Exploring our environment · Exploring our environment... A manual for Green Schools 6 Solid Waste Management Solid waste management has been a concern for humans since the beginning

Exploring our environment... A manual for Green Schools

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Exploringour environment...

-A manual for green schools


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CREDITS

Development Team

Shamita Kumar, Kranti Yardi

Assistance

Mahesh Shindikar, Bhakti Devekar, Deepali Ekbote, Ruby Ardeshir

Translation

Zelam Kanhere, Milind Gambhir, Bhakti Divekar, Joshi

Illustrations and Design

Sushama Durve

Developed by

Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment EducationPune 43

Printing and Publishing

Runanubandh Publications


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FORWARD


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About NGC Program

The National Green Corps program has been launched by the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests to bring about a change in the attitudes in the societythrough children. The program focuses on educating children about theirimmediate environment and impart knowledge about the eco-systems, theirinter-dependence and their need for survival, through visits and demonstrationsas well as mobilising youngsters by instilling in them the spirit of scientificinquiry into environmental problems and involving them in the efforts ofenvironmental preservation. In Maharashtra the program was launched in February 2002. 9000 schoolsacross 36 districts are part of the NGC network in the state.The Department of Social Forestry, Government of Maharashtra has beenappointed as the Nodal Agency for the state of Maharashtra for this programwhile the Institute of Environment Education and Research, Bharati VidyapeethUniversity, Pune has been appointed as the Resource Agency.In an attempt to network schools across the state, the ‘Runanubandh’ is beingproduced. It is hoped that the ‘Runanubandh’ will serve as a platform forsharing innovative ideas and experiences in implementing environment projectsacross the state.‘Runanubandh’ will feature 'Green Schools' every month. If you as a teacherhave been implementing any environment projects, we would love to hearfrom you. Send us your articles along with good quality hard copies ofphotographs and we will feature your school.Send your articles to :


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INDEX

Solid Waste ........................................................................6

Eco Festivals ...................................................................20

Biodiversity ......................................................................38


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Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management has been a concern forhumans since the beginning of time. In ancientcities, food scraps and other wastes were simplythrown into the unpaved streets where theyaccumulated. Around 320 B.C. in Athens, the firstknown law forbidding this practice was establishedand a system of waste removal began to evolvein several eastern Mediterranean cities. Disposalmethods were very crude and often were just openpits outside the city walls. As populationsincreased, efforts were made to transport thewastes out further thus creating city dumps. Untilrecently the disposal of municipal solid waste didnot attract much public attention. The favouredmeans of disposal was to dump solid wastesoutside the city or village limits.

Around most towns and cities in India theapproach roads are littered with multi-coloured

plastic bags and other garbage. Waste is alsoburnt to reduce its volume. Lack of space fordumping solid waste has become a seriousproblem in several cities and towns all over theworld. Dumping and burning wastes is not anacceptable practice today from either anenvironmental or a health perspective. In order tounderstand what one can do about waste, oneneeds to understand some basic facts about solidwaste.

What is solid waste?Solid wastes are organic and inorganic wastematerial such as product packaging, grassclippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchenrefuse, paper, appliances, paint cans, batteries,etc. produced in a society, which according toindividual perceptions does not have any value.


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Classification of wastes

As wastes are of various different compositionswe need to classify them according to theircharacteristics in order to be able to dispose themeffectively.

Type Description Source

Garbage Food Waste, waste from preparation, cooking and servingof food. Market refuse, waste from handling, storage andsale of produce and meat.

Constible and Combustible (primary organic) :noncombustible Paper, cardboard, cartons, wood boxes, plastic bags, cloth,

leather, rubber, grass leaves, yard trimmings etc.

Non-combustible (primary inorganic);Metals, tin, cans, glass bottles, crockery, stones, etc.

Bulckey wastes Large auto parts, tyres, refrigerators, other large appliances,large crates, trees, branches etc.

Srteet wastes Street sweepings, dirt, leaves etc. Streets, sidewalks,vacant plots, etc.

Dead animals Dogs, cats, rats, donkeys etc.

Abandoned vehicles Automibles and spare parts

Construction and Roofing scrapes, rubber, broken concrete, plaster, conduit Construction anddemolition wastes pipes, wire, insulation etc.

Industrial wastes Solid wastes resulting from industrial processes, Factories,manufacturing operations such as food processing wastes, powerboiler, wood, plastic and metal scraps, shaving etc. plants etc.

Hazardous wastes Pathological wastes, explosives, radioactive materials etc. Households,hospitals,institutions, stores,industry etc.

Animals and Manure, crop residues etc. Livestock, farms,agricultural wastes feedlots and

agriculture

Sewage treatment Coarse deposits, Septic tank sludge, dewatered sludge Sewage treatmentresidues plantsand

septic tanks.

Household, Institu-tions ans commer-cial concerns suchas hotels, stores,restaurants, mar-kets, etc.


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What is Municipal Solid Waste ?

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is generallyused to describe most of the non-hazardous solidwaste from a city, town or village that requiresroutine collection and transport to a processingor disposal site. Sources of MSW include privatehomes, commercial establishments andinstitutions as well as industrial facilities. HoweverMSW does not include wastes from industrialprocesses, construction and demolition debris,sewage sludge, mining wastes or agriculturalwastes. Municipal solid waste contains a widevariety of materials and can be classified as below.

Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables,flowers, leaves, fruits, meat waste usually calledas wet garbage.

Toxic waste : old medicines, paints, chemicals,bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticidecontainers, batteries, shoe polish.

Recyclables : paper, glass, metals, plastics alsocalled as dry wastes.

Soiled : hospital waste suchas cloth soiled with bloodand other body fluids.

Type of litter Approximate time it takes todegenerate the litter

Organic waste such as vegetable, A week or twoand fruit peels, leftover foodstuff, etc.

Paper 10–30 days

Cotton cloth 2–5 months

Wood 10–15 years

Woolen items 1 year

Tin, aluminium, and 100–500 yearsother metal items such as cans

Plastic bags One million years?

Glass bottles Undetermined

There are different categories of waste generated,each take their own time to degenerate as can beseen in the table below.


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How do we do effective wastemanagement?

There are several steps to having an effectivewaste management strategy. This includes:

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

Source reduction is one of the fundamental waysto reduce waste. This can be done by using lessmaterial when making a product, reuse of productson site, designing products or packaging to reducetheir quantity.

On an individual level we can reduce the use ofunnecessary items while shopping, buy items withminimal packaging, avoid buying disposable itemsand also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.

Recycling is reusing some components of thewaste that may have some economic value.Recycling has several benefits such asconservation of resources, reduction in energyused during manufacture and pollution levels.Some materials such as aluminum and steel canbe recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass andplastics are recyclable. Mining of new aluminumis expensive and hence recycled aluminum hasa strong market and plays a significant role in thealuminum industry.

Problems with recycling

Plastics are difficult to recycle because of thedifferent types of polymer resins used in theirproduction. Since each type has its own chemicalmakeup, different plastics cannot be recycledtogether. Thus separation of different plasticsbefore recycling is necessary, thus adding tocosts. Similarly in recycled paper the fibers areweakened and it is difficult to control the colour ofthe recycled product. Recycled paper is bannedfor use in food containers to prevent the possibilityof contamination. It very often costs less to

transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper.Collection, sorting and transport account for about90 percent of the cost of paper recycling. Theprocesses of pulping, deinking and screeningwastepaper are generally more expensive thanmaking paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers.Very often thus recycled paper is more expensivethan virgin paper. It is thus always better to limitthe use. However as technology improves thecost will come down.

Disposal of solid waste is done most commonlythrough a sanitary landfill or through incinerationor vermicomposting.

Landfills

A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in animpermeable soil layer that is lined with animpermeable membrane. In a municipal sanitarylandfill, the solid waste is placed in a suitablyselected and prepared landfill site in a carefullyprescribed manner, the waste material is spreadout and compacted with appropriate heavymachinery and then the waste is covered eachday with a layer of compacted soil.

Problems with landfills

There are three problems associated with landfills.The first one being ground water pollution. Thisoccurs when pollutants seeping out from thebottom of a sanitary landfill percolate down tothe groundwater aquifer. This can be preventedby having suitable bottom liners and leachatecollection systems along with the installation ofmonitoring systems to detect groundwaterpollution.

The second problem is that of release of methanegas. The organic material buried in the solid wastedecomposes due to the action of microorganisms.At first the waste decomposes aerobically untilthe oxygen present in the freshly placed fill is usedup by the aerobic microorganisms. The anaerobesthen take over producing methane which ispoisonous and highly explosive when mixed withair in concentrations between 5 and 15 percent.

Paper recycling can also helppreserve forests as it takes about 17trees to make one ton of paper.Crushed glass (cullet) reduces theenergy required to manufacture newglass by 50 percent.

The movement of gas can becontrolled by surface controllerswhere it can be safely diluted anddispersed into the atmosphere isthus a necessary component of thedesign of sanitary landfills.


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The third problem associated with landfills isavailable space. It has become increasinglydifficult to find suitable landfill sites where wastescan be transported economically. Very oftencitizens do not want landfills in their vicinity.

Incineration

This is the process of burning municipal solidwaste in a properly designed furnace undersuitable temperature and operating conditions.Incineration is a chemical process in which thecombustible portion of the waste is combined withoxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, whichare released into the atmosphere. This chemicalreaction called oxidation results in the release ofheat. For complete oxidation the waste must bemixed with appropriate volumes of air at atemperature of about 815oC for about one hour.Incineration can reduce the municipal solid wasteby about 90 percent in volume and 75 percent inweight.

Problems with incineration

The problems associated with incineration arebasically air pollution and disposal of the fly andbottom ash produced during the incinerationprocess. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ashwhile the remainder is fly ash. The possiblepresence of heavy metals in incinerator ash canbe harmful.

Vermicomposting

Nature has perfect solutions for managing thewaste it creates, if left undisturbed and producedwithin limits. The biogeochemical cycles aredesigned to clear the waste material producedby animals and plants. We can mimic the samemethods that are present in nature. In nature, alldead and dry leaves and twigs decompose andare broken down by organisms such as wormsand insects, and is finally broken down by bacteriaand fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like materialcalled compost.

These organisms in the soil use the organicmaterial as food, which provides them withnutrients for their growth and activities. Thesenutrients are returned to the soil to be used againby trees and other plants. This process recyclesnutrients in nature.

Steps for Vermi-CompostDig a pit about half a meter square, one meter deep.Line it with straw or dried leaves and grass.Organise the disposal of organic waste in to the pit as and when generated.Introduce a culture of worms that is now produced commercially.Ensure that the contents are covered with a sprinkling of dried leaves and soileveryday.Water the pits once or twice a week to keep it moist.Turn over the contents of thepit every 15 days.In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of microorganisms.The soil derived is fertile and rich in nutrients.

The soil can be used as a manure for farms and gardens.

Thus while sanitary landfills andincinerators have their ownadvantages and disadvantages, themost effective method of solid wastemanagement is source reduction andrecycling.


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Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harmto humans or the environment. Wastes arenormally classified as hazardous waste when theycause an increase in mortality or pose a presentor potential hazard to human health or theenvironment when improperly treated, stored,transported or disposed of.

How do we know which wastes arehazardous?

If a waste is poisonous (toxic, eg: mercury) or hasa tendency to react vigorously with air or waterand generate toxic gases or explode (reactive,eg: gunpowder) or burns at relatively lowtemperatures (ignitable, eg: paint thinners) or candestroy materials and living tissue by chemicalaction (corrosive, acids) it is classified as a

What are hazardous wastes ?

hazardous waste. In addition to this, wasteproducts that are either infectious (eg: usedbandages, hypodermic needles) or radioactive arealso classified as hazardous.

Why should we be concerned abouthazardous wastes?

Hazardous wastes are dangerous and causesevere damage to human health through a varietyof ways.

Groundwater pollution

This is the most serious environmental effect ofas most of the hazardous wastes are disposed ofon or in land. Once groundwater is polluted withhazardous wastes it is very often not possible toreverse the damage.

Minamata - an important lesson about mercuryA case of human mercuy poisoning which occurred about forty years ago in the Minamatabay in Japan taught the world an important lesson about the dangers of mercury poisoning.A large plastic plant located near the Minamata bay used a mercury containing compoundin a reaction to produce Venyl Chloride a common plastic material. The left over mercurywas dumped into the bay along with other wastes from the plant. Though the mercury wasin its least toxic inorganic state when dumped microorganisms at the bottom of the bayconverted the mercury into its organic form This organic mercury then entered into thetissues of the fish which were in turn consumed by the people living in the area. Thecontaminated fish thus caused an out break of poisoning killing and affecting several people.Mothers who had eaten the contaminated fish gave birth to infants who showed signs ofmercury poisoning. In memory of this incident mercury poisoning is sometimes called as

Minamata Disease.


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Health hazards

Pesticides are used increasingly to protect andincrease food production. They form residues inthe soil which are washed into streams which thencarry them forwards. The residues may persist inthe soil or in the bottom of lakes and rivers.Ingestion, inhalation and skin contact with thesecan result in acute or chronic poisoning. Todaywe have an alternative to the excess use ofpesticides through the use of Integrated PestManagement (IPM). The IPM system uses a widevariety of plants and insects to create a morenatural process of pest control. The naturalbalance between climate, soil and insectpopulations can help to prevent an insect fromoverpopulating an area and destroying a particularcrop.

Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardoussubstances which are often referred to as heavymetals. Lead is an abundant heavy metal and isrelatively easy to obtain. It is used in batteries,fuel, pesticides, paints, pipes and other placeswhere resistance to corrosion is required. Mostof the lead taken up by people and wildlife is storedin bones. Lead can affect red blood cells byreducing their ability to carry oxygen andshortening their life span. Lead may also damagenerve tissue which can result in brain disease.

Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mercuryis used in the production of chlorine. It is also usedas a catalyst in the production of some plastics.Industrial processes such as the production of

chlorine and plastics are responsible for most ofthe environmental damage resulting from mercury.Our body has a limited ability to eliminate mercury.In the food web mercury becomes moreconcentrated as it is taken up by variousorganisms. In an aquatic environment, mercurycan be absorbed by the plankton which are thenconsumed by fish. In addition, fish take up mercurythrough their gills and by eating other fishcontaminated with mercury. Generally older thefish greater is the mercury concentration in itsbody. Birds that eat the fish concentrate even moremercury in their bodies. It is a cumulative poison,ie: it builds up in the body over long periods oftime and is known to cause brain damage.

Thousands of chemicals are used in industryeveryday. When used incorrectly orinappropriately they can become health hazards.PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant to


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fire and do not conduct electricity very well whichmakes them excellent materials for severalindustrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBsout of disposal areas in dumps and landfills thuscontaminating water. PCBs do not break downvery rapidly in the environment and thus retaintheir toxic characteristics. They cause long termexposure problems to both humans and wildlife.PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and liverand thus cause damage. They cause reproductivefailure in birds and mammals.

Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used inthe manufacture of plastic. Usually people are onlyexposed to high levels of vinyl chloride if they workwith it or near it but exposure can also occur fromvinyl chloride gas leaks. After a long continuousexposure (one to three years) in humans, vinylchloride can cause deafness, vision problems,circulation disorders and bone deformities. Vinylchloride can also cause birth defects.

What can we do about hazardouswastes?

It is essential to substitute the use of PCBs andvinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic.Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducingour use of plastics. Thus by reducing waste,encouraging recycling and using products that arewell made and durable we can greatly reduce ourconsumption of these chemicals thus curtailingour exposure to these substances.

We may not realize it but many householdchemicals can be quite toxic to humans as wellas wildlife. Most of the dangerous substances in

our homes are found in various kinds of cleaners,solvents and products used in automotive care.When these products are used incorrectly theyhave the potential to be harmful.

Today the most common methods for disposingoff hazardous wastes are land disposal andincineration. In countries where there is abundantland available for disposal for example, NorthAmerica land disposal is the most widely usedmethod. In countries like Europe and Japan whereland is not readily available and is expensive,incineration is the preferred method for disposal.In India bigger cities have landfills despite lack ofspace thus bringing them in close proximity withhuman populations while smaller towns andvillages still have open dumps. In spite of stronglaws, illegal dumping of these wastes continues.Waste management must move beyond buryingand burning. Industries need to be encouragedto generate less hazardous waste in theirmanufacturing processes. Although toxic wastescannot be entirely eliminated, technologies areavailable for minimizing, recycling and treatingwastes.

An informed public can also contribute in a bigway towards this end. It is essential for us tounderstand the ill effects of chemical substancesso that we can make informed decisions about itsuse. We might decide that the benefits of the useof a toxic substance do not outweigh the risks andchoose not to use it at all or we may decide that itis acceptable to use a substance under certainspecific circumstances where it is adequatelycontrolled and exposure to toxic levels isprevented.


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Discussion

Teachers should clarify basic concepts aboutdegradable and non-degradable, hazardouswastes and use this classification exercise toinduce critical thinking among the students. Theexercise must serve as a starting point to initiateenvironment friendly lifestyles.

Ask students to go through magazines and findpictures of things that often get thrown away afteronly one use. Ask them to create a poster fromthese pictures. How can we avoid throwing awayso many things?

S. Type of Approx. Repairable Reusable Recyclable Compostable Disposal AnyNo. waste amount (selling to in the other

waste Municipalcollectors) dustbin

1 Milkpolythenebag

2 Vegetablewaste

3 Newspapers

4 Emptytoothpaste tube

5 Rubberslippers

6 Pepsi can

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Garbage detective…Objectives

To enhance students understanding about thevarious types of garbage produced at home andbest ways to manage the garbage.

Let’s do it…

Begin the activity by asking students to draw twopictures. One picture should be of his/her house.The other should be of any animal. Ask thestudents to look at their house and think ofgarbage. What is garbage? Do animals have todeal with garbage? Why do people have so muchmore garbage than animals? How do people getrid of garbage? Where does it go?

Let’s find out!!

Ask the students to make the list of things thatcan be called as waste in their own homes. Askthem to review it for one week. After a weeks timeask them what is biodegradable and nonbiodegradable waste and ask them to quantify thewaste per day.


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Objective

To enhance students understanding of how theirgarbage affects the environment.

Let’s do it…

Ask the students to map the journey of householdwaste from their own house to the waste dumpingsite. What are the resources (in monetary terms)spent in disposal of this garbage to its finaldestination? What are the environmentalproblems in this process?

Call a ward officer to talk about the wastegeneration in the area and money spent incollection or waste disposal system.

Where does my garbage go?

S. Type of Amount Transportation Manpower Disposing AssociatedNo. waste in kgs costs costs costs environmental

(landfill, hazards etc)

1. Biodegradablewastes

2. Dry wastes

3. Hazardouswastes

4.

5.

Let’s find out….

Draw a map of the journey of the garbage fromyour house to its final destination. Include namesof places, mode of transport and any other details.Try to put your information in the table given below.


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Objective

To develop skills of disposal of biodegradablewaste.

Let’s do it….

• Dig a rectangular pit ( 1 foot depth, 6 feetby 2 feet)

• Line it with broken bricks and then spreada layer of coconut coir followed by a thicklayer (10 inches) of dry leaves.

• Pour a thin layer of fresh cow dung pasteover the dry leaves and top it with a thinlayer of vermiculture.

• Organize the disposal of organic waste(vegetable waste matter) in to the pit asand when generated.

• Cover the pit with a jute bag.

• Mix the layer everyday for the first month.Sprinkle a little water everyday just to keepit moist.

• Turn over the contents of the pit every 15days.

• In about 45 days the waste will bedecomposed by the action ofmicroorganisms.

• The soil derived is fertile and rich innutrients.

The soil can be used as manure for farms andgardens.

Let’s find out..

Keep a note of the changes that you see.

The waste starts degrading, first at a slow pacebut as the microorganisms increase in numberthe degradation is faster. Fresh cow dung helpsin developing the microorganism and even ifvermiculture is not available it helps in initiatingthe decomposition process.

The Compost Specialist


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Objectives

To inculcate values of an environmentally friendlylifestyle.

Let’s do it….

Ask students too get any thick old cloth from home,which can be made into a cloth bag for regularmarket use. Cut the cloth material into any

preferred shape and size (rectangular, round,square, etc.) Stick the sides and the upper edges

so as to make a bag. You can ask the student topaint or embroidery the front surface to decorateit. It is here that one needs to be innovative. Usepatchwork, embroidery depicting traditionalenvironment related stories, paintings, etc. Usecatchy slogans…Let your creativity flow….

Shopping..the eco-friendly way…

You could also make paper bags from newspapers

and donate it to the local zoo so that they canban plastic bags and provide paper bags to everyvisitor…Let’s spread the message.


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Objectives

To enhance understanding of concepts related topackaging, their merits and demerits and alterna-tives.

Let’s do it…

• Ask students to get different examples ofpackaging to class. The teacher shouldbegin with a discussion by asking studentsthe following questions.

• Why do we sometimes need packagingon the things we buy?

• Listing examples of packaging materialsthat are recyclable (glass, aluminium,cardboard, plastic).

• Which products need the protection ofpackaging? Specify purpose.

• Which natural resources were used tomake the packaging?

• Could less resources have been sued inthe making of the packaging.

• Could a particular product be purchasedin less wasteful packaging?

• Which packaging is recyclable?

• Is any of the packaging unnecessary orexcessive?

• Which products can be sold in bulk?

• What steps can be taken at an individuallevel to use less packaging?

• What steps can be taken to advocate theuse of less packaging?

Let’s find out..

Get students to conduct a survey of the super-market and conduct semi-structured interviewswith shoppers to understand their awarenessabout and attitude towards packaging.

Present the findings in the form of a poster. Useit for active campaigning.

Green Consumer


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Objective

To enhance students’ understanding about thesocial aspects of waste disposal andmanagement.

Let’s do it…

Ask the students’ to find out if there are any wastepickers in their area. Ask them to get familiar withthem and find out more about what they do andhow they live.

Note: They may need guidance on doing thissensitively and in an appropriate manner.

Let’s find out…

Teachers need to guide students on theappropriate way of conducting a semi-structuredinterview. It would be appropriate to observe thewaste picker’s activities for a day or two, befriendthem and then ask questions. Guided questionsto be asked could include…

• Name, age, number of family members,address, education

• Is it the primary occupation? What is theamount of earnings- per day / or permonth?

• From where is the waste collected? Howmuch is collected per day?

• Where is it sold? How is the segregationdone?

• What are the problems involved in the job?

• Why have they chosen this as aprofession?

• Given a chance would they like to dosomething else?

The responses should then be analysed and bythe teacher and students together. Ask studentsto present their findings as a poster and display iton the school notice board. The poster couldpresent the problems, their findings and solutions,focusing on action that can be taken at anindividual level.

Your friendly neighbourhood waste manager


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We celeberate festivals with great gusto andfervour but now its time for us to review our beliefs,daily activities and lifestyles. ‘What we do’ willplay a very important role in keeping ourenvironment clean. To begin with let us look atthe major festivals celeberated throughout theyear.

The Ganesh festivalThe festival of Ganesh Chaturthi is a celebrationof one of the most revered Hindu deities of India,‘Lord Ganesh’, who is considered a symbol ofwisdom and a harbringer of good luck. Ganesh isremembered on chauth or chaturthi, the 4th dayof every month of the Hindu calendar, but most ofall on Ganesh Chaturthi which is celebrated ashis birthday. On this day, Ganesh puja isperformed at all temples and prayer rooms usingidols of Lord Ganesha, made specially for theoccasion. At the end of the ten days, or sometimeseven earlier these idols are immersed in thenearest water body, which may include rivers,lakes and the sea.

Eco-festivals

Origins of this festival…

Ganesh Chaturthi was promoted by LokmanyaBal Gangadhar Tilak, who thought that this was awonderful way of getting people together for thecause of independence. One of his strongestmovements was thus to evoke nationalismthrough religious passions through theorganisation of festivals like Ganesh chaturthi inMaharasthra, which not only inspired feelings ofunity in Maharashtra, but gave freedom fightersan opportunity to meet when the Britishgovernment did not permit any gatherings,writings and slogans that could incite violence.

Thus Ganesh Chaturthi became a major festivalof Maharashtra, where thousands of gigantic idolsof lord Ganesh are immersed by huge processionsof worshipers shouting, ‘Ganpati Bapa Morya’, inthe Arabian sea and rivers of the state. The festivalhas now gained popularity all over India.

The problems…

This festival that brings together thousands of


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people is however in modern times alsocontributing to serious environmental pollution.Besides the noise created by the several Ganeshmandals during the festival, the immersion of idolsmade out of chemical materials causes significantwater pollution. In the name Ganesh ‘Ga ’symbolizes Buddhi (intellect) and ‘Na ’ symbolizesVigyana (wisdom) Ganesha is thus consideredthe master of intellect and wisdom. But bydumping our gods and goddesses into our lakesand rivers, are we using ours?

The traditional clay, mud idols have been replacedby plaster of paris statues which are then paintedusing toxic chemical dyes to make them brightand attractive to buyers causing severe waterpollution. Plaster of paris does not get dissolvedor disintegrated fast. It contains gypsum, sulphur,phosphorus and magnesium. Moreover, thechemical dyes and colours being used to colourthe idols contain poisonous elements. Particularly,red, blue, orange and green colours containmercury, zinc oxide, chromium and lead, thepotential causes of developing cancer.

These materials poison water bodies, byincreasing chemical and organic content. In theprocess, ecosystems in these water bodies areharmed and plant and fish species die in largenumbers. Water that has been polluted in this waycan cause diseases when drunk by people livingdownstream as the same river, pond and lakewater is used for bathing and drinking purposes.The high levels of lead can damage the heart,kidneys, liver, circulatory system and centralnervous system.

According to one estimate, 7500 idols of Ganesh

weigh about 20,000 kg or in other words, 20tonnes. The sea-shore of Mumbai absorbs theimmersion of about 1.5 lakh idols every year. Canyou imagine the extent of water pollution?

What are the alternatives ?

Switching to alternatives needs not only a deepunderstanding of environmental issues but also amajor change in attitude to be able to adoptmeasures that are beneficial for the environment.Some of the alternatives that one could use are:

• Use a small unpainted idol made of unbakedclay or of haldi (as is prevalent in some statesof India) if you immerse the idol.

• Use permanent idols made of brass or stoneand reuse them again in the next year.

• Do a symbolic immersion of the permanentidols.

• Immerse the idol in a tub or a water tank anddrain the water into the garden.

• Collect the flower offerings (nirmalaya) andcompost them.

• Avoid the use of thermocol and plastic indecorations.

• Plant the ‘Ganesh patris’ used forworshipping.

What are ‘patris’?

The word Patris means group of leaves offeredto Lord Ganesha during the festival. In thisoffering, traditionally leaves of 108 different plantsare used; of which 21 species are most preferred.The common amongst them are Durva (Cynadondactylon), Aghada (Achyranhes aspera), Tulsi(Ocimum sanctum), Bel (Agel marmelos)Shami (Prosopis sineraria). Leaves of otherflowering plants like Prajakta, Mogra, Madhumalatietc. are also used in Patri. Botanically this is awonderful combination of various leaf typesrepresenting plants from different groups andhabitats growing in his season. Most of theseplants have medicinal properties and are used inhousehold medicines. Thus collection of theseextends a dual benefit of understanding plantdiversity and its utilizaton. Considering the usageof the foliage from all these plants, there is anurgent need to conserve the constituents of Patris.


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Holi

Origins of the festival...

Traditionally, Holi is a festival that celebrates thereturn of spring – a time when several trees arein bloom – and in earlier times, the colours thatpeople used came from these flowering trees.

The problems…

Over the years, with the disappearance of someof these trees from urban areas, the naturalcolours gradually came to be replaced by cheaperindustrial dyes. Often, the colours are sold loosein the market and consumers have little or no ideaabout the source of the colours and their contents.

Color Chemical Health Effects

Black Lead oxide Renal Failure

Green Copper Sulphate Eye Allergy, Puffiness and Temporary blindness

Silver Aluminium Bromide Carcinogenic

Blue Prussian Blue Contract Dermatitis

Red Mercury Sulphite Highly toxic can cause skin cancer

(Source: Vatavaran)

Even when the colours are sold in a packagedform and carry a sign saying ‘for industrial useonly’, consumers do not understand theimplications. The dry colour powders, the oilypastes and the water colours all contain toxicsubstances capable of affecting human health.

Make your own colours!

With growing awareness, eco-friendly colours orcolours made from natural materials are availablein the market. It is also possible to make simplenatural colors at home. Check the activitiessection for making natural colours.


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Diwali

The origins…

Diwali is one of the most widely celebratedfestivals in India.What comes to your mind when you think ofDiwali? Lights, lamps, candles, sweets, rangoli,new dresses, family reunions, rituals, but mainlybursting crackers. In fact, crackers have becomean integral part of the festival, to the extent thatDiwali today, is almost solely associated with thesound of crackers.

But did you know that Diwali was never such anoisy festival. Traditionally it was a festival oflights, when houses were decorated to pleasegoddess Lakshmi and for attainment of health,wealth, wisdom, peace, etc.

However, over the years, the festival has lost itssanctity and has turned into a festival of pollution,noise, crackers, artificially coloured sweets andserious health hazards.

The problems…

Firecrackers and ill effects on health

Diwali is associated with lights and firecrackers.Lights are the essence of Diwali! However the

joy of Diwali is marred by the intense air and noisepollution caused by firecrackers. The toxicsubstances used in the firecrackers release toxicgases that are harmful to the health of all livingbeings. The high level of noise generated by thecrackers also causes immense suffering to babiesand older people.

Any of the following chemicals, which are potentialhealth hazards, can be part of a fireworks device:potassium nitrate, barium chlorate, arsenic,strontium nitrate, potassium perchlorate, copperoxide, sodium bicarbonate, carbon, sulphur,perchlorate, aluminium powder.

There are several types of sparklers which containdifferent mixtures of chemicals. For example, thegold sparklers may contain barium and nitratecompounds, paste, chalk, dextrin, iron andaluminium; green sparklers contain barium andnitrate compounds, potassium perchlorate, wheatpastes, gum, dextrin and aluminium powder. Redsparklers contain strontium compounds, nitrateand potassium perchlorate, gums, wheat pastes,dextrin and aluminium powder.

The purposes of these different chemicals are tosupply oxygen and carbon to give the variouseffects of that particular device, for example, thesound, the colours, the bursts and so on.

Few of us are aware of the harmful effects offirecrackers. The harmful chemicals emittedthrough smoke are known to cause asthma,allergic rhinitis, bronchitis and other respiratoryproblems. Moreover, the noise and dazzling lightcould cause optical as well as ENT-relatedproblems. The blasting sounds caused by firecrackers which send the decibel levels soaringinstantaneously could cause permanent ortemporary impairment to the ear drums. All this isknown to affect children, pregnant women,asthmatics and senior citizens much more thanthe rest of the population. They could experienceirritability and watering of their eyes.

Chlorates present in firecrackers are principallytoxic by inhalation and ingestion. Direct exposurecan result in destruction of red blood cells. Theyare also directly nephrotoxic, (harmful to thekidney) and can result in acute renal failure.

A person can be exposed to barium compoundsthrough inhalation and accidental ingestion. Thesoluble barium salts contained in firecrackers cancause vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea,


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shallow breathing, convulsions, coma and deathfrom respiratory or cardiac failure.

Exposure to nitrate compounds through inhalationcan cause corrosion of the skin and other tissuesfrom topical contact and acute pulmonary edemaor chronic obstructive lung disease frominhalation. Although nitrates are generally notabsorbed in toxic amounts from skin contact, itmay be significantly absorbed in burned areas ofthe skin.

Exposure to sulphur compounds is throughinhalation. Poisoning by sulphur compoundsmanifests itself with a number of clinicalsymptoms. It can irritate the skin, eyes, lungs andgastrointestinal tract. Acute inhalation of sulphurpowder or dust may result in shortness of breath,cough, tightness and a feeling of burning in thechest. Molten sulphur may also cause severe skindamage.

We must remember that the cost of treating afireworks injury far outweighs the cost ofpurchasing a single fireworks package.

Firecrackers and air pollution

According to several scientific studies, Diwali-related pollution affects atmospheric temperature.Extensive bursting of crackers may lead to anincrease in temperature by as much as twodegrees celsius, especially in densely populatedareas, during those two days.

The smoke from the crackers forms thick layersof sulphur dust as well as particulate matter onthe leaves of the plants, thus preventing basicfunctions exchange of gases. The edges of thestomata, get damaged and have signs similar toburn injuries. Even the fruits on the trees getblackened due to cracker smoke.

Firecrackers and noise pollution

Studies have shown that sound levels producedby fire crackers reach instantaneous peak levelsof 145 to more than 160 decibels (dB) at the earof an observer standing at 2 meter from afirecracker lying on a hard surface. These levelsmatch those produced by firearms: from 145 dBfor a carbine, to 152-155dB for a rifle, and up to160 dB for a pistol at the ear of the gunman.Experience with noise from firearms has clearlydemonstrated that impulse sounds reaching thesepeak levels are potentially hazardous to the ear,the reason why hearing protection is commonlyused in outdoor shooting facilities. The noise fromfirecrackers has more disastrous effects onanimals who have a more sensitive sense ofhearing than humans.

The Central Pollution Control Board of India hasbanned firecrackers with a decibel level of morethan 125 at a distance of 4 meters from thebursting point.

Noise pollution leads to hearing loss, high bloodpressure, heart attack and sleeping disturbancesin humans. Sudden exposure to loud noise couldcause temporary deafness or permanent relativedeafness.

Source: Delhi Pollution Control Committee

Facts about bursting crackers••••• An increase in air pollution by six to ten times on Diwali in terms of SPM, nitrogen

oxides (Nox), sulphur dioxide (SO2), etc.••••• An increase in noise pollution above 125 decibel (dB), which is above the tolerable

limits, and can cause deafness.••••• An increase in incidents of respiratory diseases such as acute bouts of asthma,

bronchitis and heart attacks.


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By refusing to use firecrackers, we can

lessen the demand and contribute to

banning them.

Harmful effects of chemicals usedin crackers

Copper: Irritation of respiratory tract

Cadmuim: Anaemia and damage to kidney

Lead: Affects the nervous system

Magnesium: Dust and fumes cause metal fumefever

Sodium: React violently with moisture and canattack the skin.

Zinc: Leads to vomiting

Nitrate: Could lead to mental impairment

Nitrite: Could lead to coma

To understand the ill- effects of water andnoise pollution that are caused by the way wecelebrate festivals, we need to understandsome basic concepts of pollution. Let usunderstand these….

What is pollution?

Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes inour surroundings that have harmful effects onplants, animals and human beings. This occurswhen only short-term economic gains are madeat the cost of the long-term ecological benefits forhumanity. No natural phenomenon has led togreater ecological changes than have been madeby mankind. During the last few decades we havecontaminated our air, water and land on whichlife itself depends with a variety of waste products.

What are pollutants?

Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseoussubstances present in greater than naturalabundance produced due to human activity, whichhave a detrimental effect on our environment. Thenature and concentration of a pollutant determinesthe severity of detrimental effects on humanhealth.

An average human requires about 12 kg of aireach day, which is nearly 12 to15 times greater

Firecrackers and child labour

As the dazzling fireworks lit up the sky, what alsogets lost in the din is the darker side of firecrackermanufacture. Most of these firecrackers aremanufactured by child labour.

Sivakasi in Tamil Nadu has been infamous foremploying children in manufacturing firecrackers.As a result of legislations brought in over theyears, children have been removed from the fac-tories, but they continue to do the same work fromtheir homes even today.

In villages across Sivakasi district, one invariablyencounters illegal makeshift firecracker manufac-turing units, with young children working in them.Their soft and tiny fingers churn out fireworks forup to 10 hours a day. Children are paid just Rs.30 a day and are a cheaper option than an adultworker, who will demand Rs. 80. People livinghere say that they have no option but to maketheir children work. This occupation fetches themmore money than working for someone else andunless children work with adults they cannot af-ford anything, not even clothes or food.

Locals say about 15,000 people are dependenton these illegal firecracker units for a living, amongthem are thousands of children who spend theirtime making firecrackers.

While the small and illegal firecracker units justifythe use of child labour, bigger factories are morediscreet. They outsource the work to contractors,who get the job done in the villages. Eventually,it’s the little child back home, who does the joband the contractor and the company simply evadethe blame.


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than the amount of food we eat. Thus even a smallconcentration of pollutants in the air becomesmore significant in comparison to the similar levelspresent in food. Pollutants that enter water havethe ability to spread to distant places especiallyin the marine ecosystem.

Classification of pollutants

From an ecological perspective pollutants can beclassified as follows:

Degradable or non-persistent pollutants : Thesecan be rapidly broken down by natural processes.Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.

Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants:Pollutants that remain in the environment for manyyears in an unchanged condition and takedecades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and mostplastics.

Non-degradable pollutants : These cannot bedegraded by natural processes. Once they arereleased into the environment they are difficult toeradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg: toxicelements like lead or mercury.

Water Pollution

Water is the essential element that makes life onearth possible. Without water there would be nolife. We usually take water for granted. It flowsfrom our taps when they are turned on. Most ofus are able to bathe when we want to, swim whenwe choose and water our gardens. Like goodhealth we ignore water when we have it.

Although 71% of the earth’s surface is coveredby water only a tiny fraction of this water is

available to us as fresh water. About 97% of thetotal water available on earth is found in oceansand is too salty for drinking or irrigation. Theremaining 3% is fresh water. Of this 2.997% islocked in ice caps or glaciers. Thus only 0.003%of the earth’ total volume of water is easilyavailable to us as soil moisture, groundwater,water vapour and water in lakes, streams, riversand wetlands.

Thus, if the world’s water supply were only 100litres our usable supply of fresh water would beonly about 0.003 litres (one-half teaspoon). Thismakes water a very precious resource. The futurewars in our world may well be fought over water.By the middle of this century, almost twice as manypeople will be trying to share the same amount offresh water the earth has today. As freshwaterbecomes more scarce, access to water resourceswill be a major factor in determining the economicgrowth of several countries around the world.

Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes,wetlands and artificial reservoirs is called surfacewater. Water that percolates into the ground andfills the pores in soil and rock is calledgroundwater. Porous water-saturated layers ofsand, gravel or bedrock through which groundwater flows are called aquifers. Most aquifers arereplenished naturally by rainfall that percolatesdownward through the soil and rock. This processis called natural recharge. If the withdrawal rateof an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate,the water table is lowered. Any pollutant that isdischarged onto the land above is also pulled intothe aquifer and pollutes the groundwater resultingin polluted water in the nearby wells.

When the quality or composition of water changesdirectly or indirectly as a result of man’s activitiessuch that it becomes unfit for any purpose it issaid to be polluted.

Point sources of pollution : When a source ofpollution can be readily identified because it hasa definite source and place where it enters thewater it is said to come from a point source.

Eg: Municipal and industrial discharge pipes.

When a source of pollution cannot be readilyidentified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain,etc, they are said to be non-point sources ofpollution.


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Causes of water pollution

There are several classes of common waterpollutants.

Disease-causing agents (pathogens) whichinclude bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasiticworms that enter water from domestic sewageand untreated human and animal wastes. Humanwastes contain concentrated populations ofcoliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli andStreptococcus faecalis. These bacteria normallygrow in the large intestine of humans where theyare responsible for some food digestion and forthe production of vitamin K. These bacteria arenot harmful in low numbers. Large amounts ofhuman waste in water, increases the number ofthese bacteria which cause gastrointestinaldiseases. Thus the greater the amount of wastesin the water the greater is the chances ofcontracting diseases from them.

Oxygen depleting agents are organic wastesthat can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygenrequiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteriause up the oxygen present in water to degradethese wastes, degrading the water quality. Theamount of oxygen required to break down acertain amount of organic matter is called thebiological oxygen demand (BOD). The amount ofBOD in the water is an indicator of the level ofpollution. If too much organic matter is added tothe water all the available oxygen is used up. Thiscauses fish and other forms of oxygen dependentaquatic life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (thosethat do not require oxygen) begin to break downthe wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produceschemicals that have a foul odour and anunpleasant taste that is harmful to human health.

Inorganic plant nutrients are water solublenitrates and phosphates that cause excessivegrowth of algae and other aquatic plants. Theexcessive growth of algae and aquatic plants dueto added nutrients is called eutrophication. Theymay interfere with the use of the water by cloggingwater intake pipes, changing the taste and odourof water and cause a buildup of organic matter.As the organic matter decays, oxygen levelsdecrease and fish and other aquatic species die.

The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is oftenmany times more than is actually required by theplants. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticidespollute soil and water. While excess fertilizers

cause eutrophication, pesticides causebioaccumulation and biomagnification. Pesticideswhich enter water bodies are introduced into theaquatic food chain. They are then absorbed bythe phytoplanktons and aquatic plants. Theseplants are eaten by the herbivorous fish whichare in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish whichare in turn eaten by the water birds. At each linkin the food chain these chemicals which do notpass out of the body are accumulated andincreasingly concentrated resulting inbiomagnification of these harmful substances.

One of the effects of accumulation of high levelsof pesticides such as DDT is that birds lay eggswith shells that are much thinner than normal. Thisresults in the premature breaking of these eggs,killing the chicks inside. Birds of prey such ashawks, eagles and other fish eating birds areaffected by such pollution. Although DDT has beenbanned in India for agricultural use and is to beused only for malaria eradication, it is still used inthe fields as it is cheap.

Water soluble inorganic chemicals are acids,salts and compounds of toxic metals such asmercury and lead. High levels of these chemicalscan make the water unfit to drink, harm fish andother aquatic life, reduce crop yields andaccelerate corrosion of equipment that use thiswater.

Organic chemicals, include oil, gasoline, plastics,pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents andmany other chemicals. These are harmful toaquatic life and human health. They get into thewater directly from industrial activity either fromimproper handling of the chemicals in industries

and more often from improper and illegal disposalof chemical wastes.

Sediments of suspended matter are insolubleparticles of soil and other solids that become


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suspended in water. This occurs when soil iseroded from the land. High levels of soil particlessuspended in water, interferes with the penetrationof sunlight. This reduces the photosyntheticactivity of aquatic plants and algae disrupting theecological balance of the aquatic bodies. Whenthe velocity of water in streams and riversdecreases the suspended particles settle downat the bottom as sediments. Excessive sedimentsthat settle down destroys feeding and spawninggrounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificialreservoirs etc.

Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yetanother source of water pollution. These can beconcentrated in various tissues and organs asthey pass through food chains and food webs.Ionizing radiation emitted by such isotopes cancause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage.

Hot water let out by power plants and industriesthat use large volumes of water to cool the plantresult in rise in temperature of the local waterbodies. Thermal pollution occurs when industryreturns the heated water to a water source. Powerplants heat water to convert it into steam, to drivethe turbines that generate electricity. For efficientfunctioning of the steam turbines, the steam iscondensed into water after it leaves the turbines.This condensation is done by taking water from awater body to absorb the heat. This heated water,which is at least 15oC higher than the normal isdischarged back into the water body. The warmwater not only decreases the solubility of oxygenbut changes the breeding cycles of various aquaticorganisms.

Oil is washed into surface water in runoff fromroads and parking lots which also pollutesgroundwater. Leakage from underground tanksis another source of pollution. Accidental oil spillsfrom large transport tankers at sea have beencausing significant environmental damage.

While oil spills are highly visible and often get alot of media attention, a much greater threat tohuman life comes from our groundwater beingpolluted which is used for drinking and irrigation.While groundwater is easy to deplete and polluteit gets renewed very slowly and hence must beused judiciously. Groundwater flows are slow andnot turbulent hence the contaminants are noteffectively diluted and dispersed as compared tosurface water. Moreover pumping groundwaterand treating it is very slow and costly. Hence it is

extremely essential to prevent the pollution ofgroundwater in the first place.

Ground water is polluted due to:

• Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treatedwaste water and garbage

• Industrial waste storage located above ornear aquifers

• Agricultural practices such as theapplication of large amounts of fertilizersand pesticides, animal feeding operations,etc. in the rural sector

• · Leakage from underground storage tankscontaining gasoline and other hazardoussubstances

• Leachate from landfills

• Poorly designed and inadequatelymaintained septic tanks

• Mining wastes

The state of India’s rivers

India has always had a tradition of worshippingrivers. Most of the rivers in India are named aftergods, goddesses or saints. However a largemajority of the Indian population including thosewho worship the rivers do not think twice beforepolluting a river. Urbanization, industrialization,excess withdrawal of water, agricultural run-off,improper agricultural practices and variousreligious and social practices all contribute to riverpollution in India. Waters from the Ganga and theYamuna are drawn for irrigation through thenetwork of canals. As a result as soon as theserivers reach the plains the amount of water thatflows downstream is reduced drastically. Whatflows in the river is water from small nalas, and


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streams that carry with them sewage andindustrial effluents. The residual freshwater, isunable to dilute the pollutants and the rivers turninto stinking sewers. In spite of data fromscientifically competent studies conducted by theCentral Pollution Control Board (CPCB), theGovernment has not been able to tackle this issue.Sewage and municipal effluents account for 75%of the pollution load in rivers while the remaining25% is from industrial effluents and non-pointpollution sources.

In 1985, India launched the Ganga Action plan(GAP) the largest ever river clean-up operationin the country. The plan has been criticized for,overspending and slow progress. The GAP PhaseII in 1991 included cleaning operations for thetributaries of the Ganga , ie; the Yamuna, Gomtiand the Damodar. Thus the Yamuna Action Plan(YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the Damodar Actionplan were added.

In 1995 the National River Conservation plan waslaunched. Under this all the rivers in India weretaken up for clean-up operations. In most of theseplans, attempts have been made to tap drains,divert sewage to sewage treatment plants beforeletting out the sewage into the rivers.

The biggest drawback of these river cleaningprograms was that they failed to pinresponsibilities as to who would pay for runningthe treatment facilities in the long run. With thepower supply being erratic and these plants beingheavily dependent on power, most of thesefacilities lie underutilized. Moreover the problemof river pollution due to agricultural run-off hasnot been addressed in these programs. NRCP is

scheduled to be completed by March 2005. Theapproved cost for the plan is Rs. 772.08 crorescovering 18 rivers in 10 states including 46 towns.The cost is borne entirely by the CentralGovernment and the Ministry of Environment andForests is the nodal agency that co-ordinates andmonitors the plan. Under this plan the majoractivities include treating the pollution load fromsewer systems of towns and cities, setting up ofsewage treatment plants, electric crematoria, lowcost sanitation facilities, riverfront development,afforestation and solid waste management.

Control measures for preventing waterpollution

While prevention is one of the best remedies,setting up effluent treatment plants and treatingwaste through these can reduce the pollution loadin the recipient water. The treated effluent can bereused for either gardening or cooling purposeswherever possible.

A few years ago a new technology called the RootZone Process has been developed by Thermax.This system involves running contaminated waterthrough the root zones of specially designed reedbeds. The reeds, which are essentially wetlandplants have the capacity to absorb oxygen fromthe surrounding air through their stomatalopenings. The oxygen is pushed through theporous stem of the reeds into the hollow rootswhere it enters the root zone and createsconditions suitable for the growth of numerousbacteria and fungi. These micro-organismsoxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so that thewater which finally comes out is clean.


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Noise Pollution

Noise may not seem as harmful as thecontamination of air or water but it is a pollutionproblem that affects human health and cancontribute to a general deterioration ofenvironmental quality.

Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Notall sound is noise. What may be considered asmusic to one person may be noise to another. Itis not a substance that can accumulate in theenvironment like most other pollutants. Sound ismeasured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.

Decibel levels of common sounds

Effects of noise pollution on physicalhealth

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noiseis physical damage to the ear and the temporaryor permanent hearing loss often called atemporary threshold shift (TTS). People sufferingfrom this condition are unable to detect weaksounds. However hearing ability is usuallyrecovered within a month of exposure. InMaharashtra people living in close vicinity ofGanesh mandals that play blaring music for tendays of the Ganesh festival are usually known tosuffer from this phenomenon. Permanent loss,usually called ‘noise induced permanent thresholdshift’ (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing abilityfrom which there is no recovery.

Below a sound level of 80 dBA hearing loss doesnot occur at all. However temporary effects are

noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130 dBA.About 50 percent of the people exposed to 95dBA sound levels at work will develop NIPTS andmost people exposed to more than 105 dBA willexperience permanent hearing loss to somedegree. A sound level of 150 dBA or more canphysically rupture the human eardrum.

The degree of hearing loss depends on theduration as well as the intensity of the noise. Forexample, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA soundlevel can produce a TTS that may last for aboutone day. However in factories with noisymachinery workers are subjected to high soundlevels for several hours a day. Exposure to 95

dBA for 8 hours everyday for over a period of 10years may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. Inaddition to hearing losses excessive sound levelscan cause harmful effects on the circulatorysystem by raising blood pressure and alteringpulse rates.

Effects of noise pollution on mental health

Noise can also cause emotional or psychologicaleffects such as irritability, anxiety and stress. Lackof concentration and mental fatigue are significanthealth effects of noise. It has been observed thatthe performance of school children is poor incomprehension tasks when schools are situatedin busy areas of a city and suffer from noisepollution.

As noise interferes with normal auditorycommunication, it may mask auditory warning

dB Environmental Condition0 Threshold of hearing10 Rustle of leaves20 Broadcasting studio30 Bedroom at night40 Library50 Quiet office60 Conversational speech (at

1m)70 Average radio74 Light traffic noise90 Subway train100 Symphony orchestra110 Rock band120 Aircraft takeoff146 Threshold of pain

There are several sources of noise pollution thatcontribute to both indoor and outdoor noisepollution. Noise emanating from factories, ve-hicles, playing of loudspeakers during variousfestivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollutionwhile loudly played radio or music systems,andother electronic gadgets can contribute to indoornoise pollution.The differenced between sound and noise is oftensubjective and a matter of personal opinion. Thereare however some very harmful effects caused byexposure to high sound levels. These effects canrange in severity from being extremely annoyingto being extremely painful and hazardous.


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signals and hence increases the rate of accidentsespecially in industries. It can also lead to loweredworker efficiency and productivity and higheraccident rates on the job.

Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance orannoyance. It definitely affects the quality of life.It is thus important to ensure mitigation or controlof noise pollution.

Noise Control techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noisecan be controlled:

• Reduce noise at the source

• Block the path of noise

• · Increase the path length

• Protect the recipient.

In general, the best control method is to reducenoise levels at the source.

Source reduction can be done by effectivelymuffling vehicles and machinery to reduce the

noise. In industries noise reduction can be doneby using rigid sealed enclosures aroundmachinery lined with acoustic absorbing material.Isolating machines and their enclosures from thefloor using special spring mounts or absorbentmounts and pads and using flexible couplings forinterior pipelines also contribute to reducing noisepollution at the source.

Blocking the path of noise is one of the bestmethods of noise source reduction is regular andthorough maintenance of operating machinery.Noise levels at construction sites can be controlledusing proper construction planning and schedulingtechniques. Locating noisy air compressors andother equipment away from the site boundaryalong with creation of temporary barriers tophysically block the noise can help contribute toreducing noise pollution. Most of the vehicularnoise comes from movement of the vehicle tireson the pavement and wind resistance. Howeverpoorly maintained vehicles can add to the noiselevels. Traffic volume and speed also havesignificant effects on the overall sound. Forexample doubling the speed increases the sound

The alternatives….

With the growing recognition of the impacts of festivals, we need to reinterpret

the rituals and traditions to become more sensitive to nature.

Can we refrain from the use of firecrackers? If not firecrackers, how else

would you like to celeberate Diwali?

Let us enjoy festivals the safe, eco-friendly way!!

Ambient Noise Levels dB

Zone Daytime Nightime

Silent Zone 50 40

Residential Zone 55 45

Commercial Zone 65 55

Industrial Zone 70 70

Duration dBA8 hours 90

4 hours 93

2 hours 96

1 hour 99

30 minutes 102

15 minutes 105

7 minutes 108

4 minutes 111

2 minutes 114

1 minute 117

30 seconds 120

Instantaneous rupture of membrane 150

A standard safe time limit has been set forexposure to various noise levels. Beyond this‘safe’ time continuing exposure over a periodof year will lead to hearing loss.

Permitted noise levels


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levels by about 9 dBA and doubling the trafficvolume (number of vehicles per hour) increasessound levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth flow oftraffic also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway planningand design are essential for controlling trafficnoise. Establishing lower speed limits forhighways that pass through residential areas,limiting traffic volume and providing alternativeroutes for truck traffic are effective noise controlmeasures. The path of traffic noise can also beblocked by construction of vertical barriersalongside the highway. Planting of trees aroundhouses can also act as effective noise barriers.In industries different types of absorptive materialcan be used to control interior noise. Highlyabsorptive interior finish material for walls, ceilingsand floors can decrease indoor noise levelssignificantly. Sound levels drop significantly withincreasing distance from the noise source.

Increasing the path length between the sourceand the recipient offers a passive means ofcontrol. Municipal land-use ordinances pertainingto the location of airports make use of thisalternative to reduce the noise impact of planes.

Protecting the recipient through use of earplugsand earmuffs which are effective in shieldingindividuals effectively from excessive noise levels.Specially designed earmuffs can reduce the soundlevel reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA.However very often workers tend not to wear themon a regular basis despite company requirementsfor their use.

Role of an individual in theprevention of pollution

There are a host of environmental problemscaused by human actions on the environment. Ifwe are to respond to these problems we have torecognize that each of us is individuallyresponsible for the quality of the environment welive in. Our personal actions can either worsen orimprove our environmental quality. Several peoplemay feel that environmental problems can besolved with quick technological fixes. While amajority of individuals would want a cleanerenvironment, not many of them want to makemajor changes in their lifestyle that couldcontribute to a cleaner environment. Decisionsand actions taken by individuals to a very largeextent determine the quality of life for everyone.This necessitates that individuals should not only

be aware of various environmental issues and theconsequences of their actions on the environmentbut should also make a firm resolve to developenvironmentally ethical lifestyles.

With the help of solar energy, natural processesdeveloped over billions of years can indefinitelyrenew the topsoil, water, air, forests andgrasslands on which all forms of life depend, butonly as long as we do not use these potentiallyrenewable resources faster than they arereplenished. Some of our wastes can be diluted,decomposed and recycled by natural processesindefinitely as long as these processes are notoverloaded. Natural processes also provideservices of flood prevention, erosion control at nocosts at all. We must therefore learn to value theseresources and use them sustainably.

Concepts that help individuals contribute towardsa better quality of our environment and humanlife.

• Develop respect or reverence for all forms oflife.

• Each individual must try to answer four basicquestions:

o Where do the things that I consume comefrom?

o What do I know about the place where Ilive?

o How am I connected to the earth and otherliving things?

o What is my purpose and responsibility asa human being?

• Try to plant trees wherever you can and moreimportantly take care of them. They reduceair pollution.

• Reduce the use of wood and paper productswherever possible. Manufacturing paperleads to pollution and loss of forests whichreleases oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide.Try to recycle paper products and userecycled paper wherever possible.

• From the mail you receive reuse as manyenvelopes that you can.

• Do not buy furniture, doors, window framesmade from tropical hardwoods such as teakand mahogany. These are forest based.

• Help in restoring a degraded area near yourhome or join in an afforestation program.

• Use pesticides in your home only when


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absolutely necessary and use them in assmall amounts as necessary. Some insectspecies help to keep a check on thepopulations of pest species.

• · Advocate organic farming by asking yourgrocery store to stock vegetables and fruitsgrown by an organic method. This willautomatically help to reduce the use ofpesticides.

• Reduce the use of fossil fuels by eitherwalking up a short distance using a car pool,sharing a bike or using public transport. Thisreduces air pollution.

• Shut off the lights and fans when not needed.

• Don’t use aerosol spray products andcommercial room air fresheners. Theydamage the ozone layer.

• Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oilor other products containing harmfulchemicals down the drain or on the ground.

• Buy consumer goods that last, keep them aslong as possible and have them repaired asfar as possible instead of disposing them off.Such products end up in landfills that couldpollute ground water.

• Buy consumer goods ages in refillable glasscontainers instead of cans or throw awaybottles.

• Use rechargeable batteries.

• Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags whenyou buy groceries or vegetables or any otheritems. Use your own cloth bag instead.

• Use sponges and washable cloth napkins,dish towels and handkerchiefs instead ofpaper ones.

• Don’t use throwaway paper and plastic platesand cups when reusable versions areavailable.

• Recycle all newspaper, glass, aluminum andother items accepted for recycling in yourarea. You might have to take a little trouble tolocate such dealers.

• Set up a compost bin in your garden or terraceand use it to produce manure for your plantsto ing. You have the option to make a choicerather than complain later on.

• It is important that you do not get discouragedat the first sign of trouble. Do not dwell on thenegative aspects. But take positive actionswherever you can to make the world a betterplace to live in.

• When talking to elected officials always becourteous and reasonable. You may disagreewith a particular position but be respectful indoing so as you will gain little by being hostileand brash.

Take care to put into practice what you preach.Remember environment protection begins withYOU.


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Objectives

To enhance understanding of the environmentalthreats of chemical colours and inculcate skillsfor making natural colours.

Let’s do it…

The teacher should initiate the discussion by listingdown the colours normally used during Holi andtracing thee compounds and origins using theresource matter given in the manual above.Health hazards caused by these colours shouldalso be discussed. As alternatives the teacherand the students could use the guidelines givenbelow to make their own natural ecofriendlycolours!

Ask students to prepare a poster about thebenefits of natural colours and hazards ofchemical colours. Use this for convincing otherstudents in your school to use natural colours.

Red colour

Take some red roses and separate its petals. Ifpetals are wet than spread them on somenewspaper or on tissue paper and let them drynaturally. Once the rose petals are completelydried, keep them in an airtight bottle. Make sure

that you grind these petals soon and do not keepthem for a long time. Make it into a powder, whichyou can use as gulal (red colour).

Orange colour

Take dried or fresh mehndi leaves and grind themto get a powder. Mix it with water to make it intothe paste. You could also mix rose water withsandalwood powder and add a little turmeric togive a nice yellow-orange colour.

Yellow colour

Soak 25 marigold flowers in one litre of water.Boil it till it exudes a fragrance. Leave it overnight.You will get rich wet yellow colour.

To obtain various shades of yellow you can drythe petals of yellow chrysanthemum, and grindthem to obtain a powder form and then add waterto the powder if you want it in liquid form.

Green colour

Dry gulmohar, spinach, coriander and mint leaves.Coriander leaves, mint and spinach dry even ifkept in a refrigerator properly wrapped in anewspaper or in airtight bags. Once they are driedthey can be ground in a mixer to get a fine powder.

These colours are safe and do not have any side-effects. So, bid farewell to synthetic, unhygieniccolours and play holi with a renewed zest withherbal colours!!

Holi-the natural way


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Objectives

To enhance students understanding of thehazardous process of fire-cracker manufactureand their ill effects on health.

Let’s do it…

Getting students to adopt the concept of a firecracker free Diwali will not be an easy task. Theteacher should begin this process by talking aboutthe harmful way in which fire crackers are madeespecially through the use of children who arethen inflicted with life threatening diseases. Followthis up with the harmful effects of firecrackers onhealth, air and noise pollution. Brainstorm ideasfor a fire-cracker free Diwali. Even if the studentsdo not agree, let them feel guilty every time theyare using fire-crackers. Even if the teacher hasmanaged to achieve this, we are on our way tomaking environmentally conscious students.

Ask some of the creative students in class to writethe script for a street play on the hazards of fire-crackers. Use this to convince the other studentsin the school to celebrate Diwali in an eco-friendlymanner.

Key points to be included in the play:

• Diwali is the festival of joy and fun and timefor re-enforcing personal relations by meetingpeople.

• It is the festival of light.

• Fire crackers mostly produced in Shivkasiand young children are involved in theproducing these crackers. They handlehazardous chemicals, dangerous for theirhealth.

• Use of fire crackers and sound pollution canonly lead to health hazards not enjoyment.

• Air pollutants released during the burning offire crackers are a serious health hazard.

• Accidents caused during the burning of firecrackers.

• Message to the audience - Not to usecrackers during festival. Explore other meansof celebrating the festival.

Celeberating an Eco-Diwali


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Green Ganesh

Objectives

To make students aware of the environmentalproblems associated with the Ganesh festival

Let’s do it…

Ask students to talk to their grandparents or oldermembers in the neighbourhood about how theGanesh festival was celeberated 50 years ago.The teacher should initiate a discussion in theclass about the various environmental problemscaused by celeberating the Ganesh festival as itis presently done. Brainstorm with the studentsas to what they would like to do to minimize theseproblems. Some ideas are given below :

• Ensure composing of all offerings made toLord Ganesh during the Ganesh festival.Demonstrate its simplicity by doing it in a pot.Ask students to avoid thermocoledecorations.

• Encourge students to immerse the idols in abucket at home. Try to use only metal, stoneor unbaked clay idols without any chemicalcolours. Idols made of metal or stone are bestas they can be worshipped every year. Somepeople sprinkle a little water on the idols assymbolic immersion. If idols have to beimmersed see that they are made up ofunbaked clay or mud. Do not buy idols paintedwith chemical colours or those having non

biodegradable material as decorations.

• Insist that the student must begin this at homebefore he/she can move on to convincingother friends and relatives and neighbours.

• Can you get your students to visit a potterand make make a simple clay idol? Is itpossible for the student to explore possibilitiesof setting up one Ganpati for his society onthe concept of ‘Ek Gaon, ek Ganpati’.

••••• Get students to identify and understand thevalue (religious and ecological) of the ‘patris’offered to the Ganesh during the festival. Askthem to list down distinguishing features, thestatus of availability of these plants in theirsurroundings areas ( common, uncommon,rare) and uses. These plants can be plantedin their school garden or even in pots. Makea poster of your findings and let the Ganeshfestival serve as a platform to conserve theseand other species.

Note: This module focuses on attitudinalchange and action at an individual level for abetter environment. It is essential for theteacher to have a through discussion in theclass as attitudinal changes do not happenovernight. Traditional beliefs and way of doingthings cannot change immediately. It can onlyhappen when the student is sufficiently wareand is strongly motivated to bring aboutchange.


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ObjectivesEnhancing understanding about use and misuseof water resources and skills for dealing with theproblem.

Let’s do it… The teacher should initiate a discussion in theclass using the following points.

• Where does the water you use come from?• How many litres of water do you need per

person/per day at home and at school?• When do the valves in your area open and

close?• Can you map the valves/water sources (wells,

bore wells) in your immediate locality?• How many taps do you have in your school?

• Do any of the taps in your school leak? Quan-tify the water lost by measuring water leakingout from the tap in one minute and hence for24 hours.

• What is your water bill? If metered water, cal-culate the amount of money to be paid forthe water leakages.( to calculate, all the de-tails are given at the back of the water bill .)

Making a water audit

Write a letter to the headmaster informing aboutthe water wastage in the school and requestingto mend the water taps.

How much does your local corporation/councilspend on transporting and purifying water? (Callthe local officer or any member from the waterdepartment to talk to students about the waterfacts).

How can wastage of water be avoided?

Form a water management team in your school.This team could monitor and get the school au-thorities to fix leaky taps. You could keep a watchon the surrounding water supply areas to see thatthey are clear of garbage, etc. and do not con-taminate the water. Can a simple rain water har-vesting system (where rain water is channelisedto underground sources) be implemented in theschool.


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What is biodiversity?In extremely simple terms, biodiversity means thevast variety of life forms found in our planet.

Types of biodiversityBiodiversity is broadly divided into three types:

• Genetic diversity: the genetic variability withina species

• Species diversity-the variety of species withina community

• Ecosystem diversity-the organisation ofspecies in an area into distinctive plant andanimal communities

Genetic diversity

Each member of any animal or plant speciesdiffers widely from other individuals in its geneticmakeup because of the large number ofcombinations possible in the genes that give everyindividual specific characteristics. Thus, forexample, each human being is very different fromall others. It is also seen in crops. Rice variesfrom white to red to brown and black.

This genetic variability is essential for a healthybreeding population of a species. If the numberof breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarityof genetic makeup is reduced and in-breedingoccurs. Eventually this can lead to the extinctionof the species. The diversity in wild species formsthe ‘ gene pool ‘ from which our crops anddomestic animals have been developed overthousands of years. Today the variety of nature’s

Biodiversity

bounty is being further harnessed by using wildrelatives of crop plants to create new varieties ofmore productive crops and to breed betterdomestic animals through biotechnology.

Species diversity

This is the number of species of plants andanimals that are present in a region. Some areasare more rich in species than others. Naturalundisturbed tropical forests have a much greaterspecies richness than plantations.

At present conservation scientists have been ableto identify and categorize about 1.8 million specieson earth. However, many new species are beingidentified, especially in the flowering plants andinsects. Areas that are rich in species diversityare called ‘hotspots’ of diversity. India is amongthe world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally richin species diversity.

Ecosystem diversity

There are a large variety of different ecosystemson earth, which have their own complement ofdistinctive inter linked species based on thedifferences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity canbe described for a specific geographical region,or a political entity such as a country, a State or ataluka. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapessuch as forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains,etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers,lakes, and the sea. Each region also has man-modified areas such as farmland or grazingpastures.

An ecosystem is referred to as ‘natural’ when it is


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relatively undisturbed by human activities or‘modified’ when it is changed to other types ofuses, such as farmland or urban areas.Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness areas.If natural ecosystems are overused or misusedtheir productivity eventually decreases and theyare then said to be degraded. India is exceptionallyrich in its ecosystem diversity.

Values of Biodiversity

Ecosystem services

Environmental services from species andecosystems are essential at global, regional andlocal levels. Production of oxygen, reducingcarbon dioxide, maintaining the water cycle,protecting soil are important services. It is nowwell accepted that the loss of biodiversitycontributes to global climatic changes. Forests arethe main mechanism for the conversion of carbondioxide into carbon and oxygen. The loss of forestcover, coupled with the increasing release ofcarbon dioxide and other gases throughindustrialization contributes to the ‘greenhouseeffect’. Global warming is melting ice caps,resulting in a rise in the sea level which willsubmerge the low lying areas in the world. It iscausing major atmospheric changes, leading toincreased temperatures, serious droughts in someareas and unexpected floods in other areas.

Biological diversity is also essential for preservingecological processes, such as fixing and recyclingof nutrients, soil formation, circulation andcleansing of air and water, global life support

(plants absorb CO2 , give out O2), maintaining thewater balance within ecosystems, watershedprotection, maintaining stream and river flowsthroughout the year, erosion control and local floodreduction.

Consumptive use services

Food, clothing, housing, energy, medicines, areall resources that are directly or indirectly linkedto the biological variety present in the biosphere.This is most obvious in the tribal communities whogather resources from the forest, or fisherfolk whocatch fish in marine or freshwater ecosystems.For others, such as agricultural communities,biodiversity is used togrow their crops to suitthe environment.Urban communitiesgenerally use thegreatest amount ofgoods and services,


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which are all indirectly drawn from naturalecosystems.

It has become obvious that the preservation ofbiological resources is essential for the well-beingand the long-term survival of mankind. Thisdiversity of living organisms which is present inthe wilderness, as well as in our crops andlivestock, plays a major role in human‘development’. The preservation of ‘biodiversity’is therefore integral to any strategy that aims atimproving the quality of human life.

Productive use services

Several marketable products are derived frombiodiversity. The biotechnologist uses biorichareas to ‘prospect’ and search for potential geneticproperties in plants or animals that can be usedto develop better varieties of crops that are usedin farming and plantation programs or to developbetter livestock. To the pharmacist, biologicaldiversity is the raw material from which new drugscan be identified from plant or animal products.To industrialists, biodiversity is a rich store-housefrom which to develop new products. For theagricultural scientist the biodiversity in the wildrelatives of crop plants is the basis for developingbetter crops.

Genetic diversity enables scientists and farmersto develop better crops and domestic animalsthrough careful breeding. Originally this was doneby selecting or pollinating crops artificially to geta more productive or disease resistant strain.Today this is increasingly being done by geneticengineering, selecting genes from one plant andintroducing them into another. New crop varieties(cultivars) are being developed using the geneticmaterial found in wild relatives of crop plantsthrough biotechnology.

Preservation of biodiversity has now becomeessential for industrial growth and economicdevelopment. A variety of industries such aspharmaceuticals are highly dependent onidentifying compounds of great economic value

from the wide variety of wild species of plantslocated in undisturbed natural forests. This iscalled biological prospecting.

Biodiversity at Global, Nationaland Local levelsThere are at present 1.8 million species knownand documented by scientists in the world.However, scientists have estimated that thenumber of species of plants and animals on earthcould vary from 1.5 to 20 billion! Thus the majorityof species are yet to be discovered.

Most of the world’s bio-rich nations are in theSouth, which are the developing nations. Incontrast, the majority of the countries capable ofexploiting biodiversity are Northern nations, in theeconomically developed world. These nationshowever have low levels of biodiversity. Thus thedeveloped world has come to support the conceptthat biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘globalresource’. However, if biodiversity should form a‘common property resource’ to be shared by allnations, there is no reason to exclude oil, oruranium, or even intellectual and technologicalexpertise as global assets. India ‘s sovereigntyover its biological diversity cannot becompromised without a revolutionary change inworld thinking about sharing of all types of naturalresources.

Countries with diversities higher than India arelocated in South America such as Brazil , andSouth East Asian countries such as Malaysia andIndonesia . The species found in these countries,however, are different from our own. This makesit imperative to preserve our own biodiversity asa major economic resource. While few of the other‘megadiversity nations’ have developed thetechnology to exploit their species forbiotechnology and genetic engineering, India iscapable of doing so.

Throughout the world, the value of biologically richnatural areas is now being increasinglyappreciated as being of unimaginable value.International agreements such as The WorldHeritage Convention attempt to protect andsupport such areas. India is a signatory to theconvention and has included several protectedAreas as World Heritage sites. These includeManas on the border between Bhutan and India ,Kaziranga in Assam , Bharatpur in U.P.,


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Nandadevi in the Himalayas , and the Sunderbansin the Ganges delta in West Bengal .

India has also signed the Convention in theTrade of Endangered Species (CITES) whichis intended to reduce the utilization of endangeredplants and animals by controlling trade in theirproducts and in the pet trade.

India as a Mega Diversity NationGeological events in the landmass of India haveprovided conditions for high levels of biologicaldiversity. A split in the single giant continent around70 million years ago, led to the formation ofnorthern and southern continents, with India a partof Gondwanaland - the southern landmass,together with Africa, Australia and the Antarctic.Later tectonic movements shifted India northwardacross the equator to join the Northern Eurasiancontinent. As the intervening shallow Tethys Seaclosed down, plants and animals that had evolvedboth in Europe and in the Far East migrated intoIndia before the Himalayas had formed. A finalinflux came from Africa with Ethiopian species,which, were adapted to the Savannas and semi-arid regions. Thus India ‘s special geographicalposition between three distinctive centres ofbiological evolution and radiation of species isresponsible for our rich and varied biodiversity.

Among the biologically rich nations, India standsamong the top 10 or 15 countries for its greatvariety of plants and animals, many of which arenot found elsewhere. India has 350 differentmammals (rated eight highest in the world), 1,200species of birds (eighth in the world), 453 speciesof reptiles (fifth in the world) and 45,000 plantspecies, of which most are angiosperms, (fifteenthin the world). These include especially highspecies diversity of ferns (1022 species) andorchids (1082 species). India has 50,000 knownspecies of insects, including 13,000 butterflies andmoths. It is estimated that the number of unknownspecies could be several times higher.

It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants areendemic to the country and found nowhere elsein the world. Among the plant species the floweringplants have a much higher degree of endemism,a third of these are not found elsewhere in theworld. Among amphibians found in India , 62%are unique to this country. Among lizards, of the153 species recorded, 50% are endemic. Highendemism has also been recorded for various

groups of insects, marine worms, centipedes,mayflies and fresh water sponges.

Cultivar diversity

India is characterised by a complex mosaic ofdistinct agro-ecosystems, differentiated by theirclimatic, soil, geological, vegetational, and othernatural features. A recent classification by theNational Bureau of Soil Survey and Land UsePlanning distinguishes 20 broad agro-ecologicalzones, separated by natural features and cropgrowing periods. Each of these agro-ecologicalzones is in turn comprised of myriad micro-habitats. It is within this diversity of habitats thatan amazing variety of crops and livestock hasbeen developed over the millions of years.

The Indian region is in fact one of the world’s eightcentres of crop plant origin, identified as such bythe Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov. At least 166 cropspecies and 320 wild relatives of crops haveoriginated here, according to the National Bureauof Plant Genetic Resources. But it is the geneticdiversity within each species which is even moremind-boggling. To give some examples, onespecies of rice has diversified into at least 50,000distinct varieties, and one species of mango intoover 1,000 varieties ranging from the size of apeanut to a small pumpkin.


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India perhaps also has the world’s largest diversityof livestock, with some 26 breeds of cattle, 40 ofsheep, 20 of goats, and 18 of poultry. All theworld’s eight buffalo breeds are found here.

Why this diversity?Over generations, Indian farmers havecontinuously adapted and modified the richgenetic material available to them from nature.The diversity of crops and livestock is not onlyaccidental, nor is it purely natural; it is more theoutcome of thousands of years of deliberateselection, planned exposure to a range of naturalconditions, field-level cross-breeding, and othermanipulations which farmers have tried out. Inother words, a single species of rice collected fromthe wild some time in the distant past, hasdiversified into 50,000 varieties as a result of theingenuity and innovative skills of farmingcommunities, a fact that the modern seed industryalways conveniently sidesteps, and that the non-discerning consumer is ignorant of.

But why in the first place did Indian farmers dothis? One obvious answer is that different cropvarieties and livestock breeds were adapted todiverse local conditions of growth and survival thatwere available in the country.

However, adaptation to localised environmentshas been only one mechanism or reason fordiversification. What is even more amazing is theuse of a large diversity of the same crop within asingle village, and sometimes within the samefield. Many tribal villages have been known togrow over 20 rice varieties within a single year intheir fields. The diversity was spread over bothtime (seasonal) and space (geographical), bothvertical and horizontal layers within the same field,and both within and between species.

More than mere physical adaptation, a host ofeconomic, cultural, religious, and survival factorshave played a role in this diversification. Amongstthe Warli tribals of Maharashtra a great diversityof rice is grown for different water and soil needs,varying maturity periods, resistance to differentdiseases, and various cultural events. Severalvarieties of rice and other crops were grown inmany parts of India just for their use duringfestivals, marriages, or other auspiciousoccasions; several others were grown for theirtaste, colour, or smell; yet others for their pesticidalor soil-fertilisation characteristics.

The stability of a biodiverse agriculture is perhapsits most important characteristic, as recorded frommany parts of the world. This is wonderfullyillustrated by a once-common practice of theGarhwal Himalaya, the baranaja. Literallymeaning “12 grains”, this practice involves thesowing of a mixture of crops into a single plot ofland. Kidney beans, black gram, green gram,horsegram, amaranthus, finger millet, barnyardmillet, and other crops are grown in a mannerwhich helps to obtain optimal and sustained yields.Since maturity periods of these crops vary,different crops are harvested at different times,helping to retain soil moisture, and providing aconstant supply of food. Fertility is continuouslyrecharged by the use of leguminous plants likepulses. According to some assessments, baranajagives a higher overall productivity (apart frommeeting diverse needs) than if the field was to beconverted into a soybean monoculture, which isbeing propagated by agricultural agencies in theregion.

Gene-banks have collected over 34,000 cerealsand 22,000 pulses grown in India. India has 27indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep,22 breeds of goats and 8 breeds of buffaloes.

(Source: Anthra)

Rice Approximately two lakhvarieties

Mango 1000 varietiesJowar 5000 varietiesCattle 30 varietiesGoat 20 varietiesSheep 4 varietiesPoultry 18 varietiesBuffaloes 8 varieties

Cultivar diversity in India

Rice Ratnagiri- atleast 27 varieties

Pune-atleast 12 varieties

Nachni Ratnagiri-atleast 15 varieties

Cattle Devni, Lal kandari, Khillar,Goulav, Dangi

Buffaloes Pandarpuri, Nagpuri

Goat Osmanabadi, Sangamnari

Sheep Dakhani, Sangamnari

Poultry Mansoli, Asil, Basra


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A few decades ago, Indian farmers grew over30,000 different varieties of rice. With the greenrevolution, most of the diverse varieties areheaded towards extinction. What happened torice, can also happen to many other crops. Indiais the global centre of genetic diversity for diversecrops such as the dwarf wheat, black pepper,cucumber, moth bean and several other crops.Especially the so-called ‘poor people’s crops’ thatmight have no importance for the internationalmarket but are crucial for local subsistenceeconomies are threatened with extinction asfarmers adopt green revolution and commercialcrops.

India is a large country with high diversity inecosystems. Ecosystem diversity leads to diversefarming systems in which land, water andbiodiversity are managed in different ways, withdifferent linkages between livestock, trees andcrops. These farming systems were built ondistinctive knowledge of the ecosystem andbiodiversity that farming communities havedeveloped and friend over generations. Thecontinued existence of species diversity andvarietal diversity within species that is still foundinspite of the threats of erosion is a result of thecultural practices and knowledge systems ofmillions of unknown and invisible farmers.

The erosion of genetic diversity and the extinctionof seed varieties is a major threat to people’s foodsecurity and survival. Genetic erosion is mainlycaused when traditional varieties are replaced by

extremely uniform, advanced varieties over largetracts of land. Though uniformity may have theadvantage of yield, it holds the risk of beingattacked by pests. These uniform crop varietieshave narrow genetic characteristics and aretherefore potentially vulnerable to adverseenvironmental conditions. Hybrid varieties havereplaced several thousands of traditional, droughtand pest resistant varieties while several othersare facing the threat of extinction. These varietieswhich have stood the test of time should not beallowed to become extinct. There is an urgentneed to prevent further loss of traditional seeds.

This range of diversity in crops is threatened byextinction due to several factors such as:

• Drought

• Diffusion of advanced cultivars

• Replacement of one crop by another

• Diseases and pests

• · Deforestation

• Change in landuse

Agricultural biodiversity is the foundation of foodsecurity. Food security is not just grain in thegodowns, it is enough food for each person inevery home. While newer biotechnologytechniques have considered to have made Indiasecure in food, the reality is the opposite. Thegreen revolution has succeeded in convertingsome areas, such as Punjab and Haryana intofood producers for the whole nation and otherparts of the country which were previously selfsufficient in food production have become totallydependent on these states for food.

Advantages of traditional seeds

• Adapted to the condition of the area wherethey are grown

• Possess multiple uses such as food,medicine, fuel, fibre, fertilizer, craftmaterial, feed for animals, religioussymbols, etc.

• Resistant to pests, diseases andenvironmental conditions such as drought,etc.

• Possess high nutritional value


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For the farmer the seed is not merely the sourceof future plants/food, it is the storage place ofculture, of history. Seed is the first link in the foodchain. Free exchange of seeds among farmershas been the basis of maintaining biodiversity aswell as food security. A farmer who wants toexchange seed generally gives an equal quantityof seed from his field in return for the seed hegets. Free exchange of seeds among the farmersgoes beyond mere exchange of seeds. It involvesexchange of ideas and knowledge of culture andheritage. It is an accumulation of tradition, ofknowledge of how to work the seed. Farmersgather knowledge about the seeds they want togrow in future by watching them actually grow inother farmers’ field. This knowledge is based onthe cultural, religious, gastronomic, drought anddisease resistance, pest resistance, keeping andother values that the community accords to theseed and the plant it produces.

Rice for example has religious significance in mostparts of the country and is an essential componentof most religious festivals. Rice grains areconsidered auspicious. In most parts of India theyare mixed with ‘kumkum’ and turmeric and is givenas a blessing. Other agricultural varieties whoseseeds, leaves or flowers form an essentialcomponent of religious ceremonies includecoconut, betel leaves, arecanut, wheat, finger andlittle millets, horsegram, blackgram, chickenpea,pigeon pea, sesame, sugarcane, jackfruit seed,cardamom, ginger, bananas, gooseberry. Boththe festivals before sowing seeds as well as theharvest festival which are celebrated in the fieldssymbolize people’s intimacy with nature.

Very often newer technologies of green revolutiondevalue the cultural and traditional knowledgeembodied in the seed and erode the holisticknowledge of the seed from the community. Thisresults in the seed itself being extinct as the

Reviving biodiversity

Navdanya, is a large network of farmers, environmentalists, scientists, and concernedindividuals which is working in different parts of India to collect and store indigenouscrop varieties, evaluate and select those with good performance, and encourage theirreuse in farmers ‘ fields. The Academy of Development Science and the Indian Societyfor Rural Gene Banks, working with farmers in Maharashtra to document their ricediversity, set up community gene banks (currently holding over 300 rice varieties fromwestern India), and propagate selected varieties. In a highly eroded landscape of theeast Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, the Timbuktu Collective is trying out organic farmingand has stated a grain bank of indigenous crop varieties.

existence of the seed is tied intimately with itsholistic knowledge.

In today’s context of biological and ecologicaldestruction, seed conservation is the need of thehour. Seeds are the gift of life, of heritage andcontinuity. Conserving seed is conservingbiodiversity, conserving knowledge of the seedand its utilization, conserving culture and ensuringsustainability.

Hotspots of Biodiversity

The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specificecological regions. There are over a thousandmajor ecoregions in the world. Of these, 200 aresaid to be the richest, rarest and most distinctivenatural areas. These areas are referred to as theGlobal 200 or ‘hotspots’.

It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plantswhich comprise 20% of global plant life, probablyoccur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countrieswhich have a relatively large proportion of thesehot spots of diversity are referred to as‘megadiversity nations’.

The rate at which the extinction of species isoccurring throughout our country remainsobscure. It is likely to be extremely high as ourwilderness areas are shrinking rapidly. Ourglobally accepted national ‘hot spots’ are in theforests of the North-East and the Western Ghats,which are included in the world’s most biorichareas. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are


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extremely rich in species and many subspeciesof different animals and birds have evolved.Among the endemic species i.e. those speciesfound only in India , a large proportion areconcentrated in these three areas. The Andamanand Nicobar Islands alone have as many as 2200species of flowering plants and 120 species offerns. Out of 135 genera of land mammals in India,85 (63%) are found in the Northeast. TheNortheast States have 1,500 endemic plantspecies. A major proportion of amphibian andreptile species, especially snakes, areconcentrated in the Western Ghats, which is alsoa habitat for 1,500 endemic plant species.

Coral reefs in Indian waters surround theAndaman and Nicobar Islands , LakshadweepIslands , the Gulf areas of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.They are nearly as rich in species as tropicalevergreen forests!

Threats to Biodiversity

Habitat loss

Man has begun to overuse or misuse most ofthese natural ecosystems. Due to this‘unsustainable’ resource-use, once productiveforests and grasslands have been turned intodeserts and wastelands have increased all overthe world. Mangroves have been cleared forfuelwood and prawn farming, which has led to adecrease in the habitat essential for breeding ofmarine fish. Wetlands have been drained toincrease agricultural land. These changes havegrave economic implications in the longer term.

There are about 1.8 million species of plants andanimals, both large and microscopic, known toscience in the world at present. The number ofspecies however is likely to be greater by a factorof at least 10. Plants and insects as well as otherforms of life not known to science are continually

being identified in the worlds’ ‘hot-spots’ ofdiversity. Unfortunately at the present rate ofextinction about 25% of the worlds’ species willundergo extinction fairly rapidly. This may occurat the rate of 10 to 20 thousand species per year,a thousand to ten thousand times faster than theexpected natural rate! The current destruction ofthe remaining large areas of wilderness habitats,especially in the super diverse tropical forests andcoral reefs, is the most important threat worldwideto biodiversity. Scientists have estimated thathuman activities are likely to eliminateapproximately 10 million species by the year 2050.

Much of this mega extinction spasm is related tohuman population growth, industrialization andchanges in land-use patterns. A major part of theseextinctions will occur in ‘bio-rich’ areas such astropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs. The lossof wild habitats due to rapid human populationgrowth and short term economic development aremajor contributors to the rapid global destructionof biodiversity.

In India, forests and grasslands are continuouslybeing changed to agricultural land.Encroachments have been legalized repeatedly.Similarly natural wetland systems have beendrained to establish croplands resulting in loss ofaquatic species. Grasslands that were oncesustainably used by a relatively smaller numberof human beings and their cattle are eitherchanged to other forms of use or degraded byovergrazing.

Introduction of exotic species

Introduction of exotic weeds which are not a partof the natural vegetation can also destroybiodiversity. Common examples in India arelantana bushes, eupatorium shrubs and ‘congress’grass. These have been imported into the countryfrom abroad and have invaded several large tractsof our natural forests and have led to the extinctionof several local species. These weeds spread at

the expense of thediverse range ofindigenous undergrowthspecies. The impact onthe diversity of insect,bird and other wildlifespecies, though notadequately studied, isquite obvious.


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Habitat destruction

Loss of species occurs due to the destruction ofnatural ecosystems, either for conversion toagriculture or industry, or by over-extraction of theirresources, or through pollution of air, water andsoil.

Increasing human population on the fringes of ourProtected Areas degrade forest ecosystems. Thisis a major factor to consider in evaluating thequality of the ecosystem. Repeated fires startedby local grazers to increase grass growthultimately reduces regeneration and lowers thediversity of plant species. Without alternatesources of fodder this pressure cannot bedecreased.

In our country a variety of traditional farmingtechniques have evolved over several centuries.Cultivation by slash and burn in the Himalayas ,and ‘rab’ by lopping of tree branches to act as awood-ash fertilizer in the Western Ghats, are twosuch systems. When human population in theseareas was low, these were sustainable methodsof agriculture. Unfortunately these areas now havea large number of people who subsist largely onforest agriculture. These methods are nowunsustainable and are leading to a loss of forestbiodiversity.

Overexploitation

Overharvesting of fish, especially by trawling isleading to serious depletion of fish stocks. Turtlesare being massacred off the coast of Orissa . Therare whale shark, a highly endangered specices,is being killed off the coast of Gujarat .

Poaching

Specific threats tocertain animals arerelated to large economic benefits. Skin and bonesfrom tigers, ivory from elephants, horns fromrhinos and the perfume from the musk deer areextensively used abroad. Bears are killed for theirgall bladders. Corals and shells are also collectedfor export or sold on the beaches of Chennai andKanyakumari. A variety of wild plants with real orat times dubious medicinal value are being overharvested. The commonly collected plants includeRauvolfia, Nuxvomica, Datura, etc. Collection ofgarden plants includes orchids, ferns and moss.

Conservation of biodiversity:In-situ and ex-situ

In-situ conservation

Biodiversity at all its levels, genetic species andas intact ecosystems, can be best preserved in-situ by setting aside an adequate representationof wilderness as ‘Protected Areas’. These shouldconsist of a network of National Parks and WildlifeSanctuaries with each distinctive ecosystemincluded in the network. Such a network wouldpreserve the total diversity of life of a region.


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In the past National Parks and Sanctuaries in Indiawere notified to preserve major wildlife speciessuch as tigers, lions, elephants, and deer. Theobjective of these areas should be expanded tothe preservation of relatively intact naturalecosystems, where biological diversity - frommicroscopic unicellular plants and animals, to thegiant trees and major mammals - can all bepreserved.

However species cannot be protected individuallyas they are all inter dependent on each other. Thusthe whole ecosystem must be protected. As rareendemic species are found only in a small areathese easily become extinct due to human activity.Such areas must be given an added importanceas their biodiversity is a special feature of theregion.

Animals such as elephants require different typesof habitat to feed in during different seasons. Theyutilize open grasslands after the rains when theyoung grass shoots are highly nutritious. As thegrasses dry, the elephants move into the forest tofeed on foliage from the trees. A Protected Areathat is meant to protect elephants must thereforebe large enough and include diverse habitat typesto support a complete complement of inter linkedspecies.

Ex-situ conservation

Sometimes, there are situations in which anendangered species is so close to extinction thatunless alternate methods are instituted, thespecies may be rapidly driven to extinction. Thisstrategy is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e.outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlledsituation such as a botanical garden for plants or

a zoological park for animals, where there isexpertise to multiply the species under artificiallymanaged conditions. These breeding programsfor rare plants and animals are however moreexpensive than managing a Protected Area.

There is also another form of preserving a plantby preserving its germ plasm in a gene bank sothat it can be used if needed in future. This is evenmore expensive.

When an animal is on the brink of extinction, itmust be carefully bred so that inbreeding doesnot lead to the genetic makeup becoming weak.Breeding from the same stock can lead to poorlyadapted progeny or even inability to get enoughoffspring.

Modern breeding programs are done in zoos thatprovide for all the animal’s needs, includingenclosures that simulate their wild habitats. Theremay also be a need to assist breeding artificially.Thus while most zoos are meant to provide visitorswith a visual experience of seeing a wild animalclose up, and provide the visitors with informationabout the species, a modern zoo has to go beyondthese functions that include breeding ofendangered species as a conservation measure.

In India , successful ex situ conservation programshave been done for all our three species ofcrocodiles. This has been highly successful.Another recent success has been the breedingof the very rare pygmy hog in Gauhati Zoo. Delhizoo has successfully bred the rare Manipur browantlered deer.

However the most important step of a successfulbreeding program is the reintroduction of aspecies into its original wild habitat. This requiresrehabilitation of the degraded habitat and removalof the other causes such as poaching,disturbance, or other manmade influences thathave been the primary cause of reducing thepopulation of the species.

Conservation of cultivars andlivestock breeds

There were an estimated thirty thousand varietiesof rice grown in India till about 50 years ago. Nowonly a few of these are still grown. The newvarieties which are now being cultivatedeverywhere have been developed using germplasm of these original types of rice. If all thetraditional varieties vanish completely it will be


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difficult to develop new disease resistant varietiesof rice in the future. Several varieties have beenpreserved in gene banks. However, this is bothvery expensive and risky. Encouraging farmersto continue to grow several traditional varieties isthus an important concern for the future ofmankind. At present gene bank collections haveover 34 thousand cereals and 22 thousand pulses.

The diversity of life on earth is so great that if weuse it sustainably we can go on developing newproducts from biodiversity for many generations.This can only happen if we manage biodiversityas a precious resource and prevent the extinctionof species.


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ObjectiveToe enhance students understanding of thenatural resources of their village.

Let’s do it….

Each village is an ecosystem by itself. To enablethe students to visualize this entity, construct amap alongwith the students. By looking at themap, they begin to ‘see’ the different elements,like cultivated land, uncultivated or forest land,springs, etc. within the whole system. They thengain a mental picture of the parts within the wholewhich will later help them conceive theinterrelationships among the parts especiallywhen discussing the ecological balance of theecosystem.

A relief map or a model will be more educativethan a flat map. Make the map reasonablypermanent. Use stones, bricks, etc. A plaster ofdung and soil will make the surface resistant toerosion by rain. A well made map, if repaired fromtime to time will last several years and will beuseful in discussing the progress of projects lateron.

1. Begin by obtaining a copy of the official villagemap. This can be got by applying to theTehsildar or making a copy from the one withthe Patwari.

2. Walk around the boundary of the village andmake rough sketches on paper with notes.

Let’s know our village…

3. From the official map, your own sketches andobservations make a layout map on theground. Be sure to give it the same north-south axis as the village itself. Demarcatecultivated land (not individual fields), gairans,barren land, private land, panchayat land andforest land.

4. Once everybody has agreed that you havegot the map right (get the elders in the villageto also approve), raise the following questions:

• Fifty years or so ago, what did the villageforest look like? Was it different thantoday in density and types of trees? Whatare the reasons for the change over time?

• From where did people bring fodder andfuelwood then? From where do theybring them today?

• Were there more springs 50 years agothen are today? Was the outflow ofsprings more or less then it is today?What could be the possible reasons?

• Has the area of cultivated land increasedover the last 50 years? If so, indicatewhere in the map. Compare the qualityof this land with that in cultivation beforethat. What did this land produce before?

• In many villages, the forest has reducedover the years. If this is true of our village,what do you think the future holds for us.


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ObjectiveTo build skills of censusing among the students.

Let’s do it…Make a list of all the households in the village.Visit each one and enquire the number ofresidents. Residents are people who live in thevillage. Family members who live outside thevillage and only visit from time to time should notbe counted. Record your results as follows:

Number of families in the village

Number of people in the village

When you visit each household, also ask aboutthe number of animals of different types, ie:bullocks, cows, calves, buffaloes and their calves,goats and sheep. Enter the data into the tablebelow.

Table : Number of animal units

How many in our village?

Type of animal Number Coefficient to Number of animal unitsconvert toanimal units

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Bullocks 1

Cows 1

Cow calves 0.5

Buffaloes 2

Buffalo calves 1

Goats 0.1

Sheep 0.2

Total


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Objectives

To inculcate skills of observation, data collectionand analysis

Let’s do it..

Fodder production can be estimated quiteaccurately by weighing the fodder fed in a sampleof households on one day every month for a periodof one year. Green fodder is converted to its dryequivalent by dividing by 2. The quantity of grazedfodder can be calculated by multiplying the areaof the support areas that is grazed during the rainyseason by a figure of 20. The total of these twofigures is the total fodder consumption.

Fodder consumption/headloads/village/year =Number of animal units X 100

Do this calculation for your village and write theresult here:

__________headloads air dry fodder/village/year

From this figure we calculate fodder productionfrom the village land by adding the amount thatmay have been sold during the year from thevillage, substracting the amount that waspurchased.

Example :

Do this calculation for your own village.

How much fodder to our cattle need?

Estimated fodder consumption (air dry basis) 10,000

Dry fodder purchased 100

Dry fodder sold, headloads 60

Estimated fodder production is thus: 10,000+60-100 = 9,960headloads


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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Teak

Kadam

IndianCoral tree

Banyan

Pipal

Jamun

Mango

Red silkcotton

Palas

Babul

Objective

Enhancing skills of observation

Let’s do it...

Diversity of life exists all around us. We mustlearn to observe it, appreciate it and conserve it.You could begin by understanding plants that areall around us. Begin by observing the leaves,bark, flowers and fruits that are importantcharacteristics by which we are able to identifythe tree. Crush a part of each leaf and smell it.Each leaf has its own kind of smell.

Let’s find it…

Match the flowing to the forest types they arefound in. Observe them and record their floweringseason by colouring the relevant box. During theflowering season, which species of birds areattracted to the tree.

Know our surroundings


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Objective

Enhance students knowledge of observation

Let’s do it…

How many insects do you think live in yourschool compound? Can you guess? One ofthe ways to know this is to actually county insects.But counting insects can be very tiresome. Theremay be several thousand ants in a particular area.However scientists have devised methods ofcounting insects.

Make a square frame with pipes. This could be1m x 1m in length. You could even join four stickstogether as shown in the figure to make this frame.Divide the class into different groups. Each groupcould look in a different area. Throw the frame

Insect Count

Data Card

Month ____________________

Insect No

01. Butterflies

02. Moths

03. Ants

04. Bugs

05. Beetles

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

on the ground. Count all the insects that fall withinthe frame. Record your observations on the datasheet as shown.

Do this once a month with your ‘Insect watchersTeam’. At the end of each school term draw agraph and display it on your school notice board.You can make either a line graph or a bar graph.A line graph can be used to show how thepopulation of a particular insect varies accordingto the month. A bar graph can tell you which isthe largest group of insects that occur in your area.


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Exploring our environment · Exploring our environment... A manual for Green Schools 6 Solid Waste Management Solid waste management has been a concern for humans since the beginning