INSTRUCTIONS

You will create a digital brochure, using Google Docs, about six

explorers who explored Alta & Baja California, from 1535 - 1769.

For each explorer you need to include the explorer’s…

1. Name

2. Year of birth and death

3. Description of major (most important) exploration/trip. You must also include why

the exploration that he took was important, and when it happened.

4. Which country he sailed/explored on behalf of

5. One image to go with that explorer (it can be their picture, or a picture of the

route they took, or whatever you think is a good fit)

The brochure has 6 panels, to be organized as follows:

Panel 1: Cover/Title

Panel 2: 2 explorers

Panel 3: 2 explorers

Panel 4: 1 explorer

Panel 5: 1 explorer

Panel 6: address/stamp, for sending the brochure

Here are some resources to help you:

1. Information about the explorers that Ms. Dekker has compiled

2. Your CA Studies Weekly – Week 10 color newspaper

3. Video searches you can do at your Discovery Education account

4. Some additional websites/articles at History.com:

a. Cabrillo:

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/cabrillo-discovers-san-diego-

bay/print

b. Vizcaino: go to the 5th paragraph for a brief statement about Vizcaino

www.history.com/topics/mexico/baja-california

5. Some additional videos at History.com:

a. Cortez: What happened to the Aztecs?

http://www.history.com/topics/aztecs/videos/ask-history-what-

happened-to-the-aztecs (2 min)

b. Cortez: When the Spanish first meet the Aztecs

www.history.com/topics/aztecs/videos/aztec-encounter (2min)

c. Cortez: The prophecy of the Aztec God, Quexalcote. Was he Cortez?

www.history.com/topics/aztecs/videos/prophecy-of-

quexalcote?m=528e394da93ae&s=undefined&f=1&free=false (3 min)

Explorers Brochure: Instructions and Rubric

RUBRIC POINTS EVALUATION

_____/5 Information and image about Hernan Cortez

_____/5 Information and image about Juan Cabrillo

_____/5 Information and image about Francis Drake

_____/5 Information and image about Sebastian Vizcaino

_____/5 Information and image about James Cook

_____/5 Information and image about Gaspar de Portola (with Junipero Serra

and Juan Crespi)

_____/5 General info about the explorers and that time period

_____/5 Accurate

_____/5 Neat and creative

_____/45 TOTAL

Go to your Google Drive to download and

make a copy of the Brochure Template.

This will show you where the information goes on the digital brochure.

HERNAN CORTES Born: 1485

Died: 1547

Nationality: Spanish (Spain)

General Information:

He was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of

the Aztec empire and brought large portions of what now is mainland Mexico

under the rule of the Spanish.

He was the part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first

phase of the Spanish colonization of South, Central and North America.

Biography:

Cortés was born in the small town of Medellín, Spain, in 1485. While at the

University of Salamanca, he became interested in the voyages of such

explorers as Amerigo Vespucci and Christopher Columbus. Cortés dreamed of

sailing to the Americas. He decided to follow his dream.

In 1504, at the age of 18, Cortes decided to travel to Hispaniola become a

colonist in this new Spanish colony (Hispaniola is now called Haiti and the

Dominican Republic). He got a good job and earned the trust of Diego

Velasquez

Velazquez, who decided to explore and conquer Cuba in 1511, asked Cortes

to join him. They were successful, but it did not satisfy the Spanish craving for

gold. Velazquez heard about the wealthy Aztec empire in Mexico, and

wanted to have some of this gold for himself.

In 1518, Velazquez put Cortes in charge of an expedition to explore and

secure the inland areas of Mexico for colonization.

Map of

Cortes’

route from

Cuba to

the areas

now

known as

Mexico.

The first

place

Cortes

landed

was the Yucatan peninsula area, which was Mayan territory. Luckily for Cortes,

he met Geronimo Aguilar, who was a shipwrecked Spaniard that knew the

language of the Indians and became an interpreter for Cortes.

Then he proceeded to Tabasco and won a battle against the natives. Twenty

women slaves were given to Cortes by the Tabasco Indians. One of the women

was named La Malinche. She ended up becoming Cortes’ mistress and mother

of his child, Martín (Martin is considered one of the first Mestizos, people of mixed

European and indigenous American ancestry). Malinche knew both the Aztec

(called Nahuatl) and Mayan language, thus enabling Hernán Cortés to

communicate in both. She became a very valuable interpreter and counselor.

Through her help, Cortés learned from the Tabascans about the wealthy Aztec

Empire and its riches.

Cortes then continued to travel along the coast and founded La Villa Rica de

Vera Cruz (now, Veracruz), the first Spanish colony in Mexico.

In August 1519 Cortes began a journey inland toward the Aztec capital,

Tenochtitlan. Believing that Cortes was an Aztec god, the Aztec king,

Montezuma II welcomed him into the city. Cortes took advantage of this to

kidnap Montezuma II and take control of the Aztec empire.

In 1520 Cortés left Tenochtitlan to meet with Spanish officials in Cuba, leaving

Pedro de Alvarado in charge. While Cortés was gone, Alvarado killed many

Aztecs while they were taking part in a religious festival. The Aztecs then attacked

the Spanish soldiers. Outnumbered by the Aztecs, the soldiers retreated. In August

1521 Cortés returned and defeated the Aztecs. He claimed for Spain all the land

the Aztecs ruled. King Charles I of Spain was pleased with Cortés' work and made

him governor of the new territory.

Cortés spent the next few years gaining more land in what is today central and

southern Mexico. The Spanish named this area New Spain. Tenochtitlan later

became known as Mexico City.

Cortés also introduced the Christian religion to many of the native people.

In 1524 Cortés explored Honduras in Central America. He traveled to Baja

California in northwestern Mexico in 1535. He returned to Spain in 1540.

JUAN CABRILLO Born: ? (maybe 1499?)

Died: 1543

Nationality: Portugese (Portugal). But, he sailed for Spain.

Cabrillo was a Portuguese explorer noted for his exploration of the west

coast of North America on behalf of Spain. Cabrillo was the first

European explorer to navigate the coast of present day California in the

United States. He helped found the city of Oaxaca, in Mexico.

Biography:

The Young Conqueror

We know little of Cabrillo's early years until 1519 when his

name appears in the ranks of those who served in the army of famous

conquistador Hernan Cortes. In the terrible battles between the Aztecs and the

Spanish, Cabrillo fought as a captain of crossbowmen.

After the defeat of the Aztecs, Cabrillo joined other Spanish military expeditions in

what is today southern Mexico, Guatemala, and San Salvador. Eventually Cabrillo

settled in Guatemala. There he received encomienda's --long term leases for

land uses such as gold mining and farming, along with the right to use forced

Indian labor for these projects. The king of Spain granted encomiendas as a

reward for services to the crown.

A Businessman and Leading Citizen of Guatemala

By the mid-1530's, Cabrillo established himself as a leading citizen of Guatemala's

primary town, Santiago. Later, in 1540, an earthquake destroyed Santiago.

Cabrillo's report to the crown on the earthquake's destruction is the first known

piece of secular (non faith based) journalism written in the New World.

Meanwhile, in 1532, Cabrillo traveled to Spain where he met Beatriz Sanchez de

Ortega. The two married that year and Cabrillo returned with her to Guatemala

where she bore two sons.

As the Cabrillo family grew, so did his wealth and reputation as a ship builder.

Using a port on Guatemala's Pacific Coast, Cabrillo imported and exported

goods in the developing trade between Guatemala, Spain and other parts of the

New World. The ships he used for this trade were constructed in Guatemala using

skilled labor and ideas Cabrillo brought back from Spain and the physical labor of

Native Americans. Some of these ships would play a vital role in Spain's early

efforts to explore the Pacific.

Why Explore California?

The Governor of Guatemala, Pedro de Alvarado, selected Cabrillo to build and

provision ships to explore the Pacific because of his skills as a leader and

businessman. Alvarado planned to use the ships to establish a trading route

between Central America and the Spice Islands off of Asia. When Alvarado died

during an Indian uprising, his business partner, the Viceroy of New Spain, Antonio

de Mendoza, prompted Cabrillo to lead one of two expeditions to explore the

Pacific. Cabrillo accepted and soon set out to explore the coast north and west

of New Spain (Mexico). Meanwhile, the other expedition, led by Ruy Lopez de

Villalobos, sailed directly across the Pacific to the Philippines. While this expedition

did reach the Philippines, Villalobos was killed in a mutiny and the hungry,

disheartened crew eventually surrendered to a Portuguese garrison in the Spice

Islands.

The Cabrillo expedition sailed out of the port of Navidad, near modern day

Manzanillo, on June 24, 1542. Accompanying Cabrillo were a crew of sailors,

soldiers, Indian and probably black slaves, merchants, a priest, livestock and

provisions for two years. Three ships, the flagship built by Cabrillo himself, were

under his command.

Exploring California

One hundred and three days into the journey, Cabrillo's ships entered San Diego

bay. He probably landed at Ballast Point where he claimed the land for Spain.

Cabrillo described the bay as "a closed and very good harbor," which he called

San Miguel. The name San Miguel was changed to San Diego 60 years later by

another explorer, Sebastian Vizcaino.

The expedition continued north to Monterey Bay and may have reached as far

north as Point Reyes before storms forced the ships to turn back. Interestingly, the

expedition failed to sight San Francisco Bay, which remained undiscovered until

1769. Discouraged by foul weather, Cabrillo decided to winter in the Channel

Islands. There, after a fall incurred during a brief skirmish with natives, Cabrillo

shattered a limb and died of

complications on January 3,

1543.

Following Cabrillo's death,

the disheartened crew again

sailed north -- this time under

the leadership Bartolome

Ferrer. The expedition may

have reached latitude as far

north as the Rogue River in

Oregon but thrashing winter

winds and spoiled supplies

forced them to return to

Mexico.

Replica of Cabrillo’s galleon, San Salvador

FRANCIS DRAKE, “NAVAL ADVENTURER” Born: sometime between 1535 - 1544

Died: 1596

Nationality: British (English/England)

Biography: Francis Drake was a …

British explorer

slave-trader

privateer (a pirate working for a government) in the

service of England

mayor of Plymouth, England

naval officer (he was an Admiral).

Drake started his sea career when he became an

apprentice member of a crew that traded ships between the Thames River and the

ports across the English Channel.

At age twenty-three, he went on slave-trading voyages to Guinea in West Africa.

Drake made his first voyage to the New World, sailing, in company with his second

cousin, Sir John Hawkins (Hawkins’ family owned the fleet of ships).

In 1568 he was again with the Hawkins fleet, on

a slave-trading trip, when it was trapped by

the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan

de Ulua. The Spanish did not want the English

competing in their highly profitable slave-

trading business. The Spanish sunk most of his

ships, but he and Hawkins escaped. This

experience is said to have led him to his

lifelong revenge against the Spanish.

In December of 1577, he set off with his ship,

the Golden Hind, to attempt to sail all the way

around the world. He had the best-equipped

expedition ever launched by England -- 5 stout

ships, well armed, and a crew of 150 men. He

and his crew successfully completed this trip in

1580.

A modern replica of

Drake’s ship, the

Golden Hind

On June 17, 1579,

during his trip

around the world,

Drake reached

the northwest

coast of the North

American

continent. He

landed

somewhere north

of Spain’s

northern-most

claim at Point

Loma. He found

a good port,

landed, repaired

and restocked his

vessels, then

stayed for a time,

keeping friendly

relations with the

natives. He

claimed the

land for

England and called it Nova Albion. The precise location of the port was carefully

guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even

have been altered to this end. The extent of New Albion and the location of Drake's

landing have long been debated by historians, with most believing that he came

ashore somewhere on the coast of northern California.

The English and Spanish were in many battles that later resulted in a war. In this

war, England crushed the Spanish Armada in 1588 and became the dominant

world power. Drake helped the British defeat the Spanish Armada; he was second

in command. The Spanish called him El Draque, meaning "The Dragon."

Other information:

Drake’s parents had 12 sons! Francis was the eldest.

Drake married twice. He did not have any children.

Francis Drake lived most of his life during the reign of the English monarch,

Elizabeth I. Elizabeth reigned from 1558 to 1606.

Drake actively plundered Spanish ships, in an unofficial war. Queen Elizabeth

would accept the resulting booty, but would denounce Drake’s actions when

politically necessary.

Drake was knighted on his ship "The Golden Hind" by Queen Elizabeth.

Drake's landing in California, engraving published in 1590 by Theodor

De Bry

Under his commander, John Hawkins, Drake transported slaves from Africa to

the West Indies.

Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate around the word. His

voyage took place from 1577 to 1580. (Magellan, a Spaniard, led the first

voyage around the world.)

In 1587 Drake famously "singed the King of Spain's beard" by sinking 33 ships the

Spanish harbor of Cadiz. This attack gave England a year's grace to bolster its

defenses.

The Spanish Armada attacked England in 1588. At the time, Drake was

supposedly playing a game called, “bowls.” Legend has it that when told of

the approaching danger, Drake replied that he had enough time to win the

game and thrash the Spaniards too.

The coastal area of California was originally named "New Albion" by Drake.

Drake died from dysentery. He was buried at sea in a leaded coffin.

Portrait miniature of Sir

Francis Drake painted in

1581 by the limner Nicholas

Hilliard

SEBASTIAN VIZCAINO Born: 1548 (or 1550?)

Died: 1624 (or 1627?)

Nationality: Spanish (Spain)

Biography:

Sebastian was a Spanish soldier, entrepreneur, explorer, and diplomat whose

varied roles took him to New Spain, the Philippines, the Baja California

peninsula, the California coast and Japan.

Sebastian Vizcaino was born into a family of successful merchants in

Extremadura, Spain, in 1548. In 1580 - 1583 he led a cavalry unit in the Spanish

reoccupation of Portugal. In 1586 he went to New Spain (Mexico) and from there

moved on to Manila, Philippines, where he worked successfully in the China trade

for three years. In 1589 he returned to Mexico City, married and settled down to

raise a family. In June 1596 he started an expedition from Acapulco to the Sea of

Cortes in an effort to exploit the pearl fisheries. During this expedition he named

the small port of La Paz in Baja California. He was unsuccessful in his search for

pearls and returned to Acapulco in November of the same year.

In 1601 the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico City, Conde de Monterey, made Vizcaino

the general in charge of an expedition to locate a safe harbor in Alta California

for Spanish Galleons to use on their return to Acapulco from Manila. He was also

instructed to map the coastline, since it hadn’t been done since Cabrillo did the

same 60 years prior. He departed Acapulco with three ships on May 5, 1602. His

flag ship was the San Diego and the other two ships were the San Tomas and the

Tres Reyes. On November 10, 1602, he entered and named San Diego Bay. Sailing

up the coast Vizcaino named most of the prominent features (thus taking away

the names given to these same features by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo in 1542).

On December 13, 1602 Vizcaino entered what he considered to be the finest bay

on the coast of California. He named it Monterey Bay after his patron the Conde

de Monterey. Vizcaino went ashore on December 17 and celebrated mass.

(While in Monterey Bay he sent the San Tomas back to Acapulco with those of his

party who were sick or injured. Twenty five of the thirty four men on the ship died

on route.) On January 3, 1603 Vizcaino sailed north reaching Drake's Bay in the

San Diego on January 8. During a storm he took shelter behind a point of land

that he named Punta de los Reyes - today's Point Reyes. (On shore he met with

Indians who remembered both Drake and Cermenon's visits.) The Tres Reyes had

gotten separated from the flag ship in the storm but both ships continued north.

The San Diego appears to have gotten as far as a cape that Vizcaino named

Cabo Blanco de San Sebastian (probably today's Cape Blanco). The Tres Reyes

appears to have gone as far as the Coquille River. The two ships returned to

Acapulco, Vizcaino reaching the port on February 21, 1603.

Having accomplished his mission to the satisfaction of his superiors in Mexico City

and Madrid, Vizcaino was well received upon his return to New Spain. In 1607 he

was named General of the Manilla Galleons and given considerable monetary

rewards. In 1608 he recommended to Madrid that Monterey be colonized and

began preparations for accomplishing that objective. In 1610 Rodrigo de Vivera,

former Governor of the Philippines, returned to New Spain and recommended

the establishment of relations with Japan. Vizcaino was ordered to drop the

Monterey plan and was named to be Spain's first Ambassador to Japan. (He was

also instructed to find the fabled Ilas Ricas.) On March 22, 1611 he departed

Acapulco and arrived in Uraga, Japan sometime in June 1611. After extensive

delays and meetings with the Shogun, Tokugawa Iyeyasu, he spent four months

mapping Japanese waters. He continued the effort to find the Islas Ricas during

much of 1612. By 1613 he was unsuccessful in finding the mythical islands but he

did convince the Shogun to send his ambassadors to Spain. (Japan's first embassy

in Europe. All five ambassadors were executed on their return to Japan because

they had adopted Christianity.)

In 1614 Vizcaino retired in Sayula,

Spain but was recalled to active

duty after the Dutch fleet sailed

into Acapulco and took what

they wanted without opposition.

Vizcaino returned to Acapulco

and successfully ambushed a

Dutch resupply effort. He was

made Alcalde of Acapulco. He

served there until 1619 when he

retired to Mexico City. He died in

Mexico City in 1624 at the age of

eighty.

An actor portrays Vizcaino in a

modern play

JAMES COOK, “THE KING OF NAVIGATORS” Born: 1728

Died: 1779

Nationality: British (English/England)

Short Biography of Captain James Cook

Historically recognized as one of the most gifted

and prolific navigators in the world, Captain

James Cook was also a cartographer whose

contributions led to what would become an

entire mapping of the Pacific Ocean. His methods

of exploration were careful, calculated, and

scientific in nature. These attributes would mean that he would be sent on some of the

most important of voyages under the British Crown.

Born into what biographers consider was a poverty-stricken family, young James was

determined to find his way in the world and to lead a life of adventure and exploration.

His first ventures were into the Baltic Sea until he served with the Royal Navy where

within only four years he worked his way to master an entire vessel. The Royal Navy sent

him to Canada to survey the eastern coasts of the country where his notes, maps, and

sketches were published.

Around this time, Captain Cook began thinking about the reasons why some shipmates

survived ocean crossings and while others did not. Being a captain meant that he had

adequate food and nourishment. He began making sure that all his hands were fed

properly and given nutrient-rich foods. This contribution to sailing would mean that he

would statistically lose fewer men on his journeys than any other captain.

Captain Cook’s first explorative voyage sent him to the Pacific Ocean. He set a due

course past the Canary Islands, the Cape Verde Islands and below Cape Horn. He

made it to Tahiti and continued onward to modern day New Zealand and there

accurately mapped the entire perimeter of both islands. He then founded New South

Wales in Australia and continued westward below the Cape of Good Hope to England,

which meant that he had successfully circumnavigated the globe.

His second voyage saw him on an even more important navigation on a ship called

Adventure. He continued into the Pacific and explored Easter Island, Tonga, and even

discovered New Caledonia and Norfolk. He returned to England and his fame as one of

England’s most prominent explorers of the Pacific. In Captain Cooks third and final

journey, he was put in charge of finding a new route that would allow Britain to move

from the Pacific to the Atlantic without having to go below South America. He and his

crew eventually landed on and discovered Christmas Island and the entire chain of the

Hawaiian Islands. He landed in what is now the northwest United States and sailed south

along the coast looking for a passage to the Pacific. Finding none, he returned to the

Hawaiian Islands and in a skirmish was killed.

Facts:

Cook was known for his concern for the health of his crew, adding lemon and lime juice

to their diet to prevent scurvy. He convinced his men to eat fruit and vegetables my

telling them that the produce was “officers’ food.”

He had a great desire to spread western culture and the Christian religion among

native peoples.

He explored more of the earth's surface than any other person in those years, including

Tahiti, coast of New Zealand, eastern Australia, Antarctica, some of the island groups in

the South Pacific, and Hawaii (was called the Sandwich Islands). He was the first

European to sail to the Arctic and Antarctic circles.

The people of the Sandwich Islands offer gifts to James Cook.

In 1759, Cook charted the St. Lawrence River in North America.

He sailed around the world 2 times (in 1771 and 1775).

He and his wife, Elizabeth, had 6 kids. Elizabeth outlived all her children, dying at 93.

Cook's eldest son, James reached the age of 31.

In 1768, Cook sailed to the Tahiti islands to observe the transit of Venus across the sun.

A future famous British naval officer, Bligh, served with Cook on one of his voyages.

William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMS Bounty in 1787 to sail

to Tahiti and return with breadfruit.

Endeavor, was the name of Cook’s ship that he used to explore Australia. Did you

know that a piece of the Endeavour was taken to the moon in the Apollo 15 lunar

module? Wow, very interesting!

Cook died in Hawaii in a fight with native Hawaiians during his third exploratory

voyage in the Pacific on February 14, 1779.

Cook’s first voyage, from 1768 - 1771

GASPAR DE PORTOLA Born: 1723

Died: 1784

Nationality: Spanish

Gaspar De Portola was a Spanish military officer, the first

governor of Upper California, and the founder of two

California cities, Monterey and San Diego. He headed

the Spanish expedition that established the first missions

in Alta California.

Biography:

Gaspar de Portolá was born at Balaguer in the province of Catalonia. As a young

man, he joined the army and soon rose to the rank of captain of dragoons in the

España Regiment. In 1767, as a reward for his services, Charles III named Portolá

governor of Baja (Lower) California, and Portolá set out for Mexico to assume his

new post. His first task as governor was an unpleasant one. The Spanish monarch

had decreed the expulsion of the Jesuit order from Spain and its dominions, and

Portolá was charged with removing the Jesuits from Baja California, an

assignment he carried out with compassion and dispatch.

About this time fear of Russian intrusion from the north convinced the Spaniards of

the need to expand their settlements into Alta (Upper) California. José de Gálvez,

visitor general of New Spain, quickly organized a plan of occupation under the

overall command of Portolá. Two ships, the San Carlos and San Antonio, sailed

north early in 1769, while two land parties, one commanded by Rivera y

Moncada and Fray Juan Crespi and the other under Portolá accompanied by

Fray Junípero Serra (Catholic priest/missionary), left a few months later. With the

Rivera party ahead to open the trail, the two groups moved north. Rivera

reached San Diego in May, and Portolá's party arrived in late June.

Although food was critically short and many of the men were ill, Portolá

immediately set out to find the reported harbor of Monterey. Moving north from

San Diego, he selected several possible mission sites, passed Monterey without

recognizing the spot, and explored the region around San Francisco Bay before

returning to San Diego in late January 1770. During the spring Portolá returned

north and successfully located Monterey, where he and Serra established Mission

San Carlos. Shortly thereafter Portolá returned to Baja California, where he

remained as governor for several years.

In 1776 Portolá became governor of Puebla. Probably at this time he published his

Diario histórico, the journal of the California expedition. Portolá served in Puebla

until 1784, when he retired from active service and returned to Spain.

JUNIPERO SERRA

Born: 1713

Died: 1784

Nationality: Spanish

A priest in the Franciscan order of the Catholic Church, Junipero

Serra was an important influence in the Spanish conquest and

colonization of what is now the state of California.

Biography:

Serra was born into a humble family on the Spanish island of

Mallorca in the Mediterranean Ocean. His parents sent him

to a nearby Franciscan school, and his intellectual abilities soon caught the

attention of his teachers. At age fifteen he enrolled in a well-known Franciscan

school in the nearby city of Palma. The next year he began in the Franciscan

order and shortly thereafter was ordained as a priest.

Serra's intelligence and enormous willpower helped him get an appointment as a

professor of theology at the young age of twenty-four. Six years later, in 1743, he

became a professor at the famous Lullian University.

Despite his success, Serra hungered for something more. In 1749 he received

permission to travel with some other Franciscans who intended to devote

themselves to work at a mission near Mexico City. Serra took the long sea voyage

to Spain's colonies. Despite becoming sick on the voyage, he insisted on walking

from Vera Cruz (where the boat landed) all the way to Mexico City, a distance of

over two hundred miles. This was the first of many accomplishments of physical

stamina and willpower which were to make the Franciscan a legend in his own

time.

For some fifteen years, Serra worked in Mexico at much the same tasks as he had

in Spain, although he took on missionary work to nearby Indian peoples in

addition to preaching, hearing confessions, and helping to administrate Mexico

City's College of San Fernando.

In 1767 the Spanish emperor's expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain's colonies led the

government to ask the Franciscan Order to replace them as missionaries in Baja

(lower) California. Serra was appointed head of these missions. The next year the

Spanish governor decided to explore and found missions in Alta (upper)

California, the area which is now the state of California. This project was intended

both to Christianize the extensive Indian populations and to serve Spain's strategic

interest by preventing Russian explorations and possible claims to North America's

Pacific coast.

Serra spent the rest of

his life as head of the

Franciscans in Alta

California. Already over

fifty years old,

dangerously thin,

asthmatic, and seriously

injured in one of his

legs, the undaunted

Serra led the founding

of the Mission of San

Diego in 1769, aided an

expedition in locating

San Francisco Bay, and

personally founded

eight other missions,

including his lifelong headquarters, the mission San Carlos Borromeo at Carmel.

His Herculean efforts subjected him to near-starvation, afflictions of scurvy, and

hundreds of miles of walking and horse riding through dangerous terrain. Also, he

was notorious for his mortifications of the flesh: wearing heavy shirts with sharp

wires pointed inward, whipping himself to the point of bleeding, and using a

candle to scar the flesh of his chest. His sacrifices bore fruit for the missionaries; by

his death in 1784, the nine missions he had founded had a nominally converted

Indian population of nearly 5,000.

Serra argued with the Spanish Army over the proper authority of the Franciscans

in Alta California, which he thought should be in authority over military

commanders. In 1773 he convinced the authorities in Mexico City to increase

financial and military support for expansion of his missions, and to expand the

authority of the Franciscans over both the army and the baptized mission Indians.

He also urged Mexican officials to establish an overland route to Alta California, a

suggestion which led to colonizing expeditions from New Mexico which

established civilian settlements at San Francisco in 1776 and at Los Angeles in

1781.

Serra wielded this kind of political power because his missions served economic

and political purposes as well as religious ends. The number of civilian colonists in

Alta California never exceeded 3,200, and the missions with their Indian

populations were critical to keeping the region within Spain's political orbit.

Economically, the missions produced all of the colony's cattle and grain, and by

the 1780's were even producing surpluses sufficient to trade with Mexico for luxury

goods.

Despite the frequent conflicts between military and religious authority, for Alta

California's Indians the missions and their Franciscan administrators were part and

Mission of San

Diego

parcel of an enormously destructive colonization process. The Spanish, largely

through disease, were responsible for a population decline from about 300,000

Indians in 1769 to about 200,000 by 1821. The strenuous work regime and high

population density within the missions themselves also caused high death rates

among the mission Indians. By law, all baptized Indians subjected themselves

completely to the authority of the Franciscans; they could be whipped, shackled

or imprisoned for disobedience, and hunted down if they fled the mission

grounds. Indian recruits, who were often forced to convert nearly at gunpoint,

could be expected to survive mission life for only about ten years. As one Friar

noted, the Indians "live well free but as soon as we reduce them to a Christian

and community life... they fatten, sicken, and die."

Junipero Serra is still a well-known figure in California, a virtual icon of the colonial

era whose statue stands in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park and in the U.S.

Capital. In 1987 Pope John Paul II beatified Serra, the second of three steps

necessary for the Church's bestowal of formal sainthood. Many Indians and

academics condemned this decision, pointing to the harsh conditions of mission

life and Serra's own justification of beatings. (In 1780, Serra wrote: "that spiritual

fathers should punish their sons, the Indians, with blows appears to be as old as

the conquest of [the Americas]; so general in fact that the saints do not seem to

be any exception to the rule.") Defenders of Serra cited the context of his times,

his enormous personal sacrifices and religious zeal, and his opposition to punitive

military expeditions against the Indians as exonerating factors. More than two

centuries after his death, Junipero Serra is still a pivotal figure in California history

and the history of the American West, this time as a flashpoint for controversy over

European treatment of Indians.

JUAN CRESPI

Born: 1721

Died: 1782

Nationality: Spanish

Juan was a priest in the Franciscan order of the Catholic Church. He explored the coast

of California with Gaspar de Portola and Junipero Serra.

Biography

Born in 1721, Father Juan Crespi arrived in the Americas in 1749, eager to bring

the Catholic faith to the distant boundaries of the Spanish empire. Crespi found

assignments in Baja California and joined Father Junípero Serra on his expeditions.

Crespi first came to California as part of Gaspar de Portolá's 1769 overland

expedition to colonize Alta California. He was present at the founding of Mission

San Diego in 1769. In 1770 he served as the founding priest of Mission San Carlos

Borromeo, which later became known as the Carmel Mission.

In addition to his role as an explorer and spiritual leader, Crespi kept journals of his

travels, some of which survive. The journals describe his overland journey from

Baja to Alta California in 1769, his encounter with a band of native California

Indians on the way to San Diego, and his explorations of the Pacific as far north as

Canada in 1774. Father Crespi died in 1782.

The cemetery at

Mission Carmel, where

both Serra and Crespi

are buried.

Map of the port of

San Francisco, from

the diary of Juan

Crespi