for comparative purposes.
Examplars—Many illustrations of the concept.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Organizing Knowledge:
Schemas and Scripts
Schemas: Organized bodies of knowledge about
specific topics. Scripts: Predictable sequence of events related to
a particular activity.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Organizing Knowledge:
Personal Theories
General belief system about how the world
operates. Theories are composed of theconcepts and relationships among
components of the belief system.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Promoting Effective
Knowledge Construction
Experimentation—hands-on manipulation
Exposure to ideas of others—historical andcontemporary
Conceptual understanding—integrated,
interrelated, meaningful learning Dialogue—verbalize, share, discuss, debate
Authentic activities—”real world” application
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Higher Level Thinking: Transfer Definition: Applying skills or knowledge from a
previous experience in a new situation.
Positive—Negative
Specific—General
Affecting factors . . Instructional time, meaningful
learning, practice time, similarity of tasks
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Higher Level Thinking:
Problem Solving
Well-defined—Ill-defined
Algorithm—HeuristicTeach within the context of specific areas
Scaffold difficult problems
Induce small-group work to encourage the exchange of ideas and open discussion of issues
Problem of “mental-set”
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Higher Level Thinking:
Critical Thinking
Definition: Evaluating information or arguments in
terms of their accuracy or worth.Verbal reasoning
Argument analysis
Hypothesis testing
Decision-making
Inductive-deductive thinking
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Higher Level Thinking:
Metacognition
Definition: Knowledge and beliefs regarding one’s
own cognitive processes and the attempt toregulate these processes to maximize learning and
memory.
Successful Strategies: Teach how to study content(note taking, elaboration, summarizing, organizing,
identifying important information).
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Cooperative Learning Definition: An approach to learning where
students work in small groups to help one another
learn Promotes:
Greater comprehension
Group reinforcement
Increased perspective taking
Construct more sophisticate ideas
Higher self-efficacy with group work
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Cooperative Learning
Give group members a common goal to work for
Identify appropriate group behaviors Structure tasks so that success depends on students
helping each other
Devise ways to make students both individually and group
accountable
Have students evaluate their efforts at the end of a task
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Direct Instruction Teacher led process of review, presentation,
rehearsal, practice and assessment with small bits
of content. Most suitable for material requiring step-by-step
sequencing.
Recognizable because of it’s high degree of teacher-student interaction
Limitations: not generally suitable for whole classinstruction, more successful in small group work.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Direct Instruction: Methods Direct Instruction
Madeline Hunter’s ―Effective Teaching Model‖
David Ausubel’s ―Advance Organizers‖
Mastery learning
Demonstrations
Mnemonics
Note-taking
Outlining
Use of visual aids
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Direct Instruction: Methods Madeline Hunter ―Effective Teaching
Model‖ –
Get students set to learnProvide information effectively
Check for understanding and give guided
practice Allow for independent practice
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Discovery Learning Bruner’s approach, in which students work on their own to
discover basic principles
Student interaction with the physical or social environment(manipulatives, discussion groups, experiments)
Criticisms: Incorrect constructions of content may occur;
Requires a considerable time investment
Provide structure to activities and help students relate their
learning to key concepts and principles to maximize the
effect of discovery learning.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Whole Group Discussion Can be applied to many disciplines
Helps students see information as dynamic,
evolving understanding and not simply fact.
Leads to meaningful understanding of concepts and
to subsequently better transfer to new situations
and problems
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Whole Group Discussion Tips:
Make sure students have sufficient prior knowledge of the topic.
Make sure students feel comfortable sharing differingviewpoints
Use combinations of small and whole class discussion
Let students help control the pace and direction of thediscussion
Apply pro/con or judiciary structures
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Expository Instruction Being “exposed” to the content, verbally, textually,
etc in its “final” form.
Organization, visual aides, pacing, signals, andsummaries facilitate students learning from
expository instruction.
Criticism: Puts students in passive roles aslearners.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Mastery Instruction Ensuring each student masters the content before
moving to more complex ideas.
Criticisms: Assumes all students can comprehendideas on an equal level; requires frequentadjustment in instructional pacing
Benefits: Research shows better studentachievement on standardized tests, moreconfidence, enjoyment, and interest in subjects area result of Mastery Learning.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Computer-Based Instruction Programmed Instruction: Active responding,
shaping, intermediate reinforcement—linear.
Computer-assisted instruction: sequencingoptioned on learners responses—branching.
Hypertext/Hypermedia: Computer-basedinstruction that allows student to progressthrough material at their own pace anddirection—auto-instructional.
Limitations: Given the breadth of informationavailable through CBI, some students may notbe able to identify relevant learning content.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Computer-Based Instruction
Computer-supported instruction has proved able to help
students: solve problems, construct knowledge andproduce products, communicate ideas better and encode
factual information.
Secondary issues of computer-supported instruction
include increased student attendance, increased time ontask, less behavioral problems, and more collaboration.
Caveat: Technology itself is not a school-reform solution.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Reciprocal Teaching
Peer tutoring
Useful at the small group and large group levels
Replicates the summarizing, questioning,
clarifying and predicting process that is helpful
in teaching students to read
Effective for all age levels of students
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Reciprocal Teaching: Advantages Both teacher and learner model effective reading
and learning strategies
Students internalize the learning process that theyuse in their discussions with others
The structured nature of a reciprocal teaching
session scaffolds students’ efforts to make sense of the things they see and hear
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Peer Tutoring Definition—Students who have mastered a topic teaching
those who have not
Encourages active responses Encourages students to organize and elaborate on what
they have learned
Gives students an opportunity to ask more questions of the
content
Promotes cooperation and other social skills
Benefits tutors as well as those being tutored
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Peer Tutoring Make sure students understand the material
they are teaching and that they use effective
instructional techniques Include special needs students in peer tutoring
activities
Make sure all students have the opportunity to
be both tutor and tutee
Structure the interaction so that students are
aware of their tasks and learning outcomes
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Inquiry and Simulation Inquiry method – Approach in which the teacher
presents a puzzling situation and students solve
the problem by gathering data and testing their
conclusions
Simulations – The idea that skills and knowledge
are tied to simulation in which they were learnedand difficult to apply in new settings.
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Instructional Strategies . . .
Concept Mapping Concept Mapping – A diagram of concepts
within an instructional unit and the
interrelationships among them.
Townshend
Act America is an
INDEPENDENT
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American
Revolution
rican
Causes
Proclomation
of 1763
Stamp Act
Tax on Tea
Declaration o f
Independence
People
Thomas
Jefferson
King George
Patrick
Henry
Thomas
Paine
Samuel
Adams
Benjamin
Franklin
George
Washington
Benedict Arnold
George
Rogers Clark
William
Howe
John
Burgoyne
Charles
Cornwallis
Battles
Lexington
and Concord
Saratoga
Yorktown
Bunker Hill
Effects
INDEPENDENT
nation Darci Love
Huron, 8th Grade
Organizing the Study
of 8th grade history
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Condensationoccurs
water dropletscombine
water runs off or becomespart of the
ground water
Evaporation(water body)
Transpiration(plants)
water
(liquid)
Clouds Form(liquid)
Water Vaopor
(gas)
Provides Energy
Precipitationoccurs
Rachel Rassmussen
Rapid City Central HS
9th grade Geophysical Science
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Jason Smidt, Medary Elem. Brooking
Level: 5th Grade
This diagram is a wonderful way to
explain the ecological food pyramid. Ituses graphics to easily show what
animals are in each group. It also show
the sun and shows photosynthesis.
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Lorna Hofer, Tech Facilitator
Watertown School District
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Assessment Strategies . . .
ContrastsAssessment GradesFormative Summative
Diagnostic Final
Non-Judgmental EvaluativePrivate Administrative
Often Anonymous Identified
Partial Integrative
Specific HolisticMainly Subtext Mostly Text
Suggestive Rigorous
Goal-Directed Content-Driven
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Purposes
Formative
During instructionalphase
Gauging understanding
Informal
Summative
After instructionEvaluating
understanding andcomprehension
Evaluating masteryHigher stakes
Formal
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Formal vs. Informal Form: Observations,
questioning
Very practical, usually
spontaneous Good for assessing
students “interest” in asubject
Flexible to spur of themoment changes andadjustments
Will rarely, if ever, bestandardized
Focus on assessing
understanding within a
specific content domain
Very much planned inadvance
Closely tied to guiding
instructional objectives
Bases results on“samples” of content
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Paper/Pencil vs. Performance
Suitable for both recall andrecognition tasks
Easily standardized
Can sample knowledge onmany topics in a short time
Students should understandscoring process
Portray the assessment asan opportunity to improveskills
Efficiently uses class time
Formatively oriented
Helps reduce the“evaluative” climate
Difficult to achieve
standardization and reliability
Often time-consuming toadminister and score
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Criterion vs. Normed
Tells us what the
students have achieved
in relation to specific
instructional objectives
Oriented to achieving
mastery
Diagnoses weaknessesvery well
Compares a students’
performance on a task
with the performance of
other students
Frequently used in
standardized tests
Can undermine thesense of community and
create undo competitive
situation
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Types: Portfolio
Definition— A systematic collection of student work
assembled over time
Integrates instruction and assessment Can be useful in promoting students self-evaluation
Can illustrate the complex nature of students’
achievement
Often have low reliability and validity
Almost impossible to standardize
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Types: Objective
Multiple Choice: Stem—alternatives. Recognition task.
Can measure a variety of learning levels, easy to grade.
True/False: Statements a student judges as correct or incorrect. Easy to write and grade, tests recognition with a
high probability of guesses.
Matching: Identify relationships. Asks students to apply
discrimination skills. Tests a large amount of information ina short space.
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Types: Constructed Response
Tests high-level cognitive skills, but, time-consumingto grade and difficult to ensure reliability.
Short answer : Requires a single word, set of words, or sentence or complete.
Essay: Requires learners to organize and express
their thoughts over several or more paragraphs. Problem-solving: Presents situation for the
learner to diagnose and solve.
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Other Types
Aptitude tests
Structured observations
Anecdotal notes
Journals
Self and peer evaluation
Case study analysis
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Assessment Characteristics
Reliability—consistency of results
Standardization—consistency in content, format
and scoring Validity—the assessment measures what it is
supposed to measure
Practicality—
The feasibility of the assessmentin terms of development time, administration
time, cost, etc.
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Construction Tips
Target the specific behaviors and thoughtprocesses you want them to learn
Be difficult enough that students must expendenergy to succeed.
Show students where and why their answersmight have been wrong, and how they mightimprove on their answers.
Demonstrate, where appropriate, how severalpaths to the right answer might be taken.
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Scoring
Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. It
is calculated by adding all scores and then dividing
by the total number of people who have obtained
those scores.Median – Middle score in a group of scores
Mode – Most frequently occurring score
Sampling strategy
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Scoring
Analytical scoring – Scoring students’ performance on an
assessment by evaluating various aspects of their
performance separately
Holistic scoring – Summarizing students’ performance
on an assessment with a single score
Rubrics – A list of components that performance on an
assessment task should ideally include; used to guide
the scoring of students’ responses
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Assessment Strategies . . .
Reporting Results
Percentile rank – A test score that indicates thepercentage of people in the norm group getting a rawscore equal to a particular student’s raw score.
Mastery levels
Raw score – A test score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items
Grade equivalent score – Measure of grade level based oncomparison with norming samples for each grade
Standard deviation – A statistic that reflects how closetogether or far apart a set of scores are and therebyindicates the variability of the scores
Scaled Score