Experiment for Base Plate Dental Wax (PTDC) 2014 - LITERATURE STUDY.pdf

7/21/2019 Experiment for Base Plate Dental Wax (PTDC) 2014 - LITERATURE STUDY.pdf

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Iwfh Dfrjfwfh

>264

KIT@^FTP^@ WTPDY

@xp`rij`ht ae Nfs` Rkft` \fx

RT D`htfkiha G`j`rkfhl



6

Kit`rftur` Wtudy ae @xp`rij`ht ear Nfs` Rkft` D`htfk \fx

RT D`htfkiha G`j`rkfhl

Iwfh Dfrjfwfh, RT D`htfkiha G`j`rkfhl, Tfhl`rfhl, Ihdah`sif

Tm` ward ‛wfx‚ l`h`rfkky rè`rs ta f vfri`ty ae arlfhig sunstfhg`s tmft fr` sakid ft fjni`ht

t`jp`rftur` nut n`gaj` er``-ekawihl kiquids ft f skilmtky milm`r t`jp`rftur`. Tm` gm`jigfk

gajpasitiah ae wfx`s is gajpk`x, nut harjfk fkcfh`s fr` fkwfys pr`s`ht ih milm prapartiahs,

fhd jak`gukfr wìlmt praeik`s t`hd ta n` wid`. Tm` jfih gajj`rgifk saurg` ae wfx is grud`

aik wmigm it prag`ss`d ta pradug` wfx, fhd fksa it pradug`d eraj kilhit`, pkfhts, fhd fhijfks,

`v`h ihs`gts.

I. D`htfk \fx`s Jft`rifks

D`htfk wfx`s jfy n` gajpas`d ae hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig wfx`s, lujs, efts, eftty fgids, aiks,hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig r`sihs, fhd pilj`hts ae vfriaus typ`s. Tm` pfrtigukfr warcihl

gmfrfgt`ristigs ae `fgm wfx fr` fgmi`v`d ny nk`hdihl tm` fppraprift` hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig

wfx`s fhd r`sihs fhd atm`r fdditiv`s, saj` ae wmigm fr` smawh ih Tfnk` 6.6. Tm` gm`jigfk

gajpah`hts ae natm hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig wfx`s ijpfrt gmfrfgt`ristig pmysigfk prap`rti`s ta

tm` wfx, wmigm fr` ae prijfry t`r`st n`gfus` tm` sp`gieig pmysigfk prap`rti`s ae f wfx ar wfx

nk`hd d`t`rjih` its usèukh`ss ear iht`hd`d fppkigftiahs. Hfturfk wfx`s fr` distrinut`d ih

hftur`, wm`r`fs syhtm`tig wfx`s fr` pradug`d ny gajnihftiah ae vfriaus gm`jigfks ih tm`

kfnarftary ar ny gm`jigfk fgtiah ah hfturfk wfx`s. Tm` fdditiv`s jfy n` hfturfk jft`rifks

fhd syhtm`tig pradugts.

Tfnk` 6.6. Gajpah`hts ae D`htfk \fx`s

Hfturfk \fx`s Wyhtm`tig \fx`s Fdditiv`s

Jih`rfk Fgrfwfx Wt`frig fgid

Rfrfeeih F`rasak AT Lkyg`ryk trist`frft`

Jigragrystfkkih` Gfstarwfx Aiks

Nfrhsdfmk Ek`xawfx G Turp`htih`

Azac`rit` @pak`h` H-62 Gakarfhts

G`r`sih Hfturfk ^`sihs âsih

Jahtfh Fknfg`r Gapfk

Rkfht Fkda 77 Dfjjfr

Gfrhfunf Durfwfx 627> Wfhdfrfg

Aurigury Jfstig

Gfhd`kikkf Wm`kkfg

Ofpfh wfx Cfuri

Gagaf nutt`r Wyhtm`tig r`sihs

Ihs`gt @kvfx

N``swfx Raky`tmyk`h`

Fhijfk Rakystyr`h`

Wp`rjfg`ti



>

Tfnk` 6.>. Gmfrfgt`ristig Ufriaus \fx`s Ps`d ih D`htistry

\fx Typ` J`ktihl ^fhl` ( aG )Gmfrfgt`ristig ih

jixtur`s witm

Rfrfeeih \fx

RfrfeeihWtrfilmt-gmfih mydragfrnah

witm >5-72 gfrnah ftajs42 - <6 Ha vfku`

Jigragrystfkkih`Nrfgm`d-gmfih mydragfrnah

witm >5-72 gfrnah ftajs52 - 96

K`ss vakuj`trig gmfhl`

durihl sakidieigftiah

Nfrhsdfmk Jigragrystfkkih` wfx <2 - <4

Ihgr`fs` j`ktihl rfhl`

fhd mfrdh`ss, r`dug`s

ekaw

Azac`rit`

Jigragrystfkkih` wfx, Wtrfilmt-,

nrfhgm`d- fhd gkas`d-gmfih

mydragfrnah

50 Ha vfku`

G`r`sihWtrfilmt- fhd nrfhgm`d-gmfih

pfrfeeihsHa vfku`

Milm`r jak`gukfr wìlmt,

milm`r mfrdh`ss, ihgr`fs`

j`ktihl rfhl`

Jahtfh

Kahl-gmfih `st`rs witm 42-0=

gfrnah ftajs, fkgamaks, fgids,

r`sihs

<> - 9>Ijprav`s mfrdh`ss fhd

j`ktihl rfhl`

Gfrhfunf@st`rs, fkgamaks, fgids,

mydragfrnahs=4 - 96


fhd mfrdh`ss

Aurigury@st`rs, fkgamaks, fgids,

mydragfrnahs<9 - =4


fhd mfrdh`ss

Gfhd`kikf

Mydragfrnah witm >9-77 gfrnah

ftajs, fkgamaks, fgids, `st`rs,

kfgtah`s

5= - <0 Ihgr`fs` mfrdh`ss

Ofpfh wfxEfts ‗ lkyg`rid`s ae pfkjitig fhd

st`frig fgids06

Ijprav`s tfgcih`ss fhd

`juksieyihl fnikity

Gagaf nutt`rEfts ‗ lkyg`rid`s ae pfkjitig,

st`frig, akìg, kfurig fgidsHa vfku`

Ijprav`s tfgcih`ss fhd

`juksieyihl fnikity

N``swfx@st`rs ‗ jyrigyk pfkjitft`,

mydagfrnah, arlfhig fgids57 - <2

Jadiei`s prap`rti`s ae

pfrfeeih wfx

6.6. Hfturfk \fx`s

Mistarigfkky, wfx`s mfv` n``h gkfssiei`d fggardihl ta tmìr arilih? (6) jih`rfk , (>) pkfht , (7)ihs`gt , fhd (4) fhijfk 3 maw`v`r, f n`tt`r gkfssieigftiah is nfs`d ah tmìr gm`jigfk gajpasitiah.

Tm` twa prihgipfk lraups ae arlfhig gajpauhds gahtfih`d ih wfx`s fr` mydragfrnahs fhd

`st`rs, fktmaulm saj` wfx`s gahtfih er`` fkgamaks fhd fgids fs w`kk. Tm` gmiè gahstitu`hts ae

jast jih`rfk wfx`s fr` mydragfrnahs rfhlihl eraj 6< ta jar` tmfh 44 gfrnah ftajs. f efgt

tmft fggauhts ear add fhd `v`h hujn`rs ih tm` gmfih, fs smawh ih tm` eakkawihl earjukf?

Tm` mydragfrnahs ih pkfht wfx`s fr` sfturft`d fkcfh`s witm eraj 69 ta 76 gfrnah ftajs

pr`s`ht ih add hujn`rs. Tm`rèar`, d`htfk wfx`s gahtfih jak`guk`s mfvihl f rfhl` aejak`gukfr wìlmts tmft fee`gt tm` j`ktihl fhd ekaw prap`rti`s ae tm` wfx`s.



7

Rkfht fhd fhijfk wfx`s gahtfih gahsid`rfnk` gahg`htrftiahs ae `st`rs, fhd gfrhfunf (f pkfht

wfx) gahtfihs =0% fkcyk `st`rs ae vfriaus cihds. Tm` prihgipfk `st`r ih n``swfx is jyrigyk

pfkjitft`,

wmigm is tm` r`fgtiah pradugt ae jyrigyk fkgamak fhd pfkjitig fgid. Rkfht fhd fhijfk wfx`s

fksa gahtfih fgids, fkgamaks, mydragfrnahs, fhd r`sihs3 wm`r`fs Jahtfh wfx (fh `frtm wfx)

gahtfihs kfrl` fjauhts ae `st`rs, tm` jfih gajpauhd nìhl

Maw`v`r, tm`r` fr` atm`r `st`rs gajpas`d ae G>2-G>9 fgids fhd G>2-G72 fkgamaks.

Tmis nriè d`sgriptiah ae tm` gajpasitiah ae hfturfk wfx`s ihdigft`s tmft tm`y fr` gajpk`xgajnihftiahs ae arlfhig gajpauhds ae r`fsahfnky milm jak`gukfr wìlmts. Fksa, tm`

gajpasitiah ae tm`s` wfx`s vfri`s, d`p`hdihl ah tm` saurg` fhd tm` tij` ae gakk`gtiah3

tm`rèar`, d`htfk jfhuefgtur`rs just nk`hd tm` pfrtigukfr nftgm`s ae wfx ta antfih tm`

prap`rti`s d`sir`d ear f pfrtigukfr fppkigftiah. Gmfrfgt`ristigs ae vfriaus wfx`s us`d ih

d`htistry fhd d`sgrin`d n`kaw fr` sujjfriz`d ih Tfnk` 6.>.

Rfrfeeih wfx`s fr` antfih`d prihgipfkky eraj tm` milm-naikihl paiht erfgtiahs ae p`trakùj.

Tm` j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s l`h`rfkky ihgr`fs` witm ihgr`fsihl jak`gukfr wìlmts. Tm`

pr`s`hg` ae aiks ih tm` wfx, maw`v`r, kaw`rs tm` j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`3 pfrfeeih wfx`s us`d ih

d`htistry fr` rèih`d wfx`s fhd mfv` k`ss tmfh 2.0% aik. Rfrfeeih wfx`s pradug`d ny gurr`htrèihihl prag`dur`s gfh grystfkkiz` ih tm` earj ae pkft`s, h``dk`s, ar jfkgrystfks, nut fr`

usufkky ae tm` pkft` typ`. Jfhy mydragfrnah wfx`s uhd`rla grystfkkih` gmfhl`s ah gaakihl,

fhd f trfhsitiah eraj h``dk`s ta pkft`s aggurs fnaut 0² ta =² G n`kaw tmìr j`ktihl

t`jp`rftur`. Durihl sakidieigftiah fhd gaakihl, tm`r` is f vakuj`trig gahtrfgtiah tmft vfri`s

eraj 66% ta 60%. Tmis gahtrfgtiah is hat uhiearj tmraulmaut tm` t`jp`rftur` rfhl` eraj

tm` j`ktihl t`jp`rftur` ta raaj t`jp`rftur`, n`gfus` tm` wfx is f jixtur` ae mydragfrnahs

fhd tm` wfx pfss`s tmraulm trfhsitiah paihts fggajpfhi`d ny gmfhl`s ih pmysigfk prap`rti`s.

Jigragrystfkkih` wfx`s fr` sijikfr ta pfrfeeih wfx`s, `xg`pt tm`y fr` antfih`d eraj tm`

m`fvi`r aik erfgtiahs ih tm` p`trakùj ihdustry fhd, fs f r`sukt, mfv` milm`r j`ktihl paihts.

Tm`s` wfx`s grystfkkiz` ih sjfkk pkft`s fhd fr` taulm`r fhd jar` ek`xink` tmfh pfrfeeih wfx`s.

Tm`y mfv` fh feeihity ear aik, fhd tmìr mfrdh`ss &hd tfgcih`ss jfy n` fkt`r`d ny fddihl aik.

Jigragrystfkkih` wfx`s mfv` k`ss vakuj`trig gmfhl` durihl sakidieigftiah tmfh pfrfeeih wfx`s.

Nfrhsdfmk is f jigragrystfkkih` wfx us`d ta ihgr`fs` tm` j`ktihl rfhl` fhd mfrdh`ss fhd

r`dug` tm` ekaw ae pfrfeeih wfx`s

Azac`rit` is fh `frtm wfx eauhd h`fr p`trakùj d`pasits ih g`htrfk @urap` fhd tm` w`st`rh

Phit`d Wtft`s. Azac`rit` is sijikfr ta jigragrystfkkih` wfx ih tmft it is gajpas`d ae strfilmt-fhd nrfhgm`d-gmfih mydragfrnahs, nut it fksa gahtfihs saj` gkas`d-gmfih mydragfrnahs. It



4

fksa mfs lr`ft feeihity ear aik, fhd ih qufhtiti`s ae 0% ta 60% lr`ftky ijprav`s tm` pmysigfk

gmfrfgt`ristigs ae pfrfeeihs ih tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ae 04²G

G`r`sih is f t`rj us`d ta d`sgrin` wfx`s eraj wfx-n`frihl distikkft`s eraj hfturfk-jih`rfk

p`trakùj rèihihl ar kilhit` rèihihl. Kic` jigragrystfkkih` wfx`s, tm`y fr` strfilmt- fhd

nrfhgm`d-gmfih pfrfeeihs, nut tm`y mfv` milm`r jak`gukfr wìlmts fhd lr`ft`r mfrdh`ss tmfh

mydragfrnah wfx`s distikk`d eraj tm` grud` pradugts. Tm`s` wfx`s fksa jfy n` us`d ta

ihgr`fs` tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ae pfrfeeih wfx`s.

Jahtfh wfx`s fr` antfih`d ny `xtrfgtiah eraj vfriaus kilhit`s, fhd fktmaulm tm`y fr` jih`rfk

wfx`s, tmìr gajpasitiah fhd prap`rti`s fr` sijikfr ta tmas` ae tm` pkfht wfx`s. Jahtfh

wfx`s fr` mfrd, nrittk`, fhd kustraus3 tm`y nk`hd w`kk witm atm`r wfx`s, fhd tm`rèar` fr`

aet`h sunstitut`d ear pkfht wfx`s ta ijprav` tm` mfrdh`ss fhd j`ktihl rfhl` ae pfrfeeih

wfx`s.

Gfrhfunf fhd aurigury wfx`s fr` gajpas`d ae strfilmt-gmfih `st`rs, fkgamaks, fgids, fhd

mydragfrnahs. Tm`y fr` gmfrfgt`riz`d ny milm mfrdh`ss, nrittk`h`ss, fhd milm j`ktihl

t`jp`rftur`s. Natm pass`ss tm` autstfhdihl qufkity ae ihgr`fsihl tm` j`ktihl rfhl` fhd

mfrdh`ss ae pfrfeeih wfx`s3 ear `xfjpk`, fddihl 62% ae gfrhfunf wfx ta pfrfeeih wfx witm f

j`ktihl rfhl` ae >2²G ihgr`fs`s tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ta 45²G. Fddihl aurigury wfx`s pradug`s f

sijikfr èe`gt, nut tm`y fr` k`ss èe`gtiv` tmfh gfrhfunf wfx.

Gfhd`kikkf wfx`s gahsist ae 42% ta 52% pfrfeeih mydragfrnahs gahtfihihl >9 ta 77 gfrnah

ftajs, fggajpfhi`d ny er`` fkgamaks, fgids, `st`rs, fhd kfgtah`s. Kic` gfrhfunf fhd aurigury

wfx, tm`y mfrd`h pfrfeeih wfx`s nut fr` hat sa èe`gtiv` ear ihgr`fsihl tm` j`ktihl rfhl`.

Ofpfh wfx fhd gagaf nutt`r fr` hat tru` wfx`s3 tm`y fr` gmièky efts. Ofpfh wfx gahtfihs tm`lkyg`rid`s ae pfkjitig fhd st`frig fgids fhd milm`r-jak`gukfr-wìlmt fgids3 gagaf nutt`r is

gajpk`t`ky eft fhd gajpas`d ae lkyg`rid`s ae st`frig, pfkjitig, akìg, kfurig, fhd kaw`r eftty

fgids. Ofpfh wfx is f taulm, jfkk`fnk`, fhd stigcy jft`rifk tmft j`kts ft fnaut 06²G, wm`r`fs

gagaf nutt`r is f nrittk` sunstfhg` ft raaj t`jp`rftur`s.

Ofpfh wfx jfy n` jix`d witm pfrfeeih ta ijprav` tfgcih`ss fhd `juksieyihl fnikity, fhd gagaf

nutt`r is us`d ta prat`gt flfihst d`mydrftiah ae saet tissu`s fhd ta prat`gt lkfss iahaj`r

pradugts t`jparfriky eraj jaistur` durihl s`ttihl ar eraj d`mydrftihl fet`r tm`y fr` s`t.

N``swfx is tm` prijfry ihs`gt wfx us`d ih d`htistry. It is f gajpk`x jixtur` ae `st`rs pkussfturft`d fhd uhsfturft`d mydragfrnahs fhd milm-jak`gukfr-wìlmt arlfhig fgids. It is f

nrittk` jft`rifk ft raaj t`jp`rftur` nut n`gaj`s pkfstig ft nady t`jp`rftur`. It is us`d ta

jadiey tm` prap`rti`s ae pfrfeeih wfx`s, fhd is tm` jfih gajpah`ht ih stigcy wfx.

Fhijfk wfx`s sugm fs sp`rjfg`ti wfx, antfih`d eraj tm` sp`rj wmfk`, fr` hat us`d

`xt`hsiv`ky ih d`htistry3 kic` n``swfx, tm`y fr` jfihky `st`r wfx`s. Wp`rjfg`ti wfx mfs n``h

us`d fs f gaftihl ih tm` jfhuefgtur` ae d`htfk ekass

6.>. Wyhtm`tig \fx`s

Ih r`g`ht y`frs syhtm`tig wfx`s fhd r`sihs mfv` n`gaj` fvfikfnk`. Fktmaulm tm` us` ae



0

syhtm`tig wfx`s fhd r`sihs is ihgr`fsihl, it is stikk kijit`d ih d`htfk earjukftiahs, fhd tm`

hfturfk wfx`s gahtihu` ta n` tm` prijfry gajpah`hts.

Wyhtm`tig wfx`s fr` gajpk`x arlfhig gajpauhds ae vfri`d gm`jigfk gajpasitiahs. Fktmaulm

tm`y diee`r gm`jigfkky eraj hfturfk wfx`s, tm`y pass`ss g`rtfih pmysigfk prap`rti`s, sugm fs

j`ktihl t`jp`rftur` ar mfrdh`ss, wmigm fr` fcih ta tmas` ae tm` hfturfk wfx`s. Tm`y jfy

diee`r eraj hfturfk wfx`s ih g`rtfih gmfrfgt`ristigs n`gfus` ae tmìr milm d`lr`` ae

rèih`j`ht, ih gahtrfst witm tm` gahtfhjihftiah tmft is gajjah ih hfturfk wfx`s.

Wyhtm`tig wfx`s ihgkud` (6) paky`tmyk`h` wfx`s, (>) pakyaxy`tmyk`h` lkygak wfx`s, (7)

mfkal`hft`d mydragfrnah wfx`s, (4) mydral`hft`d wfx`s, fhd (0) wfx `st`rs eraj tm` r`fgtiah

ae eftty fkgamaks fhd fgids. Raky`tmyk`h` pakyj`rs mfvihl jak`gukfr wìlmts eraj >222 ta

4222 fr` wfx`s j`ktihl ft 622² ta 620²G. Tm`s` wfx`s pass`ss prap`rti`s sijikfr ta milm-

jak`gukfr wìlmt pfrfeeih wfx`s antfih`d eraj p`trakùj.

Rakyaxy`tmyk`h` wfx`s fr` pakyj`rs ae `tmyk`h` lkygaks fhd mfv` j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s eraj

7<² ta 57² G. Tm`y mfv` kijit`d gajpftinikity witm atm`r wfx`s nut da euhgtiah fs pkfstigiz`rs

fhd t`hd ta taulm`h eikjs ae wfx. Tm` r`jfihih syhtm`tig wfx`s fr` pr`pfr`d ny r`fgtiahs

witm hfturfk wfx`s ar wfx pradugts, fs witm gmkarih` ih tm` pr`pfrftiah ae mfkal`hft`d wfx`s

fhd mydral`h ih tm` jfhuefgtur` ae mydral`hft`d wfx`s. Tm` vfrifnikity ae vfriaus nftgm`s ae

syhtm`tig wfx is sijikfr ta tmft ae hfturfk wfx`s.

6.7. Lujs

Jfhy wfx`s antfih`d eraj pkfhts fhd fhijfks r`s`jnk` ih fpp`frfhg` f lraup ae sunstfhg`s

d`sgrin`d fs lujs. Jfhy pkfhts pradug` f vfri`ty ae lujs tmft fr` visgaus, fjarpmaus

`xudft`s tmft mfrd`h ah `xpasur` ta fir. Jast lujs fr` gajpkigft`d sunstfhg`s. Jfhy fr`jixtur`s gahtfihihl kfrl`ky gfrnamydrft`s3 wm`h tm`y fr` jix`d witm wft`r, tm`y ìtm`r

dissakv` ar earj stigcy, visgaus kiquids. Luj frfnig fhd trflfgfhtm fr` twa hfturfk lujs tmft

da hat r`s`jnk` wfx`s ih ìtm`r tmìr prap`rti`s ar gajpasitiah.

6.4. Efts

Fs f gkfss ae sunstfhg`s, wfx`s fr` mfrd`r fhd mfv` milm`r j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s tmfh efts,

nut ih saj` wfys tm`y r`s`jnk` eft. Natm fr` tfst`k`ss, adark`ss, fhd gakark`ss ih tm` pur`

earj, fhd tm`y usufkky e``k lr`fsy. Gm`jigfkky, efts fr` gajpas`d ae `st`rs ae vfriaus eftty

fgids witm lkyg`rak fhd fr` chawh fs lkyg`rid`s, wmigm distihluism`s tm`j eraj wfx`s. Waj``xfjpk`s ae efts fr` lkyg`rid`s ae st`frig fgid ar trist`frft`, eauhd ih tfkkaw, fhd tm` jix`d

lkyg`rid` ae akìg, pfkjitig, fhd nutyrig fgids, eauhd ih nutt`r.

Lkyg`ryk trist`frft`, tm` gmiè ihlr`di`ht ae n`è tfkkaw, is f eft witm f j`ktihl t`jp`rftur` ae

fnaut 47² G. It mfs f kustraus fpp`frfhg` fhd is f eirj, skilmtky lr`fsy sakid tmft n`frs f

r`s`jnkfhg` ta wfx`s. Tm` eft jfy n` us`d ta ihgr`fs` tm` j`ktihl rfhl` fhd mfrdh`ss ae

gajpauhd`d wfx. Aiks mfv` f prahauhg`d èe`gt ah tm` prap`rti`s ae wfx`s, fs j`htiah`d

`frki`r ih gahh`gtiah witm tm` disgussiah ae pfrfeeih wfx`s. Mydragfrnah aiks jfy n` us`d ta

saet`h jixtur`s ae wfx`s, fhd sjfkk qufhtiti`s ae sikigah` aiks jfy n` fdd`d ta ijprav` tm`

`fs` ae pakismihl witm wfx`s.



5

6.0. ^`sihs

Ih saj` r`sp`gts hfturfk r`sihs r`s`jnk` wfx`s ih fpp`frfhg` fhd prap`rti`s, fktmaulm tm`y

earj f distihgt gkfssieigftiah ae sunstfhg`s. Jfhy sp`gi`s ae tr``s fhd atm`r pkfhts pradug`

`xudft`s ae hfturfk r`sihs, sugm fs dfjjfr, rasih, ar sfhdfrfg. Hfturfk r`sihs fr` r`kftiv`ky

ihsakunk` ih wft`r, nut vfry ih sakunikity ih g`rtfih arlfhig kiquids. L`h`rfkky, r`sihs fr`

gajpk`x, fjarpmaus jixtur`s ae arlfhig sunstfhg`s tmft fr` gmfrfgt`riz`d ny sp`gieig

pmysigfk n`mfviar rftm`r tmfh ny fhy dèihit` gm`jigfk gajpasitiah. Jast hfturfk r`sihs fr`

antfih`d eraj tr``s fhd pkfhts3 sm`kkfg, maw`v`r, is pradug`d ny ihs`gts. Huj`raus hfturfk

r`sihs fr` nk`hd`d witm wfx`s ta d`v`kap wfx`s ear d`htfk fppkigftiahs.

Hfturfk r`sihs sugm fs dfjjfr fhd cfuri jfy n` jix`d witm wfx`s. Tm`y fr` gajpftink` witm

jast hfturfk wfx`s fhd pradug` mfrd`r pradugts. Wyhtm`tig r`sihs, sugm fs paky`tmyk`h` fhd

vihyk r`sihs ae vfriaus typ`s, jfy n` fdd`d ta pfrfeeih wfx`s ta ijprav` tmìr taulmh`ss,

eikj-earjihl gmfrfgt`ristigs, fhd j`ktihl rfhl`s.

Hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig r`sihs jfy fksa n` us`d ih arlfhig sakv`hts ta pradug` eikj-earjihl

jft`rifks tmft jfy n` us`d fs f gfvity kih`r.

Gapfk is f hfturfk, nrittk` r`sih tmft mfs f j`ktihl rfhl` w`kk fnav` 649² G, nut wm`h d`pasit`d

fs f eikj eraj fh arlfhig sakv`ht, it s`rv`s fs f kih`r ear pr`pfr`d gfviti`s.

Rakystyr`h` is f syhtm`tig r`sih tmft jfy n` us`d ih f sijikfr jfhh`r.

II. Jft`rifk Rrap`rti`s

Eraj tm` fnav`, wfx`s (wm`r` tm` efgt tmft tm`s` fr` jixtur`s is tfc`h fs r`fd) jfy n`

earjukft`d ta `xminit f wid` rfhl` ae prap`rti`s sugm fs j`ktihl rfhl`. Nut ih ard`r ta

fgmi`v` f jar` prfgtigfkky usèuk suit` ae prap`rti`s ear d`htfk fppkigftiahs atm`r fdditiv`s

just n` us`d. Ear `xfjpk`, jfhy wfx`s fr` hat v`ry taulm, fhd ekfc` ar grujnk` wm`h gut,

jar` ar k`ss `xminitihl nrittk` n`mfviaur ah f sjfkk sgfk` du` ta milm rft`s ae strfih. Tmis

waukd k`fv` f gfrv`d surefg` raulm fhd dieeigukt ta sjaatm. Ah tmft nfsis, skaw gfrvihl ae

sjfkk skiv`rs ft f tij` wikk liv` f n`tt`r r`sukt tmfh ftt`jpts ta r`jav` kfrl` partiahs quigcky.

Rkfstigity is fksa ijpartfht, ear smfpihl f pftt`rh witmaut grfgcihl. Atm`r sunstfhg`s fr`

tm`rèar` ihgkud`d. Ta tm` kist ae hfturfk fhd syhtm`tig wfx`s wmigm fr` pat`htifk ihlr`di`hts

jfy n` fdd`d gfrnamydrft` lujs, aiks (i.`., kiquids) fhd atm`r eftty sunstfhg`s, fhd r`sihaus

jft`rifks.

>.6. Gakaur

Gakaurihl fl`hts, wmigm just n` aik-sakunk` dy`s, fr` fksa l`h`rfkky ihgkud`d ih wfx`s, fkjast

`htir`ky ta distihluism n tw``h pradugt fppkigftiahs ar nrfhd. Tm`y mfv` ha fppr`gifnk`

èe`gt ah pmysigfk ar j`gmfhigfk prap`rti`s. Maw`v`r, ihkfy fhd atm`r gfstihl wfx`s fr`

usufkky iht`hs`ky gakaur`d ta pravid` laad gahtrfst witm taatm ar di` jft`rifk fhd fkkaw

e`ftm`r `dl`s fhd atm`r uhd`sirfnk` `xt`hsiahs ae tm` pftt`rh ta n` `fsiky d`t`gtfnk`. Tm`r`

s``js ta n` ha r`fk r`fsah, tmaulm, wmy nfs`pkft` wfx`s smaukd n` pihc, fhd sa ah, `xg`pt ear`fsy r`galhitiah.



<

>.>. J`ktihl Raiht fhd J`ktihl ^fhl`

Hfturfk wfx`s fr` kic`ky ta gahsist ae f jixtur` ae f lr`ft jfhy gajpauhds? jixtur`s ae typ`s

(fkgamaks, `st`rs, `tg.) fhd jixtur`s ae strfilmt fhd nrfhgm`d gmfihs, fkk ae wmigm wikk mfv`

diee`r`ht pmysigfk fhd j`gmfhigfk prap`rti`s. Fktmaulm ah` ar f e`w gajpauhds jfy

dajihft`, tm`y h`v`r fpprafgm purity. @v`h ih rèih`d pfrfeeih wfx`s d`riv`d (ny distikkftiah)

eraj p`trakùj, tm`r` wikk n` f rfhl` ae siz`s pr`s`ht, pranfnky gahg`htrft`d frauhd saj`

g`htrfk vfku`, nut witm tfiks ih natm dir`gtiahs. Phd`r tm`s` girgujstfhg`s it is hat surprisihl

ta eihd tmft tm`r` is ha sihlk`, smfrp j`ktihl paiht ear fhy ae tm`s` hfturfk pradugts, nut rftm`r

tm`r` is f prahauhg`d j`ktihl rfhl`.

F jixtur` ae twa twa gm`jigfkky diee`r`ht wfx`s gfh n` studi`d ih tm` gaht`xt ae tm` pmfs`

diflrfj, diee`r`htifk t`jp`rftur` fhd gaakihl gurv`. Wihg` pmfs` gmfhl`s l`h`rfkky r`sukt ih

dij`hsiahfk gmfhl`s, tm` t`jp`rftur`s ft wmigm tm` pmfs` gmfhl`s aggur ih wfx`s fhd tm`

iheku`hg` ae fddihl ah` wfx ta fhatm`r fr` ijpartfht ih uhd`rstfhdihl tm` n`mfviar ae wfx`s.

Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis (DTF) aee`rs f usèuk taak ih tm` study ae pmfs` trfhsitiahs. Tmis

study `xfjih`s tm` t`jp`rftur` ae pmfs` trfhsitiahs ear vfriaus gajj`rgifk, d`htfk, fhdgajnih`d wfx`s.

N`gfus` wfx`s jfy gahtfih s`v`rfk typ`s ae jak`guk`s, `fgm mfvihl f rfhl` ae jak`gukfr

wìlmts, tm`y mfv` j`ktihl rfhl`s rftm`r tmfh j`ktihl paihts. Tm` j`ktihl rfhl`s ae f pfrfeeih

wfx, f gfrhfunf wfx, fhd f jixtur` ae tm`s` twa wfx`s fr` ikkustrft`d ih Eil. >.6. Tm` gurv`s

fr` diee`r`htifk tm`rjalrfjs. Tm` p`fc t`jp`rftur`s r`pr`s`ht tm` j`fhs ae eiv`

r`pkigftiahs ae tm` tm`rjalrfjs. Fhfkys`s ae vfrifhg` w`r` gfkgukft`d ear pfrfeeih fhd

gajnihftiahs gahtfihihl gfrhfunf wfx fs w`kk fs ear gfrhfunf wfx fhd gajnihftiahs

gahtfihihl pfrfeeih. Tm` jast hatig`fnk` e`ftur`s ae tm`s` dftf fr` tm` lr`ft èe`gt ae sjfkk

fdditiahs ae gfrhfunf wfx ah ihgr`fsihl tm` j`ktihl rfhl`. Fksa, jfoar fdditiahs ae gfrhfunf

ta pfrfeeih wfx mfd kittk` iheku`hg` ah tm` ahs`t ae j`ktihl. Tm` j`fsur`j`hts ae j`ktihl

paihts, fs d`t`rjih`d ny DTF, ihdigft`d tmft fdditiah ae kfrl` fjauhts ae gfrhfunf wfx ta

pfrfeeih wfx mfd kittk` èe`gt ah tm` j`ktihl paiht3 02 p`rg`ht ta <0 p`rg`ht ae tmis wfx wfs

fdd`d nèar` f d`t`gtfnk` gmfhl` ih j`ktihl paiht ae pfrfeeih wfx wfs hatig`d.

Tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ear pfrfeeih wfx is eraj 44² ta 5>² G, fhd ear gfrhfunf wfx, eraj 02² ta

92²G. \m`h f jixtur` ae <0% pfrfeeih fhd >0% gfrhfunf wfx wfs pr`pfr`d, tm` pfrfeeih

gajpah`ht j`kt`d ft `ss`htifkky tm` sfj` t`jp`rftur`s, nut tm` j`ktihl t`jp`rftur` ae tm`

gfrhfunf wfx wfs d`gr`fs`d skilmtky. Hat` tmft fddihl gfrhfunf ta pfrfeeih wfx drfjftigfkky

ihgr`fs`d tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ta 44² G, gajpfr`d witm 6=² G ear pfrfeeih fkah`.

L`h`rfkky tm` jixtur` mfs f wid`r j`ktihl rfhl` tmfh ìtm`r gajpah`ht wfx (Eil. >.>.). Nut

wm`h tm` jixtur` gahsists ae jfhy gajpauhds, witm strahl gm`jigfk sijikfriti`s, it jfy

n`gaj` ijpassink` ta antfih pr`gis` vfku`s ear tm` tap fhd nattaj ae tm` j`ktihl rfhl`

j`r`ky ny studyihl ardihfry gaakihl gurv`s (Eil. >.7). Ih tm`s` gfs`s, jigrasgapig ans`rvftiah

ae f e`w smfvihls ah f m`ftihl stfl` jfy n` h`g`ssfry ta d`t`gt gmfhl`s ih fpp`frfhg`, nut

witm fh fppraprift` t`gmhiqu` it is passink` ta d`jahstrft` hat ahky tm` ahs`t fhd gajpk`tiah

ae gaakihl nut fksa tm` pr`s`hg` ae jfhy atm`r e`ftur`s tmft jfy tm`h n` r`kft`d ta

j`gmfhigfk prap`rti`s (Eil. >.4).



=

Eil. >.>. J`ktihl rfhl` ear jixtur`s ae twa hfturfkwfx jixtur`s ( pfrfeeih - gfrhfunf ).

Eil. >.7. Typigfk gaakihl gurv`s ear hfturfk wfx

jixtur`s

Eil. >.4. Diee`r`htifk gaakihl gurv` ear n``swfx (rft` ae gmfhl` aet`jp`rftur` witm tij`) smawihl tm` gajpk`xity ae tm`jixtur`. Nrafd nfhds ihdigft` pralr`ssiv` er` zihl aejuktipk` gajpah`hts. Tmis lrfpm is ta n` r fd eraj rilmt takèt, i.`. ear gaakihl. @vakutiah ae kft`ht m ft ae sakidieigftiahis ihdigft`d ny tm` gurv` d`viftihl upwfrds (skaw`rgaakihl). dT/Δt 82 j`fhs f ris` ih t`jp`rftur`, m`r`

n`gfus` ae tm` sup`rgaakihl ae tm` ùt`gtig

Eil. >.6. Diee`r`htifk tm`rjalrfjs (DTF gurv`s)ae pfrfeeih-gfrhfunf wfx jixtur` fhdgajnihftiahs gahtfihihl tm`s` wfx`s.



9

Tm` èe`gt ae tm` gajpasitiah ae pfrfeeih-gfrhfunf jixtur`s ah tm` j`ktihl rfhl` is smawh ih

Eil. >.>. Tm` pr`s`hg` ae >.0% gfrhfunf wfx mfd kittk` èe`gt ah tm` j`ktihl rfhl`, nut tm`

rfhl` ihgr`fs`d rfpidky fs tm` gahg`htrftiah ae gfrhfunf wfx wfs ihgr`fs`d ta 62%.

Fktmaulm gahg`htrftiahs ae gfrhfunf wfx lr`ft`r tmfh 62% mfd ha eurtm`r èe`gt ah tm`

j`ktihl rfhl`, milm`r fjauhts fr` h`g`ssfry ear g`rtfih fppkigftiahs ta gahtrak tm` ekaw fhd

j`gmfhigfk prap`rti`s. Tm` j`ktihl ae jixtur`s ae pfrfeeih fhd milm`r-j`ktihl paiht wfx`s

gfh n` visufkiz`d fs tm` j`ktihl ae pfrfeeih h`fr its usufk t`jp`rftur`, nut tm` `htir` wfxda`s hat fpp`fr j`kt`d n`gfus` tm` jftrix ae gfrhfunf wfx da`s hat j`kt uhtik f

gahsid`rfnky milm`r t`jp`rftur` is r`fgm`d.

Tm` j`ktihl rfhl` is ae prijfry ijpartfhg` ih d`silhihl f gajj`rgifk wfx pradugt n`gfus`

tmis, fhd pfrtigukfrky tm` kaw`r kijit, gahtraks tm` fppkigfnikity ae f liv`h wfx earjukftiah ih f

pfrtigukfr euhgtiah. Tmus, f wfx iht`hd`d ear us` ft ”raaj t`jp`rftur`’ jfy n` witmih tm`

j`ktihl rfhl` ft jautm t`jp`rftur` fhd sa mfv` kittk` ar ha j`gmfhigfk stfnikity. Ear arfk us`

tm` ahs`t ae j`ktihl waukd fpp`fr ta n` h`g`ssfriky fnav` 7<²G (ar wmft`v`r ”ap`h jautm’

t`jp`rftur` is d`gid`d ta n`), nut hat sa efr fs ta risc nurhihl tm` pfti`ht ar atm`rwis`

trfujftizihl tmìr tissu`s. Ihekfjjftiah stfrts ft k`fst fs kaw fs 4>²G, fhd 40²G is pfiheuk ie

fppki`d ear jar` tmfh nriè p`riads. Gahv`rs`ky, fh ijpr`ssiah wfx h``ds ta mfv`

gahsid`rfnk` ekaw ft jautm t`jp`rftur` ta euhgtiah. Tm` widtm ae tm` j ktihl rfhl` is fksa

ijpartfht ear fkkawihl lr`ft`r kftitud` ih ap`rftiah, fvaidihl gajpk`t` j`ktihl ear skilmt

av`rm`ftihl fhd p`rjittihl jaukdihl ta tm` garr`gt smfp` witmaut it n`gajihl taa rilid taa

saah fs it gaaks.

Maw`v`r, it jfy n` hatig`d tmft ”raaj t`jp`rftur`’ is hat ih prfgtig` v`ry w`kk dèih`d. Ih

tm` kaw`r kftitud`s ardihfry warcihl t`jp`rftur`s jfy n` fnav` 72²G, wm`h pradugts sakd

ear jar` t`jp`rft` gkijft`s, witm warcihl t`jp`rftur`s p`rmfps n`kaw >2²G, waukd nùhs`rvig`fnky saet. Gahv`rs`ky, ”trapigfk’ pradugts waukd n` taa stiee fhd nrittk` uhd`r kaw-

t`jp`rftur` gahditiahs. Gk`frky, it is hat `v`h fs sijpk` fs tmft n`gfus` tm` fir-gahditiahihl

jfy n` fdoust`d ear milm ar kaw t`jp`rftur`s ih fhy gkijft` ‗ ar hah-`xist`ht, fs jfy n` tm`

jar` harjfk gahditiah ih jfhy pkfg`s. Tm` ahky fppraprift` fdvig` waukd s``j ta n` ta eihd

f wfx pradugt tmft p`rearjs prap`rky uhd`r tm` kagfk warcihl gahditiahs ‗ fhd stfy witm it.

>.7. Tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah

\fx`s typigfkky mfv` v`ry milm gaèeigi`hts ae tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah (Eil. >.0.), pfrtigukfrky

frauhd tm` anviaus j`ktihl rfhl`, witm vfku`s ear kih`fr `xpfhsiah typigfkky ih tm` rfhl` 722- 522 JC-6 nut `v`h up ta ~6022 JC-6 ih saj` gfs`s. Gajpfr` RJJF fhd atm`r pakyj`rs ft

fnaut <2 JC-6 n`kaw tmìr Tl, ar `v`h >22 ~ 722 JC-6 fnav` tm` Tl. Nut, liv`h tm`

kiquid+sakid jad`k ear wfx`s av`r jast ae tm` ardihfry t`jp`rftur` rfhl` ae us`, fhd tm`

pralr`ssiv` j`ktihl tmft aggurs ah rfisihl tm` t`jp`rftur`, it is fppfr`ht tmft tm` `xpfhsiah

gaèeigi`ht is f gajpkigft`d jixtur` ae tm` ardihfry tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah gahtrinutiahs eraj

natm sakid fhd kiquid, pkus tmft du` ta tm` pralr`ssiv` gmfhl` ae stft` fs gajpah`hts j`kt ‗

wmigm `xpfhsiah is harjfkky f r`kftiv`ky kfrl`, disgahtihuaus `v`ht, fs s``h gk`frky ear pur`

sunstfhg`s (wft`r is fh `xg`ptiah).



62

Tm` `xg`ptiahfkky milm vfku`s r`gard`d ear tm` jixtur` ae sunstfhg`s ae f typigfk wfx is

tm`rèar` fh frtèfgt ae tm` gahstitutiah, fhd is hat r`fkky tru` tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah, fktmaulm it

r`jfihs f gahv`hi`hg` ta rè`r ta it fs sugm eraj f jfgrasgapig, pm`haj`hakaligfk paiht ae

vi`w.

F wfx pftt`rh ear f kast-wfx gfstihl is `xp`gt`d (ar, rftm`r, iht`hd`d) ta n` fh fggurft`

r`pr`s`htftiah ae tm` smfp` fhd siz` ae tm` d`sir`d d`vig`. \m`tm`r ar hat tmft iht`htiah is ta

n` r`fkiz`d anviausky d`p`hds ah tm` t`jp`rftur` ft wmigm tm` pftt`rh wfs gr`ft`d fhd tm`

t`jp`rftur` ft wmigm it wfs ihv`st`d. Tm` garr`gt gajp`hsftiah tmraulm tm` us` ae

ihv`stj`ht `xpfhsiah just tfc` sugm efgtars ihta fggauht ie tm` efikur` ae tm` gfstihl tmraulm

kfgc ae eit is ta n` fvaid`d. Tmus, ear `xfjpk , tm` t`gmhiqu`s us`d just distihluism n`tw``hdir`gt fhd ihdir`gt ihkfy pftt`rhs. Maw`v`r, ie tm`r` is f gmfhl` ae dij`hsiah wmigm is

sugg`sseukky pfrt ae tm` av`rfkk gajp`hsftiah ear j`tfk gaakihl smrihcfl`, tm`h gahstfhgy ae

gahditiahs fhd t`gmhiqu` is `vid`htky ijpartfht ear gkihigfk sugg`ss. Kaw-j`ktihl pfrfeeih

wfx`s fr` fksa us`d ear ijpr`ssiahs, kfrl`ky ear saet tissu`-r`kft`d purpas`s nut fksa ear nit`-

r`listrftiah. L`h`rfkky, tm`s t`gmhiqu`s fr` hat dij`hsiahfkky gritigfk fhd tm` wfx`s fr`

gahsid`r`d ta pravid` gahv`hi`hg` ae us`. Maw`v`r, it smaukd n` r`galhiz`d tmft tm`

smrihcfl` ah gaakihl eraj jautm t`jp`rftur` ta tmft ae tm` kfnarftary is sunstfhtifk ear

tm`s` jft`rifks, pranfnky w`kk av`r 6% (Eil. >.0.), fhd fdoustj`ht ar garr`gtiah jfy w`kk n`

h`g`ssfry ft saj` stfl`.

Tm` kih`fr tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah prap`rti`s ae wfx`s jfy n` `xpkfih`d ah tm` nfsis ae tm`

str`hltm ae s`gahdfry vfk`hg` earg`s fhd tm` trfhsitiah paihts. Jih`rfk wfx`s l`h`rfkky mfv`

milm`r gaèeigi`hts ae kih`fr tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah tmfh pkfht wfx`s (Tfnk` >.7.). Jih`rfk wfx`s

`xpfhd jar` n`gfus` tm`y mfv` w`fc s`gahdfry vfk`hg` earg`s, wmigm fr` `fsiky av`rgaj`

ny tm` `h`rly fnsarn`d durihl f ris` ih t`jp`rftur`. Tmis p`rjits jar` jav`j`ht ae tm` wfx

gajpah`hts, tmus fkkawihl f lr`ft`r fjauht ae tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah. Rkfht wfx`s, ah tm` atm`r

mfhd, mfv` milm s`gahdfry vfk`hg` earg`s n`gfus` ae tmìr milm gahg`htrftiahs ae `st`rs.

N`gfus` tm` s`gahdfry vfk`hg` earg`s r`strigt tm` jav`j`ht ae tm` wfx gajpah`hts, sjfkk

gaèeigi`hts ae tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah fr` ans`rv`d uhtik tm` j`ktihl rfhl` ae tm` wfx is

Eil. >.0. Tm`rjfk xpfhsiah

ear f vfri`ty ae wfx`s



66

fpprafgm`d. Tmis pm`haj`hah is ikkustrft`d ny n``swfx3 y`kkaw n``swfx mfs jugm milm`r

gaèeigi`hts ae kih`fr tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah tmfh nk`fgm`d n``swfx.

Tfnk` >.7. Gaèeigi`ht ae Tm`rjfk @xpfhsiah ae \fx`s

\fx`s Typ`T`jp`rftur` ^fhl`

²G

Gaèeigi`ht

⨉62-5 /²G

Jih`rfk

Rfrfeeih >2.2 ‗ ><.= 72<

><.= ‗ 74.2 6576

Kit`h` >>.2 ‗ 4<.0 >20

4<.0 ‗ 0>.2 092

Nfrhsdfmk >>.2 ‗ 42.4 6=0

42.4 ‗ 0>.2 >47

G`r`sih >>.2 ‗ ><.4 72<

><.4 ‗ 74.< =49

74.< ‗

4>.> 4<64>.> ‗ 02.2 6474

Jahtfh >>.2 ‗ 46.0 6==

46.0 ‗ 0>.2 >94

Rkfht

Gfrhfunf >>.2 ‗ 0>.2 605

Gfhd`kikkf >>.2 ‗ 42.> 6=>

42.> ‗ 0>.2 750

Aurigury >>.2 ‗ 47.2 6=5

47.2 ‗ 0>.2 72<

Ofpfh wfx >>.2 ‗

7=.5 724

7=.5 ‗ 40.2 <00

Ihs`gt

N``swfx >>.2 ‗ 46.> 744

(y`kkaw) 46.> ‗ 02.2 624=

N``swfx >>.2 ‗ 7=.5 ><6

(nk`fgm`d) 7=.5 ‗ 02.2 525

IHKFY

C`rr nku` ihkfy >>.2 ‗ 7<.0 7>7

wfx (mfrd)7<.0

‗

40.2 5>940.2 ‗ 02.2 7>=

C`rr nku` ihkfy >>.2 ‗ 7>.< >57

wfx (mfrd) 7>.< ‗ 42.9 55>

42.9 ‗ 45.9 40=

45.9 ‗ 02.2 62=4

>.4. Jadukus ae @kfstigity

Durihl tm` ihv`stj`ht ae wfx pftt`rhs, fhd ih atm`r prag`dur`s, vfriaus earg`s fr` fppki`d tatm` wfx. It is `vid`htky d`sirfnk` tmft distartiah ny sijpk` kfstig dèk`gtiah n` jihijiz`d ta



6>

pr`s`rv` tm` fggurfgy ae tm` prag`dur`. Ih atm`r wards, tm` Yauhl’s jadukus just n`

sueeigi`htky milm ta r`sist fppr`gifnk` dèk`gtiah. Tmis prap`rty is fksa strahlky t`jp`rftur`-

d`p`hd`ht (Eil. >.5.). \` fr` rè`rrihl ae gaurs` ta `kfstig n`mfviaur, nut p`rjfh`ht

dèarjftiah tmraulm ekaw (gr``p) is p`rmfps ae lr`ft`r gahg`rh.

Tm` str`ss`s l`h`rft`d ny fh ihv`stj`ht wm`h it `xpfhds ah s`ttihl, fs it usufkky just, fr`

jar` tmfh sueeigi`ht ta distart tm` pftt`rh ie tm`r` is fhy gahstrfiht fgtihl ah tm` ihv`stj`ht

ta spaik tm` iht`hd`d isatrapig `xpfhsiah. Tmis is `xfg`rnft`d ny tm` ihv`stj`ht’s s`ttihl

t`jp`rftur` ris`, ar tm` t`gmhiqu` ae ”mylrasgapig’ `xpfhsiah ih f wft`r nftm ft fh `k`vft`d

t`jp`rftur`. Tm` gm`jigfk hftur` ae wfx`s is sugm fs ta k`fv` ha passinikity ae ae fhy

sunstfhtifk jadieigftiah ae tmis n`mfviaur, liv`h tm` atm`r prap`rty d`jfhds. Fkk t`gmhiqu`s

`jpkayihl wfx`s ih tm` s`hs` ae f dij`hsiahfkky-fggurft` r`pr`s`htftiah ae fh ano`gt, n` itj`tfk gfstihl, nfs`pkft` ar ijpr`ssiah, just tfc` du` r`galhitiah ae tmis s`v`r` kijitftiah.

Tm` sfj` e`ftur`s tmft gfus` tm` pkfstigity fhd kaw j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s, i.`. w`fc

iht`rjak`gukfr earg`s fhd smart gmfihs, fksa lufrfht`` pkfstigity uhd`r atm`r earg`s. Tmis

h`g`ssitft`s f gajprajis` tmft just n` m``d`d.

>.0. ^`sidu`

Ah` atm`r e`ftur` ae gfstihl wfx`s is `ss`htifk ta tmìr èeigfgy? tm` r`sidu` fet`r tm` nurhihl

aut ae tm` ihv`stj`ht just n` v`ry sjfkk, ih atm`r wards, tm` pradugts ae gajnustiah smaukd

fkk n` lfsàus. Wugm f r`quir`j`ht aulmt ta n` s`ke-`vid`ht, fs tm` jaukd spfg` gk`frky smaukd

hat mfv` fhy earìlh jft`rifk ih it, har smaukd tm` p`rj`fnikity ae tm` ihv`stj`ht n` ijpfir`d.

Tmis d`jfhds f v`ry kaw iharlfhig gaht`ht ear tm` wfx? sikigah` wfx`s, ear `xfjpk`, gaukd hat

n` sftisefgtary ihlr`di`hts ae d`htfk gfstihl wfx`s ha jftt`r wmft atm`r fdvfhtfl`s tm`y

jilmt mfv`, fhd eikk`rs gaukd hat n` us`d ta jadiey prap`rti`s uhk`ss tm`y taa w`r`

gajpk`t`ky gajnustink` (fktmaulm ha `xfjpk`s ae tmis fr` chawh). Tm` èe`gts ah tm` gfstihl

jfy rfhl` eraj lrass dè`gts du` ta aggkusiah ny tm` d`nris, ta ihgr`fs`d surefg` raulmh`ss

ar gahtfjihftiah ny pfrtigukfr jft`rifks wmigm jfy jfc` pakismihl dieeigukt ar garrasiah

wars`.

Eil. >.5. Ufriftiah ih stftig `kfstig jadukus witm

t`jp`rftur` ear f vfri`ty ae wfx`s



67

>.5. Tm`rjfk Gahdugtivity

\fx`s mfv` v`ry kaw vfku`s ae tm`rjfk gahdugtivity, sijikfr ta tmas` ae pakyj`rs ft frauhd

6/7222tm ae tm` vfku` ear sikv`r (wmigm is fnaut 4>0 \/j/C), fhd fnaut 6/62tm ae tm` vfku`

ear taatm `hfj`k. Tm` prfgtigfk ijpkigftiahs ae tmis fr` gk`fr? m`ft skawky. Tm` prank`j fris`s

n`gfus` tm` t`jp`rftur` rfhl` av`r wmigm sunstfhtifk gmfhl`s ih visgasity aggur, fhd tm`h

j`ktihl, is v`ry sjfkk ‗ ahky fnaut >2 C. Tmus, tm` surefg` gfh j`kt fhd stfrt ruhhihl fwfy

wmik` tm` jft`rifk ahky f jikkij`tr` tmigch`ss fwfy is stikk ft raaj t`jp`rftur`. Psihl f lfs

ekfj`, fs is gajjahky dah`, it jfy n` ijpassink` ta fvaid tm` v`ry surefg` j`ktihl. Maw`v`r,

iht`rjitt`ht `xpasur` ta tm` m`ft saurg` witm iht`rvfks fkkaw`d ear tm` m`ft ta spr`fd jar`

`v`hky wikk fgmi`v` f n`tt`r r`sukt wm`h f uhiearjky saetky-pkfstig jfss is r`quir`d ear

jaukdihl.

Tm` gahv`rs` ae tmis situftiah fksa h``ds ta n` tfc`h ihta fggauht. It tfc`s fh fppr`gifnk`

tij` ear wfx ta gaak `haulm tmft ekaw fhd str`ss-r`kfxftiah da hat aggur ta distart tm` warc.

It is hat `haulm ta wfit uhtik tm` surefg` fpp`frs gaak fhd sakid `haulm, tij` just n` fkkaw`d

ear tm` wmak` jfss ta gaak n`gfus` tm` distartiahs wikk pranfnky hat n` visink`.

7. Ekaw

Tm` ekaw ae wfx`s is gk`frky ijpartfht, hat ahky fs pfrt ae tm` d`kin`rft` jaukdihl prag`ss nut

fksa fs fh uhd`sirfnk` fsp`gt fet`r tm` pftt`rh ar ijpr`ssiah mfs n``h jfd`. Fkk ae tm`

prihgipk`s ae rmàkaly r`jfih vfkid ih wfx syst`js. Tm` dieeigukty is `ss`htifkky tmft wfx

visgasiti`s fr` sa v`ry milm ft harjfk warcihl t`jp`rftur`s (62= - 626> Rf.s) tmft

jfgrasgapig rmàj`trig t`gmhiqu`s fr` er`qu`htky quit` ihfppraprift`3 y`t tm` dèarjftiahs

fr` taa kfrl` ear tm` cihd ae fpprafgm tmft waukd n` tfc`h witm gr``p j`tfks ih j`tfks, ear

`xfjpk`.

N`gfus` ae tm`s` prfgtigfk dieeigukti`s, ih d`htistry tm` usufk fpprafgm mfs n``h rftm`r grud`?

tm` r`kftiv` gmfhl` ih k`hltm ae fh frnitrfry sfjpk` uhd`r fh frnitrfry stftig gajpr`ssiv`

kafd fet`r fh frnitrfry tij` (Fj`rigfh D`htfk Fssagiftiah Wp`gieigftiah Ha. 4 SFDF 4Z, wmigm

dft`s eraj f j tmad ae fnaut 697>) (Eil. >.<). Tm` ihgkusiah ae tmr`` frnitrfry efgtars is k`ss

tmfh sgi`htieig fhd fktmaulm saj` usèuk gajpfrisahs gfh p`rmfps n` jfd` (Eil. 6.=), tm`

ekaw gurv` is hah-kih`fr n`gfus` ae tm` gmfhlihl smfp` ae tm` sfjpk` (Eil. 6.9), eraj f

r`kftiv`ky hfrraw gykihd`r ta f v`ry tmih disg. Tmis r`sukts ih f jar` ar k`ss fnrupt gmfhl`

eraj v`ry kittk` ta v`ry jugm d earjftiah fs tm` t`st t`jp`rftur` is rfis`d. Ha usèuk

prap`rty vfku` is d`rivfnk` eraj tmis fpprafgm, fhd kittk` ihearjftiah is antfihfnk` fnaut

n`mfviaur ft atm`r tij`sgfk`s ar t`jp`rftur`s. Tmus, fktmaulm tm` 02% paiht jfy fpp`fr ta

aee`r f gmfrfgt`rizftiah ae tm` wfx, tm` t`jp`rftur` ft wmigm tmis is antfih`d d`p`hds ah kafd,

siz` fhd tij`. Ih pfrtigukfr, tm` cihds ae dèarjftiah wmigm waukd n` ijpartfht ih t`rjs ae

dij`hsiahfk fggurfgy gfhhat n` studi`d witm fh fppraprift` s`hsitivity. Tmis situftiah is

fktal`tm`r rftm`r add ear f gkfss ae jft`rifks tmft jilmt n` gahsid`r`d g`htrfk ta f hujn`r ae

milm pr`gisiah tfscs.



64

Ih prihgipk`, it waukd n` efr n`tt`r ta d`t`rjih` tm` str`ss E ah tm` t`st pi`g` (E/F), ans`rvihl

tm` rft` ae gmfhl` ae dij`hsiah fs f euhgtiah ae t`jp`rftur`. Ekaw rft` waukd tm`h n`

`xpr`ss`d ih t`rjs fhfkalaus ta f visgasity. Tmus, tm` strfih rft` waukd n` liv`h ny?

(7.6)

wm`r` K is tm` arilihfk k`hltm fhd t tm` tij` tfc`h. Tm`h tm` ”ekaw jadukus’, D, waukd n`

liv`h ny?

(7.>)

Eil. >.9. Ufriftiah ih ekaw (fs ih Eil. 7.>) witm tij` earvfriaus t`jp`rftur`s witm fh ihkfy wfx. Tm`distartiah du` ta tm` gmfhlihl làj`try is gk`fr

Eil. >.=. Ekaw ft 62 jihut`s ae saj` r`pr`s`htftiv`

wfx`s fggardihl ta FDF 4.

Eil. >.<. (f) Fppfrftus ear tm` wfx ekaw t`st ae FDF 4

(n) Rrihgipk` ae tm` wfx ekaw t`st ae FDF 4

(f)

(n)



60

7.6. Wtac`s’ Kfw

Eil. >.62. Waj` `xp`rij`htfk r`sukts ear tm` ”efkkihl nfkk’ fppfr`ht visgasity ae f nfs`pkft` wfx.

Fh fkt`rhftiv` fpprafgm wmigm mfs tm` fdvfhtfl` ae jar` gahstfht gahditiahs is tm` ”efkkihl

nfkk’ t`st d`riv`d eraj Wtac`s’ Kfw. Tmis liv`s fh fppfr`ht visgasity, μf , tfcihl tm` vi`w tmft

tm` kahl gmfih jak`guk`s ae tm` wfx gahstitu`hts fr` saj`wmft sijikfr ta kaw pakyj`rs.

^`frrfhl`j`ht, suppkyihl f gahstfht ae prapartiahfkity, fhd tfcihl kals, yi`kds tm` eakkawihl

`xpr`ssiah?

(7.>)

F wm`r` T is tm` fnsakut` t`jp`rftur`, ^ is tm` lfs gahstfht( =.7640 O.C-6.jak-6 ), fhd @ is tm`

fppfr`ht fgtivftiah `h`rly ear tm` ekaw. Tmus, pkattihl kh( μf/T) vs. 6/T liv`s f strfilmt kih` ae

skap` @/^. Waj` `xfjpk`s fr` smawh ih Eil. >.62. Tmis pravid`s f v`ry s`hsitiv` t`st fhd

r`v`fks tmft tm` visgasity ae wfx`s gmfhl`s st`fdiky witm t`jp`rftur`, quit` uhkic` tm`

ijpr`ssiah lfih`d eraj pkats sugm fs tmas` ih Eil. >.=. Ah` gahs`qu`hg` ae tmis vi`w is tmft

tm`r` is ha ”sfe`’ t`jp`rftur`, n`kaw wmigm dèarjftiah jfy n` ilhar`d. Phd`r kafd, wfx`s

dèarj gahtihuausky ha jftt`r wmft tm` t`jp`rftur`. Tm`r` is ih efgt ha `vid`hg` ae f tru`

yi`kd paiht. Tmis is hat uhr`fsahfnk` liv`h tmft T/Tj 8 2.92 ear f 02 ²G j.p. jft`rifk ft >2 ²G,

`sp`gifkky sihg` kaw`r j.p. sakids wikk n` pr`s`ht fhywfy, fhd saj` kiquid. F kaw kafd ear f

kahl tij` wikk r`sukt ih distartiah tmft gaukd n` silhieigfht fs d`trij`htfk ta tm` eit ae f gfstihl

ar d`htur` nfs , ar tm` fggurfgy ae f nit` r`listrftiah. F eurtm`r paiht ta n` s `h ikkustrft`d ih

Eil. >.62. is tm` str`ss-d`p`hd`hgy ae tm` visgasity? tm` milm`r kafd livihl tm` kaw`r visgasity .

\fx`s fr` tm`rèar` pranfnky n`st d`sgrin`d fs psùdapkfstig.

F hujn`r ae atm`r rmàkaligfk n`mfviaurs fr` fksa `xminit`d ny wfx s. Tm`y da, ear `xfjpk`,

smaw jfrc`d visga`kfstigity, sa tmft ih fdditiah ta smawihl Maac`fh fhd H`wtahifh

gajpkifhg`s tm` r`tfrd`d gajpkifhg` gajpah`ht gfh n` v`ry strahl. Tmus, tm` ftt`jpts ft

tm` d`t`rjihftiah ae f stftig (Yauhl) jadukus ae `kfstigity (Eil. >.5.) wikk smaw r`sukts tmft fr`

strfih-rft` d`p`hd`ht, fs tm` r`kfxftiah tij`s ae tm` vfriaus jak`gukfr r`frrfhl`j`hts justn` tfc`h ihta fggauht. Tm`s` fr` fksa strahlky t`jp`rftur`-d`p`hd`ht. Ih efgt, tm` gm`jigfk



65

sijikfrity ae wfx`s ta pakyj`rs ih l`h`rfk j`fhs tmft jfhy ae tm` r`jfrcs jfd` tm`r` fr`

dir`gtky fppkigfnk` ta wfx`s. Tmus, tm` iht`rr`kftiahsmips ae t`jp`rftur`, strfih rft`,

pkfstigiz`rs (ear sugm fr` jfhy fdditiv`s ih èe`gt) fhd jadukus ae `kfstigity, fs w`kk fs tm`

iht`rpr`tftiah fhd `xist`hg` ae lkfss fhd atm`r trfhsitiah t`jp`rftur`s ih t`rjs ae jak`gukfr

jav`j`hts, fr` fppkigfnk` m`r` fksa.

7.>. ^`sidufk str`ss

@v`h sa, ah` pfrtigukfr jfhie`stftiah ae tm` visga`kfstigity ae wfx`s is ae lr`ft ijpartfhg`?

tmft ae wfrpfl` du` ta r`sidufk str`ss`s (fktmaulm tmis èe`gt is hat r`strigt`d ta tmis gkfss ae

jft`rifk). Tmft is, fet r jaukdihl mfs n``h gajpk`t`d, fhd tm` pftt`rh ar ijpr`ssiah is

gahsid`r`d eihism`d, saj` skaw dèarjftiah aggurs `v`h ih tm` fns`hg` ae `xt`rhfk str`ss`s

ar `k`vft`d t`jp`rftur`s. Ta `xpkfih tmis w` rè`r ta tm` jad`k ae visga`kfstigity.

Eil. >.66. Ufriftiah ih fppfr`ht tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah du` ta strfih r`kiè ah wfrjihl ear f typigfk wfx.

Ie f str`ss is fppki`d ta sugm f nady, tm`h tm` prijfry r`spahs` w` `xp`gt ta s`` is tm` lrass

ekaw wmigm garr`spahds ta tm` jaukdihl prag`ss tmft is tm` iht`htiah. Maw`v`r,

sijuktfhàusky, saj` strfih `h`rly is nìhl star`d ih tmft pfrt ae tm` syst`j tmft garr`spahds

ta tm` C`kvih-Uailt n`mfviaurfk `k`j`ht, tm` r`tfrd`d gajpkifhg` gajpah`ht, i.`. saj` earj

ae jak`gukfr dèarjftiah. Ft tm` usufk jaukdihl t`jp`rftur`s, tmft is, saj`wmft `k`vft d

fnav` raaj t`jp`rftur`, tm` gajpah`ht `kfstig jaduki fhd visgasiti`s fr` fkk kaw`r`d.

Dèarjftiah is `fsy, sa tmft tm` str`ss`s ijpas`d durihl jaukdihl t`hd ta n` r`kfx`d quit`quigcky. Maw`v`r, tmis prag`ss skaws dawh jfrc`dky fs tm` wfx gaaks, fhd tmis it just n`

daihl gahtihuausky durihl tm` jaukdihl. Tm` Maac`fh `kfstig r`gav`ry (wmigm is v`ry sjfkk)

ae gaurs` aggurs ijj`dift`ky ah r`javihl tm` str`ss (f eihl`r), wmik` r`gav`ry ae tm`

r`tfrd`d kfstig dèarjftiah is hat. Nut n`gfus` tm` wfx mfs haw gaak`d, natm tm` `kfstig

jaduki fhd visgasiti`s flfih mfv` milm vfku`s. @v`h sa, tm` r`jfihihl star`d `h`rly is

uhfee`gt`d - it is stikk star`d. Tm` rft` ae r`kfxftiah is tmus kaw, nut tm` drivihl earg` is

uhdijihism`d. âaj t`jp`rftur` jfy, ear saj` wfx`s, n` sueeigi`htky kaw ih gajpfrisah

witm tm` jaukdihl t`jp`rftur` tmft ha ans`rvfnk` gmfhl` wikk aggur ah ardihfry tij`sgfk`s

(sfy, up ta f e`w maurs), nut `qufkky ear atm`r wfx`s tmis jfy hat n` tru` fhd r`kfxftiahdèarjftiah wikk aggur nèar` fh ihv`stj`ht ar jad`k gfh n` gfst. \ars`, smaukd tm` wfx n`



6<

wfrj`d ih tm` j`fhtij`, sugm fs ny nìhl kèt ih tm` suh ar taa gkas` ta f n`hgm kilmt, ar `v`h

durihl tm` ihv`stj`ht prag`ss ny tm` m`ft ae tm` s`ttihl r`fgtiah ar ijj`rsiah wft`r nftm,

tm` r`gav`ry wikk aggur jugm jar` quigcky, pat`htifkky witm gritigfk èe`gt? efikur` ae tm`

d`vig` ta eit.

H`v`rtm`k`ss, tm` kahl`r tm` wfx pftt`rh is kèt nèar` nìhl ihv`st`d, tm` lr`ft`r tm`

distartiah tmft just r`sukt. Ih gajjah, tm`h, witm jast atm`r ijpr`ssiah ar pftt`rh

jft`rifks, tm` h`xt stfl` (sugm fs paurihl f jad`k) smaukd n` dah` prajptky ta jihijiz` tm`

èe`gts ae sugm distartiah. Ear sfe`ty, pranfnky hat jar` tmfh fnaut 72 jih smaukd n` fkkaw`d

nèar` paurihl sugm jad`ks ar ihv`stj`hts. F sijpk` d`jahstrftiah is passink`? n`hd f stigc

ae ihkfy wfx wm`h it is oust wfrj `haulm ta n`hd skawky, gmikk ih gakd wft`r wmik` uhd`r str`ss

(i.`. stikk nìhl n`ht), tm`h ekaft tm` pi`g` ah wfrj wft`r. Tm` n`hd wikk n` s``h ta r`gav`r,

strfilmt`hihl tm` stigc. Tmis d`jahstrftiah is anviaus, nut tm` dfjfl` dah` ih prfgtig` wikk

hat n` visink` ta tm` `y`3 y`t it wikk n` lr`ft `haulm ta n` d`trij`htfk. ^`sidufk strfihs fksa

fee`gt tm` fppfr`ht tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah, fs tmis r`pr`s`hts f strfih fksa (i.`. f gmfhl` ih

dij`hsiah), fhd tm` twa wikk n` fdditiv`. Tmft is, fhy r`sidufk strfih eraj gajpr`ssiah wikk

r`sukt ih `xfll`rft`d tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah fs tm` gajpr`ssiv` strfih is r`ki`v`d, wmik` t`hsik`

strfih jfy r`dug` ar `v`h r`v`rs` tm` dij`hsiahfk gmfhl` ah wfrjihl (Eil. >.66.). Tm`

gajpkigftiahs tm`s` pravid` ear gfstihl fggurfgy fr` gk`fr. Tm` gajpk`j`htfry t`hsiah fhd

gajpr`ssiah èe`gts ft rilmt fhlk`s, ha jftt`r wmft tm` ijpas`d kafd, j`fhs tmft tm`s` èe`gts

fr` fkwfys fhisatrapig. \mik` fhh`fkihl gfh r`jav` tm`s` èe`gts, tm` strfih r`kiè tmis fkkaws

gfus`s dij`hsiahfk gmfhl`s fhywfy.

7.7. DPGTIKITY

Kic` ekaw, dugtikity ihgr`fs`s fs tm` t`jp`rftur` ae f wfx sp`gij`h is ihgr`fs`d. Ih l`h`rfk,

wfx`s witm kaw`r j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s mfv` f lr`ft`r dugtikity ft fhy liv`h t`jp`rftur`

tmfh tmas` witm milm`r j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s.

Tm` dugtikity ae f nk`hd`d wfx is lr`ftky iheku`hg`d ny tm` distrinutiah ae tm` j`ktihl

t`jp`rftur`s ae tm` gajpah`ht wfx`s. F nk`hd`d wfx witm gajpah`hts tmft mfv` wid`

j`ktihl rfhl`s l`h`rfkky mfs lr`ft`r dugtikity tmfh nk`hd`d wfx`s tmft mfv` f hfrraw rfhl`.

\m`h`v`r f wid` rfhl` ae j`ktihl t`jp`rftur`s is pr`s`ht, tm` saet`hihl paiht ae tm` kaw`st

gajpah`ht is fpprafgm`d eirst. F eurtm`r t`jp`rftur` ris` n`lihs ta kiquèy tmis gajpah`ht

fhd fpprafgm stikk gkas`r ta tm` saet`hihl paihts ae tm` milm`r-saet`hihl paiht gajpah`hts.

Tmis t`hds ta pkfstigiz` tm` `htir` wfx jfss, tm`r`ny `hmfhgihl dugtikity.

L`h`rfkky, milmky rèih`d wfx`s fr` quit` nrittk`. Tm` kaw`r-j`ktihl paiht, jigragrystfkkih`

jih`rfk wfx`s, wmigm gahtfih fppr`gifnk` fjauhts ae aggkud`d aik, fr` jad`rft`ky saet fhd

`xminit f milm d`lr`` ae pkfstigity ar dugtikity, `v`h witm tmìr gajpfrftiv`ky milm j`ktihl

t`jp`rftur`s.



6=

III. D`htfk \fx Gkfssieigftiah

F vfri`ty ae hfturfk wfx`s fhd r`sihs mfv` n``h us`d ih d`htistry ear sp`gieig fhd w`kk-dèih`d

fppkigftiahs. Ih saj` ihstfhg`s, tm` jast efvarfnk` qufkiti`s gfh n` antfih`d eraj f sihlk`

wfx, sugm fs n``swfx, nut jar` aet`h f nk`hd ae s`v`rfk wfx`s is h`g`ssfry ta d`v`kap tm`

jast d`sirfnk` qufkiti`s.

Tfnk` 7.6. Gkfssieigftiah D`htfk \fx ih D`htistry

L`h. Gkfss ae

D`htfk \fxD`htfk Hfj` ?

FDF Wp`gieigftiah

Hfj` ?

L`h`rfk

Fppkigftiah ?

L`h`rfk

Earj ?

L`h`rfk

Gakar ?

RFTT@^H

Ihkfy \fx

Typ` F (Mfrd)Dir`gt pftt`rhs ihtm` jautm

Wtigc, Gah`sNku`, Lr``h,Rurpk`

Typ` N (J`diuj)

- Typ` I (Mfrd)

Ihdir`gt pftt`rhs ahdi`s

Wtigc, Gah`s,Atm`r

‸‸ ꞃꞃ ‸‸

Typ` G (Waet)

- Typ` II (^`luk`r)‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸

‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸

‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸

Gfstihl \fx Fgrykig nuikdups,gkfsps, nfrs,`tg

Nku`, Rihc,\mit`

Nfs`pkft` \fx

Typ` I (Waet)Ijpr`ssiah ih gaakgkijft`s

Wm``ts Rihc

Typ` II (Mfrd)Ijpr`ssiah ih wfrjgkijft`s

‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸ ‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸

Typ` III (@xtrf Mfrd)Ijpr`ssiah ih matgkijft`s

‸‸ ꞃꞃ ‸‸ ‸‸ ꞃꞃ ‸‸

RÂG@WWIHL

Naxihl \fxD`htur` Jfst`rGfsts, Ijpr`ssiahtrfy nard`r

Wm``ts, rap`s Lr``h, Nkfgc

Ptikity \fxIjpr`ssiah trfynard`r

âp`s Arfhl`, Dfrc^`d

Wtigcy \fxWpru`s, wfxgahh`gtiahs

Wtigcs Dfrc gakars

IJR^@WWIAH

Garr`gtiv` \fx@d`htukausIjpr`ssiah

Wm``ts, stigcsArfhl`,\mit`, Lr``h

Nit`pkft` \fx Aggkussfk^`listrftiah

‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸ ‸‸

ꞃꞃ

‸‸

F gkfssieigftiah ae d`htfk wfx`s fggardihl ta tmìr us` fhd fppkigftiah is liv`h ih Tfnk` 7.6.

Rftt`rh wfx`s fr` us`d ta earj tm` l`h`rfk pr`d`t`rjih`d siz` fhd gahtaur ae fh frtieigifk

d`htfk r`starftiah, wmigm is ta n` gahstrugt`d ae f jar` durfnk` jft`rifk sugm fs gfst lakd

fkkays, ganfkt-gmrajiuj-higc`k fkkays, ar fgrykig r`sih. Fkk pftt`rh wfx`s mfv` twa jfoar

qufkiti`s, tm`rjfk gmfhl` ih dij`hsiah fhd t`hd`hgy ta wfrp ar distart ah stfhdihl, wmigm

gr`ft` s`riaus prank`js ih tmìr us` wm`tm`r fh ihkfy pftt`rh, grawh, ar gajpk`t` d`htur` is

nìhl gahstrugt`d.



69

Rrag`ssihl wfx`s fr` us`d prijfriky fs fuxikifry fids ih gahstrugtihl f vfri`ty ae r`starftiahs

fhd fppkifhg`s, ìtm`r gkihigfkky ar ih tm` kfnarftary. Rrag`ssihl wfx`s p`rearj huj`raus

tfscs tmft sijpkiey jfhy d`htfk prag`dur`s ih sugm ap`rftiahs fs d`htur` gahstrugtiah ar

sakd`rihl.

Ah` ae tm` akd`st r`gard`d us`s ae wfx ih d`htistry is ear tfcihl ijpr`ssiahs witmih tm`

jautm. N`gfus` f wfx earjukft`d ear us` fs fh ijpr`ssiah jft`rifk `xminits milm ekaw fhd

dugtikity, it distarts r`fdiky wm`h witmdrfwh eraj uhd`rgut fr`fs. Tm`rèar`, tm` us` ae wfx

mfs n``h kijit`d ta tm` hah-uhd`rgut `d`htukaus partiahs ae tm` jautm. ^`g`htky, sp`gifkky

earjukft`d fdditiah-sikigah` fhd paky`tm`r ijpr`ssiah jft`rifks mfv` r`pkfg`d wfx fs f nit`

r`listrftiah jft`rifk.

7.6. IHKFY RFTT@^H \F]

Lakd ihkfys, grawhs, fhd nridl` uhits fr` earj`d ny f gfstihl prag`ss tmft us`s tm` kast-wfx

pftt`rh t`gmhiqu`. F pftt`rh ae wfx is eirst gahstrugt`d tmft dupkigft`s tm` smfp` fhd gahtaur

ae tm` d`sir`d lakd gfstihl. Tm` gfrv`d wfx pftt`rh is tm`h `jn`dd`d ih f lypsuj-sikigf

ihv`stj`ht jft`rifk ta earj f jakd witm fh ihlft` ar spru` k`fdihl eraj tm` aut`r surefg` ae

tm` ihv`stj`ht jakd ta tm` pftt`rh. Tm` wfx is suns`qu`htky `kijihft`d ny m`ftihl fhd

saet`hihl, fhd tm` jakd is eurtm`r gahditiah`d ta r`gìv` tm` jakt`h lakd ny gahtrakk`d

m`ftihl ih f eurhfg`.

Eil. 7.6. Rradugt fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae Ihkfy d`htfk wfx

7.6.6. Gajpasitiah ae Ihkfy \fx

Tm` prihgipfk wfx`s us`d ta earjukft` ihkfy wfx`s fr` pfrfeeih, jigragrystfkkih` wfx, g`r`sih,

gfrhfunf, gfhd`kikkf, fhd n``swfx. Ear `xfjpk`, fh ihkfy wfx jfy gahtfih 52% pfrfeeih, >0%

gfrhfunf, 62% g`r`sih, fhd 0% n``swfx. Tm`rèar`, mydragfrnah wfx`s gahstitut` tm` jfoar

partiah ae tmis earjukftiah.



>2

Waj` ihkfy wfx`s fr` d`sgrin`d fs mfrd, r`lukfr (j`diuj), ar saet, wmigm is f l`h`rfk

ihdigftiah ae tmìr ekaw. Tm` ekaw gfh n` r`dug`d ny fddihl jar` gfrhfunf wfx ar ny

s`k`gtihl f milm`r-j`ktihl-paiht pfrfeeih wfx. Fh iht`r`stihl `xfjpk` is tmft f mfrd ihkfy wfx

jfy gahtfih f kaw`r p`rg`htfl` ae gfrhfunf wfx tmfh f r`lukfr ihkfy wfx, nut tm` ekaw ae tm`

mfrd ihkfy wfx is k`ss tmfh tm` r`lukfr wfx n`gfus` ae tm` s`k`gtiah ae f milm`r-j`ktihl-paiht

pfrfeeih ih tm` earjukftiah ae tm` mfrd wfx. ^`sihs ih sjfkk fjauhts, sugm fs 6%, fksa fee`gt

tm` ekaw ae ihkfy wfx`s.

Ihkfy wfx`s fr` usufkky pradug`d ih d``p nku`, lr``h, ar purpk` rads ar stigcs fnaut <.0 gj

kahl fhd 2.54 gj ih difj`t`r. Waj` jfhuefgtur`rs suppky tm` wfx ih tm` earj ae sjfkk p`kk`ts

ar gah`s ar ih sjfkk, j`tfk aihtj`ht ofrs.

7.6.>. Rrap`rti`s ae Ihkfy \fx

Tm` fggurfgy fhd uktijft` usèukh`ss ae tm` r`suktihl lakd gfstihl d`p`hd kfrl`ky ah tm`

fggurfgy fhd eih` d`tfik ae tm` wfx pftt`rh. F wfx tmft is fnk` ta euhgtiah w`kk ih tm` lakd

gfstihl t`gmhiqu` just pass`ss g`rtfih, v`ry ijpartfht pmysigfk prap`rti`s.

^`vis`d FHWI/FDF Wp`gieigftiah Ha. 4 (IW2 6056?6999) ear d`htfk ihkfy gfstihl wfx mfs n``h

earjukft`d ear wfx`s us`d ih dir`gt fhd ihdir`gt wfxihl t`gmhiqu`s. F sujjfry ae ekaw

r`quir`j`hts ae tmis sp`gieigftiah is liv`h ih Tfnk` 7.>. N`gfus` tm` wfx pftt`rhs fr` ta n`

j`kt`d fhd vfpariz`d eraj tm` ihv`stj`ht jakd, it is `ss`htifk tmft ha `xg`ssiv` r`sidu`

r`jfih ih tm` jakd n`gfus` ae ihgajpk`t` wfx nurhaut. @xg`ss r`sidu` jfy r`sukt ih tm`

ihgajpk`t` gfstihl ae ihkfy jfrlihs. Tm` sp`gieigftiah tm`rèar` kijits tm` hahvakftik` r`sidu`

ae tm`s` wfx`s ta f jfxijuj ae 2.62% ft fh ilhitiah t`jp`rftur` ae <22²G.

Tfnk` 7.>. Ekaw ^`quir`j`hts ear D`htfk Ihkfy Gfstihl \fx

\fx T`jp`rftur`

72²G 7<²G 42²G 40²G

Jfxijuj Jfxijuj Jihijuj Jfxijuj Jihijuj Jfxijuj

% % % % % %

Typ` 6 (saet) 6.2 - 02 - <2 92

Typ` > (mfrd) - 6.2 - >2 <2 92

Fdfpt`d eraj D`htfk gfstihl wfx IWA 6056?6999(@).

Typ`s 6 (saet) fhd > (mfrd) d`htfk ihkfy gfstihl wfx`s fr` r`galhiz`d ny ^`vis`d FHWI/FDF

Wp`gieigftiah Ha. 4. Typ` 6 wfx is f saet wfx us`d fs fh ihdir`gt t`gmhiqu` wfx. Typ` > wfx is

f mfrd`r wfx pr`sgrin`d ear earjihl dir`gt pftt`rhs ih tm` jautm, wm`r` kaw`r ekaw vfku`s ft

7<²G t`hd ta jihijiz` fhy t`hd`hgy ear distartiah ae tm` pftt`rh ah its r`javfk eraj tm`

gfvity pr`pfrftiah. Typ` 6 wfx smaws lr`ft`r ekaw tmfh Typ` > wfx ft t`jp`rftur`s natm

n`kaw fhd fnav` jautm t`jp`rftur`. Tm` kaw`r ekaw ae Typ` > wfx fhd tm` lr`ft`r `fs` ae

gfrvihl tm` saet`r Typ` 6 wfx`s fr` d`sirfnk` warcihl gmfrfgt`ristigs ear tm` t`gmhiqu`s

fssagift`d witm `fgm.

Tm` sp`gieigftiah fksa r`quir`s tm` jfhuefgtur`rs ta ihgkud` ihstrugtiahs r`lfrdihl tm`

j`tmad ae saet`hihl fhd tm` warcihl t`jp`rftur` ear tm` wfx pr`pfrftary ta earjihl f



>6

dir`gtpftt`rh. Natm typ`s smaukd saet`h witmaut n`gajihl ekfcy, fhd wm`h trijj`d ta f eih`

jfrlih durihl tm` pftt`rh-gfrvihl ap`rftiah, tm`y smaukd hat gmip ar ekfc`. Tm`rjfk

`xpfhsiah dftf ear tm` Typ` > wfx fr` ha kahl`r r`quir`d ny tm` sp`gieigftiah.

7.6.7. Ekaw ae Ihkfy \fx

\m`h earjihl f wfx pftt`rh dir`gtky ih tm` jautm, tm` wfx just n` m`ft`d ta f t`jp`rftur`

ft wmigm it mfs sueeigi`ht ekaw uhd`r gajpr`ssiah ta r`pradug` tm` pr`pfr`d gfvity wfkks ih

lr`ft d`tfik. Tm` warcihl t`jp`rftur`, sull`st`d ny tm` jfhuefgtur`r, wmigm smaukd n`

sftisefgtary ear jfcihl dir`gt wfx pftt`rhs, just hat n` sa milm fs ta gfus` dfjfl` ta tm`

vitfk taatm strugtur` ar n` uhgajeartfnk` ta tm` pfti`ht. Ihsueeigi`ht ekaw ae tm` wfx gfus`d ny

ihsueeigi`ht m`ftihl r`sukts ih tm` kfgc ae gfvity d`tfik fhd ihtradug`s `xg`ss str`ss witmih tm`

pftt`rh. Fh av`rfnuhdfht fjauht ae ekaw r`suktihl eraj `xg`ssiv` m`ftihl jfc`s

gajpr`ssiah ae tm` wfx dieeigukt n`gfus` ae f kfgc ae "nady" ih tm` jft`rifk.

Tm` vfku`s kist`d ih Tfnk` 7.>. r`pr`s`ht jihijuj ar jfxijuj vfku`s ae p`rg`ht ekaw tmft

aggur ft vfriaus t`jp`rftur`s wm`h Typ`s 6 fhd > wfx sp`gij`hs fr` suno`gt`d ta f 69.5 H

kafd ear 62 jihut`s. Tm` t`jp`rftur` tmft tm` Typ` > wfx just fttfih ta r`list`r gfvity d`tfik

is usufkky saj`wmft fnav` 40²G. Fs s``h eraj tm`s` vfku`s, tm` ekaw ae tm` mfrd wfx is ha

jar` tmfh 6% ft nady t`jp`rftur`. Tm` ekaw ae tm` Typ` 6 wfx is fnaut 9% ft tmis

t`jp`rftur`. Kaw ekaw ft tmis t`jp`rftur` t`hds ta jihijiz` distartiah ae f w`kk-gfrv`d

pftt`rh fs it is witmdrfwh eraj fh fd`quft ky tfp`r`d gfvity ih tm` taatm.

7.6.4. Tm`rjfk Gaèeigi`ht ae @xpfhsiah ae Ihkfy \fx

Tm` gurv` ih Eil. 7.>. smaws tmft tm` rft` ae

`xpfhsiah ae tm` Typ` 6 ihkfy wfx is lr`ft`st erajoust n`kaw jautm t`jp`rftur` ta oust fnav` 40²G.

Chawihl tm` fjauht ae wfx `xpfhsiah ar

gahtrfgtiah fkkaws ah` ta oudl` tm` gajp`hsftiah

h`g`ssfry ta pradug` fh fggurft` gfstihl. Dftf

sueeigi`ht ta smaw tm` tm`rjfk gahtrfgtiah ae tm`

wfx eraj its warcihl t`jp`rftur` ta raaj

t`jp`rftur` jfy n` ihgkud`d ih `fgm pfgcfl` ae

ihkfy wfx. Ahg` tm` wfx pftt`rh is gfrv`d, its

r`javfk eraj tm` taatm gfvity fhd trfhse`r ta tm`

kfnarftary nrihl fnaut f r`dugtiah ih t`jp`rf ur`

fhd suns`qu`ht tm`rjfk gahtrfgtiah. F d`gr`fs` ae

6>² ta 67²G ih t`jp`rftur`, eraj jautm

t`jp`rftur` ta f raaj t`jp`rftur` ae fnaut >4²G,

gfus`s f 2.4% kih`fr gahtrfgtiah ae tm` wfx, ar

fnaut 2.24% gmfhl` ear `fgm d`lr`` gmfhl` ih

t`jp`rftur`.

Eil. 7.>. R`rg`ht `xpfhsiah ae ihkfy fhd gfstihlwfx`s eraj >2² ta 02²G, smawihl tm`p`rg`ht dij`hsiahfk gmfhl` eraj jautmt`jp`rftur` ta fv`rfl` raaj t`jp`rftur`



>>

7.6.0. \frpfl` ae \fx Rftt`rhs

Ihkfy pftt`rh wfx mfs f milm gaèeigi`ht ae `xpfhsiah fhd t`hds ta wfrp ar distart wm`h

fkkaw`d ta stfhd uhr`strfih`d. Tm` distartiah is ihgr`fs`d l`h`rfkky fs tm` t`jp`rftur` fhd

tij` ae starfl` fr` ihgr`fs`d. Tmis qufkity ae wfx pftt`rhs is r`kft`d ta tm` r`k`fs` ae r`sidufk

str`ss d`v`kap`d ih tm` pftt`rh durihl tm` prag`ss ae earjftiah. Tmis gmfrfgt`ristig ae str`ss

r`k`fs` fhd wfrpfl` is pr`s`ht ih fkk d`htfk wfx`s, nut is pfrtigukfrky traunk`saj` ih ihkfy

pftt`rhs n`gfus` ae tm` gritigfk dij`hsiahfk r`kftiahs tmft just n` jfihtfih`d ih ihkfy

gfstihls.

N`gfus` wfrpfl` ae tm` pftt`rh is r`kft`d ta tm` t`jp`rftur` durihl pftt`rh earjftiah fhd

starfl`, tm` ruk`s r`kft`d ta tm` pftt`rh t`jp`rftur` just n` uhd`rstaad. Ih l`h`rfk, tm`

milm`r tm` t`jp`rftur` ae tm` wfx ft tm` tij` tm` pftt`rh wfs fdfpt`d fhd smfp`d, tm` k`ss

tm` t`hd`hgy ear distartiah ih tm` pr`pfr`d pftt`rh. Tmis is r`fsahfnk`, n`gfus` tm` r`sidufk

str`ss ih tm` pftt`rh gfusihl tm` distartiah is fssagift`d witm tm` earg`s h`g`ssfry ta smfp`

tm` wfx arilihfkky. Tm` ihgarparftiah ae r`sidufk str`ss gfh n` jihijiz`d ny saet`hihl f wfx

uhiearjky ny m`ftihl ft 622²G ear ft k`fst 60 jihut`s nèar` us`, ny usihl wfrj`d gfrvihlihstruj`hts fhd f wfrj`d di`, fhd ny fddihl wfx ta tm` di` ih sjfkk fjauhts. Fksa

fhh`fkihl wfx ft 02²G ear >4 maurs mfs tm` èe`gt ae ihgr`fsihl tm` r`sistfhg` ae tm` wfx ta

p`h`trftiah fhd distartiah (Raw`rs fhd Grfil, 69<4).

N`gfus` tm` r`k`fs` ae iht`rhfk str`ss fhd suns`qu`ht wfrpfl` fr` fssagift`d witm tm`

starfl` t`jp`rftur`, it eakkaws tmft lr`ft`r wfrpfl` r`sukts ft milm`r starfl` t`jp`rftur`s.

Kaw`r t`jp`rftur` da`s hat gajpk`t`ky pr`v`ht distartiah, nut l`h`rfkky tm` fjauht is

r`dug`d wm`h tm` starfl` t`jp`rftur` is c`pt ta f jihijuj. Ie ihkfy wfx pftt`rhs just n`

fkkaw`d ta stfhd uhihv`st`d ear f tij` kahl`r tmfh 72 jihut`s, tm`y smaukd n` c`pt ih f

rèril`rftar. Fktmaulm saj` distartiah jfy tfc` pkfg` ft tmis t`jp`rftur`, it wikk n` k`ss tmfh

ft harjfk raaj t`jp`rftur`. Wugm f prfgtig` ae starfl` ear kahl p`riads is hat r`gajj`hd`d

ie er``daj eraj wfrpfl` is d`sir`d. Tm` n`st wfy ta jihijiz` tm` wfrpfl` ae ihkfy wfx

pftt`rhs is ta ihv`st tm` pftt`rh ijj`dift`ky fet`r it is gajpk`t`ky smfp`d. F rèril`rft`d wfx

pftt`rh smaukd n` fkkaw`d ta wfrj ta raaj t`jp`rftur` nèar` it is ihv`st`d. Durihl spruihl,

distartiah gfh n` r`dug`d ny us` ae f sakid wfx spru` ar f makkaw j`tfk spru` eikk`d witm

stigcy wfx. Ie tm` pftt`rh wfs star`d, tm` jfrlihs smaukd n` r`fdfpt`d. T`jp`rftur` ae

earjftiah, tij` fhd gahditiah ae starfl`, fhd prajpth`ss ae ihv`stihl tm` pftt`rh fr` jfoar

efgtars r`kft`d ta fkk t`gmhiqu`s ae pftt`rh earjftiah.

7.>. GFWTIHL \F]

Tm` pftt`rh ear tm` j`tfkkig erfj`warc ae r`javfnk` pfrtifk d`htur`s fhd atm`r sijikfr

strugtur`s is efnrigft`d eraj gfstihl wfx`s. Tm`s` wfx`s fr` fvfikfnk` ih tm` earj ae sm``ts,

usufkky ae >=- fhd 72-lful` (2.42 fhd 2.7> jj) tmigch`ss, r`fdy-jfd` smfp`s, fhd ih nukc.

Fs smawh ih Eil. 7.7., tm` r`fdy-jfd` smfp`s fr` suppki`d fs rauhd, mfke-rauhd, fhd mfke-p`fr-

smfp`d rads fhd wir`s ae vfriaus lful`s ih fppraxijft`ky 62-gj k`hltms. Fktmaulm gfstihl

wfx`s s`rv` tm` sfj` nfsig purpas` fs ihkfy wfx`s ih tm` earjftiah ae pftt`rhs ear j`tfkkig

gfstihls, tmìr pmysigfk prap`rti`s diee`r skilmtky. Kittk` is chawh ae tm` `xfgt gajpasitiah ae

tm`s` sm``t fhd smfp`d wfx`s, nut tm`y ihgkud` ihlr`di`hts sijikfr ta tmas` eauhd ih ihkfy



>7

wfx`s, witm vfriaus gajnihftiahs fhd prapartiahs ae pfrfeeih, g`r`sih, n``swfx, r`sihs, fhd

atm`r wfx`s nìhl us`d.

Tm` gfstihl wfx sm``ts fr` us`d ta `stfnkism jihijuj tmigch`ss ih g`rtfih fr`fs ae tm` pfrtifk

d`htur` erfj`warc, sugm fs tm` pfkftfk fhd kihlufk nfr, fhd ta pradug` tm` d`sir`d gahtaur ae

tm` kihlufk nfr. F pfrtifk d`htur` erfj`warc ih tm` prag`ss ae nìhl wfx`d is smawh ih tm`

n`kaw ae Eil. 7.7. Tm` pmysigfk hftur` fhd earj ih wmigm tm` sm``t gfstihl wfx is suppki`d

r`sukt`d ih its us` ear past dfjjihl ae gajpk`t` jfxikkfry d`htur` ijpr`ssiahs, gm`gcihl

milm paihts ae frtigukftiah, pradugihl wfx nit`s ae gusp tips ear tm` frtigukftiah ae stah` gfsts,

fhd jfhy atm`r us`s.

Eil. 7.7. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae D`htfk Gfstihl \fx

7.>.6. Rmysigfk Gmfrfgt`ristigs ae Gfstihl \fx

Tm` gfstihl sm``ts fhd r`fdy-jfd` smfp`s ae g`rtfih typ`s ae gfstihl wfx`s jfy pass`ss f

skilmt d`lr`` ae tfgcih`ss, wmigm m`kps ta jfihtfih tmìr pasitiah ah tm` gfst fhd ah `fgm

atm`r durihl fss`jnky ae tm` pftt`rh. Tmis tfgcih`ss is hat sueeigi`ht ta pr`v`ht gmfhl`s ih

pasitiah eraj nìhl jfd` witm r`kftiv` `fs`, fhd wm`h tm` wfx`s fr` ih eihfk pasitiah, tm`y

fr` s`fk`d ta tm` ihv`stj`ht gfst witm f mat spftukf.

Tm`r` is ha FHWI/FDF sp`gieigftiah ear tm`s` gfstihl wfx`s, nut f e`d`rfk sp`gieigftiah mfs

n``h earjukft`d tmft ihgkud`s vfku`s ear saet`hihl t`jp`rftur`, fjauht ae ekaw ft vfriaus

t`jp`rftur`s, l`h`rfk warcihl qufkiti`s, fhd atm`r gmfrfgt`ristigs. F sujjfry ae tm`



>4

prap`rti`s ihgkud`d ih E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah Ha. P-\-642 is liv`h ih Tfnk` 7.7. Ih l`h`rfk, tm`

gmfrfgt`ristigs jast d`sir`d ihgkud` f g`rtfih d`lr`` ae taulmh`ss fhd str`hltm, witm f tru`

lful` dij`hsiah, gajnih`d witm f jihijuj ae dij`hsiahfk gmfhl` witm gmfhl` ih

t`jp`rftur`, fhd tm` fnikity ta n` vfpariz`d gajpk`t`ky eraj tm` ihv`stj`ht jakd.

Tfnk` 7.7. ^`quir`j hts E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah ear D`htfk Gfstihl \fx

Typ` ae \fx Ekaw Nr`fcihl Raiht \arcihl Rrap`rti`s

Gfstihl wfx 70²G-jfxijuj, 62% Ha erfgtur` ft

>7² G ¶ 6²

Rkifnk` fhd r`fdiky

fdfptfnk` ft 42² ta 40² G

Gkfss F - >=-lful`, pihc 7=² G-jihijuj, 52% Gapi`s fggurft`ky surefg`

flfihst wmigm it is pr`ss`d

Gkfss N - 72-lful`, lr``h \ikk hat n` nrittk` ah

gaakihl

Gkfss G - r`fdy-jfd`

smfp`s, nku`

Ufpariz`s ft 022² G, k`fvihl

ha eikj atm`r tmfh gfrnah

Fdfpt`d eraj E`d`rfk Wp`gitigftiah Ha. P-\-642, Jfrgm 694=, ear gfstihl wfx

N`gfus` tm` pftt`rh ear tm` r`javfnk` pfrtifk d`htur` erfj`warc is gahstrugt`d ah fhd

s`fk`d ta fh ihv`stj`ht gfst (eraj wmigm it is hat s`pfrft`d suns`qu`htky) ft raaj

t`jp`rftur`, tm`r` is kittk` h``d ear tm` gfstihl wfx ta `xminit kaw ekaw ft nady t`jp`rftur`.

Tm` ekaw gmfrfgt`ristigs ae tm` gfstihl wfx, wm`h j`fsur`d sijikfrky ta tm` ihkfy wfx, smaw f

jfxijuj ae 62% ekaw ft 70² G fhd f jihijuj ae 52% ekaw ft 7=² G. Tm`s` gmfrfgt`ristigs

fr` silhieigfhtky diee`r`ht eraj tm` ekaw vfku`s ear ihkfy wfx`s tmft gajpky witm tm`

r`quir`j`hts ae FHWI/FDF Wp`gieigftiah Ha. 4.

Tm` r`quir`j`ht ear dugtikity ae tm` gfstihl wfx`s is milm. Tm` e`d`rfk sp`gieigftiah r`quir`stmft tm` gfstihl wfx n` n`ht daunk` ah its`ke witmaut erfgtur` ft f t`jp`rftur` ae >7² G fhd

tmft tm` wfx`s n` pkifnk` fhd r`fdiky fdfptfnk` ft 42² ta 40² G. M`ftihl av`r f ekfj` fhd tm`

gajpr`ssiah ta fdfpt ìtm`r tm` r`fdy-jfd` smfp`s ar tm` sm``t gfstihl wfx `fsiky jfy fkt`r

tmìr tmigch`ss fhd gahtaur n`gfus` ae tmìr r`kftiv`ky milm dugtikity fhd ekaw.

N`gfus` tm`s` jft`rifks fr` gfstihl pftt`rh wfx`s ear pfrtifk d`htur` gfst r`starftiahs, fs is

tm` ihkfy wfx, tm`y taa just vfpariz` ft fnaut 022² G witm ha r`sidu` atm`r tmfh gfrnah. Tm`

jakd gfvity tmus pradug`d wikk r`sukt ih jar` d`sirfnk` gfstihl surefg`s, n`gfus` it wikk n`

er`` ae earìlh jft`rifks. Rftt`rh wfx`s fr` nìhl r`pkfg`d ta saj` `xt`ht ny prèarj`d

pkfstig pftt`rhs.

7.7. NFW@RKFT@ \F]

Nfs`pkft` wfx d`riv`s its hfj` eraj its us` ah tm` nfs`pkft` trfy ta `stfnkism tm` v`rtigfk

dij`hsiah, pkfh` ae aggkusiah, fhd ihitifk frgm earj ih tm` t`gmhiqu` ear tm` gajpk`t` d`htur`

r`starftiah. Tmis wfx fksa jfy n` us`d ta earj fkk ar f partiah ae tm` trfy its`ke. Tm` harjfkky

pihc gakar pravid`s saj` `stm`tig qufkity ear tm` ihitifk stfl` ae gahstrugtiah ae tm` d`htur`

nèar` prag`ssihl.

Nfs`pkft` wfx is tm` jft`rifk us`d ta pradug` tm` d`sir`d gahtaur ae tm` d`htur` fet`r t``tmfr` s`t ih pasitiah. Fs f r`sukt, tm` gahtaur wfx `stfnkism`s tm` pftt`rh ear tm` eihfk pkfstig



>0

d`htur`. Rftt`rhs ear artmadahtig fppkifhg`s fhd prastm`s`s atm`r tmfh gajpk`t` d`htur`s,

wmigm fr` ta n` gahstrugt`d ae pkfstigs, fksa fr` jfd` ae nfs`pkft` wfx. Fktmaulm tm`s` fr`

tm` prijfry euhgtiahs ae nfs`pkft` wfx, it mfs fksa n``h wid`ky us`d ih jfhy pmfs`s ae

d`htistry ta gm`gc tm` vfriaus frtigukftihl r`kftiahs ih tm` jautm fhd ta trfhse`r tm`j ta

j`gmfhigfk frtigukftars.

Eil. 7.4. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae Nfs`pkft` \fx

7.7.6. Gajpasitiah ae Nfs`pkft` \fx

F e`w earjukfs fr` eauhd ih tm` kit`rftur` ear nfs`pkft` wfx. Nfs`pkft` wfx`s jfy gahtfih

<2% ta =2% pfrfeeih-nfs`d wfx`s ar gajj`rgifk g`r`sih, witm sjfkk qufhtiti`s ae atm`r

wfx`s, r`sihs, fhd fdditiv`s ta d`v`kap tm` sp`gieig qufkiti`s d`sir`d ih tm` wfx. F typigfk

gajpasitiah jilmt ihgkud` =2% g`r`sih, 6>% n``swfx, >.0% gfrhfunf, 7% hfturfk ar

syhtm`tig r`sihs, fhd >.0% jigragrystfkkih` ar syhtm`tig wfx`s. Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis

fhd p`h`trftiah gurv`s ae f typigfk nfs`pkft` wfx fr` smawh ih Eil. 7.0.

Eil. 7.0. Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis fhdp`h`trftiah gurv`s ear d`htfknfs`pkft` fhd stigcy wfx`s. Tm`str`ss`s ear TJF-6 fhd TJF-> fr`

2.260 fhd 2.>0 JRf, r`sp`gtiv`ky.



>5

7.7.>. Rmysigfk Gmfrfgt`ristigs ae Nfs`pkft` \fx

Nfs`pkft` wfx`s fr` harjfkky suppki`d ih sm``ts <.52 x 60.22 x 2.67 gj ih pihc ar r`d. Tm`

jfhuefgtur`r usufkky earjukft`s twa typ`s ae wfx ta fggajjadft` tm` vfryihl gkijft`s ih

wmigm tm`y wikk n` us`d, n`gfus` tm` ekaw ae tm` wfx is iheku`hg`d lr`ftky ny tm` t`jp`rftur`.

Tm` r`quir`j`hts ear d`htfk nfs`pkft` wfx fr` kist`d ih Tfnk` 7.4., wmigm sujjfriz`s

FHWI/FDF Wp`gieigftiah Ha. >4 (IW2 6>657). Tmr`` typ`s ae wfx fr` ihgkud`d? Typ` 6 is f saet

wfx ear nuikdihl gahtaurs fhd v`h``rs, Typ` > is f mfrd wfx ta n` us`d ear pftt`rhs ta n`

tri`d ih tm` jautm ih t`jp`rft` gkijft`s, fhd Typ` 7 is fh `xtrf-mfrd wfx ear pftt`rhs ta n`

tri`d ih tm` jautm ih trapigfk w`ftm`r. Tm` ekaw vfku`s fr` kist`d ear >7², 7<², fhd 40² G wm`h

tm`y fr` fppkigfnk`. Tm` jfxijuj ekaw fkkaw`d ft fhy liv`h t`jp`rftur` d`gr`fs`s rfpidky

eraj Typ` 6 ta Typ` 7. Tm` ekaw r`quir`j`hts ae Typ` 7 nfs`pkft` wfx fr` gajpfrfnk` ta

tmas` ae tm` Typ` > (mfrd) ihkfy wfx, witm k`ss ekaw fkkaw`d ear tm` nfs`pkft` wfx ft 40² G.

Tfnk` 7.4. ^`quir`j`hts ear D`htfk Nfs`pkft` \fx

T`jp`rfturÈkaw ( % )

Rrfgtigfk ^`quir`j`hts( ²G ) Jihijuj Jfxijuj

Typ` 6 ‗ Waet, nuikdihl

gahtaurs fhd v`h``rs

>7 - 6.2 Waet`h`d sm``ts smfkk gam`r`

r`fdiky witmaut n`gajihl

ekfcy ar fdm`rihl ta eihl`rs

Ha irritftiah ae arfk tissu`s

Trij `fsiky witm f smfrp

ihstruj`ht ft >7²G

Wjaatm lkassy surefg` fet`r

l`htk` ekfjihl

Ha r`sidu` ah parg`kfih ar

pkfstig t``tm

Gakarihl smfkk hat s`pfrft` ar

ijpr`lhft` pkfst`r durihl

prag`ssihl

Ha fdm`siah ta atm`r sm``ts

ae wfx ar s`pfrftihl pfpf`r

ah starfl`

7< 0.2 92

40 - -

Typ` > ‗ Mfrd, pftt`rhs ih

jautm, t`jp`rft`

w`ftm`r

>7 - 2.5

7< - 62.2

40 02.2 92

Typ` 7 ‗ @xtrf Mfrd, pftt`rhs

ih jautm, mat

w`ftm`r

>7 - 2.>

7< - 6.>

40 0.2 02.2

Fdfpt`d eraj IWA 6>657?6999.

N`gfus` nfs`pkft` wfx is us`d natm ta s`t d`htur` t``tm fhd ta fdfpt frauhd tm`s` t``tm ta

d`v`kap prap`r gahtaur, tm` dij`hsiahfk gmfhl`s tmft jfy tfc` pkfg` n`gfus` ae vfriftiahs ih

t`jp`rftur` fr` ijpartfht. Fktmaulm tm` h``d ear dij`hsiahfk stfnikity is hat fs gritigfk fs

witm tm` ihkfy wfx, tm` jfiht`hfhg` ae laad taatm r`kftiahsmip is ijpartfht. Fktmaulm ha

smrihcfl` vfku` eraj f jakt`h stft` ta raaj t`jp`rftur` is r`quir`d ny tm` sp`gieigftiah, tm`

kih`fr tm`rjfk `xpfhsiah eraj >5² ta 42² G smaukd n` k`ss tmfh 2.=%.

F sujjfry ae prfgtigfk r`quir`j`hts is fksa liv`h ih Tfnk` 7.4. Nfs`pkft` wfx`s smaukd n`

`fsiky trijj`d witm f smfrp ihstruj`ht ft >7² G fhd smaukd yi`kd f sjaatm surefg` fet`r

l`htk` ekfjihl. Tm`s` wfx`s smaukd hat k`fv` fhy r`sidu` ah parg`kfih ar pkfstig t``tm, fhd



><

tm` gakarihl fl`hts ih tm` wfx smaukd hat s`pfrft` ar ijpr`lhft` tm` pkfstig jakd durihl

prag`ssihl.

Tm`r` is r`sidufk str`ss witmih tm` nfs`pkft` wfx tmft makds fhd surrauhds tm` t``tm ae f wfx

d`htur` pftt`rh. Tmis str`ss r`sukts eraj diee`r`htifk gaakihl, "paakihl" tm` wfx witm f mat

spftukf, fhd pmysigfkky jfhipukftihl tm` wfx n`kaw its jast d`sirfnk` warcihl t`jp`rftur`.

^`j`jn`r tmft natm tij` fhd t`jp`rftur` fee`gt tm` r`kiè ae tm`s` r`sidufk str`ss`s, tm`

wfx`d fhd prap`rky frtigukft`d d`htur` smaukd hat n` fkkaw`d ta stfhd ear kahl p`riads ae

tij`, `sp`gifkky wm`h suno`gt`d ta `k`vft`d t`jp`rftur`s. Wugm tr`ftj`ht aet`h r`sukts ih

distartiah ae tm` wfx fhd jav`j`ht ae tm` t``tm. Tm` wfx`d d`htur` smaukd n` ekfsc`d saah

fet`r gajpk`tiah ta jfihtfih tm` lr`ft`st fggurfgy ae taatm r`kftiahs.

7.4. NA]IHL \F]

Ta earj f pkfst`r ar stah` gfst eraj fh ijpr`ssiah ae tm` `d`htukaus frgm, eirst f wfx nax

just n` earj`d frauhd tm` ijpr`ssiah, ihta wmigm tm` er`smky jix`d pkfst`r ar stah` is

paur`d fhd vinrft`d. Tmis naxihl prag`dur` is fksa h`g`ssfry ear saj` atm`r typ`s ae

ijpr`ssiahs. Tm` naxihl ap`rftiah usufkky gahsists ae eirst fdfptihl f kahl, hfrraw stigc ar

strip ae wfx frauhd tm` ijpr`ssiah n`kaw its p`ripm`rfk mìlmt, eakkaw`d ny f wid` strip ae

wfx, pradugihl f earj frauhd tm` `htir` ijpr`ssiah, fs s``h ih tm` rilmt ae Eil. 7.5.

Eil. 7.5. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae Naxihl \fx

Tm` d`htfk kit`rftur` aggfsiahfkky rè`rs ta gfrdihl wfx ear us` ih tm` naxihl ap`rftiah.

Gfrdihl wfx wfs tm` arilihfk jft`rifk ah wmigm parg`kfih t``tm w`r` eix`d wm`h r`gìv`d

eraj tm` jfhuefgtur`r. Tm` t`rjs gfrdihl wfx fhd naxihl wfx mfv` n``h us`diht`rgmfhl`fnky, fktmaulm naxihl wfx is jar` fgg`ptfnk`.

Tm` r`quir`j`hts ae E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah Ha. P-\-67= ear naxihl wfx, wmigm fr`

sujjfriz`d ih Tfnk` 7.0., sipukft` tmft tmis wfx smaukd n` pkifnk` ft >6² G fhd smaukd r`tfih

its smfp` ft 70² G. Tmis nrafdky dèih`s its kaw`r t`jp`rftur` kijit ae dugtikity fhd ekaw.

N`gfus` tm` ijpr`ssiah jfy n` jfd` eraj f visga`kfstig jft`rifk tmft is `fsiky distart`d, f

naxihl wfx tmft is r`fdiky fdfptfnk` ta tm` ijpr`ssiah ft raaj t`jp`rftur` is d`sirfnk`. Tmis

prap`rty r`dug`s tm` kic`kimaad ae distartihl tm` ijpr`ssiah, eraj tm` stfhdpaiht ae natm tm`

t`jp`rftur` fhd str`ss ihvakv`d ih tm` naxihl prag`dur`s. Ih l`h`rfk, naxihl wfx smaukd n`

skilmtky tfgcy fhd mfv` sueeigi`ht str`hltm fhd taulmh`ss ear gahv`hi`ht jfhipukftiah.

Ps` ta earj f pkfst`r ar stah` gfst eraj fh

ijpr`ssiah ae tm` d`htukaus frgm



>=

7.0. PTIKITY \F]

Fh `fsiky warcfnk`, fdm`siv` wfx is aet`h d`sir`d. Ear `xfjpk`, f stfhdfrd p`rearft`d trfy ear

us` witm mydragakkaids jfy `fsiky n` nraulmt ta f jar` d`sirfnk` gahtaur ny sugm f wfx, fs

smawh ih tm` vi`w ae Eil. 7.<. Tmis is dah` ta pr`v`ht f sfl fhd distartiah ae tm` ijpr`ssiah

jft`rifk. F saet, pkifnk`, fdm`siv` wfx jfy n` us`d ah tm` kihlufk partiah ae f nridl` pahtig ta

stfnikiz` it wmik` f kfnifk pkfst`r spkiht is paur`d. Tm`s` fhd jfhy atm`r tfscs fr` p`rearj`d

ny tm` utikity wfx, oustieyihl its hfj`.

Eil. 7.<. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae Ptikity \fx

Tm` utikity wfx is usufkky suppki`d ih natm stigc fhd sm``t earj ih dfrc r`d ar arfhl`. Tm`

dugtikity fhd ekaw ae utikity wfx`s, fs ihdigft`d ny tm` sujjfriz`d r`quir`j`hts ae E`d`rfk

Wp`gieigftiah Ha. P-\-605 ih Tfnk` 7.0., fr` tm` milm`st ae fhy ae tm` d`htfk wfx`s. Tm` utikity

wfx smaukd n` pkifnk` ft f t`jp`rftur` ae >6² ta >4² G, wmigm jfc`s it warcfnk` fhd `fsiky

fdfptfnk` ft harjfk raaj t`jp`rftur`. Tm` ekaw ae tmis wfx smaukd hat n` k`ss tmfh 50% har

jar` tmfh =2% ft 7<.0² G. N`gfus` nuikdihl ah` kfy`r ah tap ae fhatm`r is aet`h d`sirfnk`, tm`sp`gieigftiah r`quir`s f sueeigi`ht fdm`siv`h`ss ft >6² ta >4² G. Ptikity wfx pranfnky gahsists

ae n``swfx, p`trakftuj, fhd atm`r saet wfx`s ih vfryihl prapartiahs.

7.5. WTkGCY \F]

F suitfnk` stigcy wfx ear prastm`tig d`htistry is earjukft`d eraj f jixtur` ae wfx`s fhd

r`sihs ar atm`r fdditiv` ihlr`di`hts. Wugm f jft`rifk is stigcy wm`h j`kt`d fhd fdm`r`s

gkas`ky ta tm` surefg`s ah wmigm it is fppki`d. Maw`v`r, ft raaj t`jp`rftur` tm` wfx is eirj,

er`` eraj tfgcih`ss, fhd nrittk`. Wtigcy wfx smaukd erfgtur` rftm`r tmfh ekaw ie it is dèarj`d

durihl sakd`rihl ar r`pfir prag`dur`s. Fktmaulm tmis wfx is us`d ta fss`jnk` j`tfkkig ar r`sihpi`g`s ih f eix`d t`jparfry pasitiah, it is prijfriky us`d ah d`htfk stah`s fhd pkfst`rs.

It gfh n` us`d ta fkt`r tm` stagc

ae ijpr`ssiah trfy xt`hsiahs



>9

Fggardihl ta E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah Ha. P-\-22649f (DWF-DJ), stigcy wfx smaukd mfv` f dfrc

ar vivid gakar sa it is r`fdiky distihluismfnk` eraj tm` kilmt-gakar`d lypsuj jft`rifks. Tm`

sp`gieigftiah, sujjfriz`d ih Tfnk` 7.0., fksa kijits tm` smrihcfl` ae stigcy wfx ta 2.0% ft

t`jp`rftur`s n`tw``h 47² fhd >=² G.

Tfnk` 7.0. ^`quir`j hts E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah ear D`htfk Gfstihl \fx

Typ` ae \fx Ekaw Gakar \arcihl Rrap`rti`s

Naxihl \fx Lr``h ar nkfgc Wjaatm, lkassy surefg` ah

ekfjihl

Rkifnk` ft >6² G3 r`tfihs smfp`

ft 70² G

W`fks `fsiky ta pkfst`r witm mat

spftukf

Ptikity \fx 7<.0² G - jihijuj, 50%

- jfxijuj, =2%

Arfhl` ar dfrc r`d Rkifnk` ft >6² ta >4² G

Tfgcy ft >6² ta >4² G3 sueeigi`ht

fdm`siah ta nuikd up

Wtigcy \fx 72² G47² G

- jihijuj, 50%- jfxijuj, 92%

Dfrc ar vivid Wtigcy wm`h j`kt`dFdm`r`s gkas`ky

Hat jar` tmfh 2.>% r`sidu` ah

nurhaut

Hat jar` tmfh 2.0% smrihcfl`

eraj 47² ta >=² G

Fdfpt`d eraj E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah Ha. P-\-67=, Jfy 694<, ear naxihl wfx3 E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah P-\-605, Fulust

694=, ear utikity wfx3 E`d`rfk Wp`gieigftiah P-\-22649f (DWF-DJ), W`pt`jn`r 6955, ear stigcy wfx

Eil. 7.=. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiahs ae Wtigcy \fx

W`ftihl ae tm` erfj`warc ah tm` gfstGrawh try-ih ah pr`pfr`d jakfr t``tm



72

Tm` kit`rftur` gahtfihs s`v`rfk earjukfs ear stigcy wfx, r`pr`s`htihl natm f milm fhd f kaw

r`sih gaht`ht. Ih fdditiah ta rasih fhd y`kkaw n``swfx, wmigm fr` tm` usufk jfoar

gahstitu`hts, gakarihl jftt`r fhd atm`r hfturfk r`sihs sugm fs luj dfjjfr jfy n` pr`s`ht.

Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis fhd p`h`trftiah gurv`s ear f typigfk d`htfk stigcy wfx fr` smawh

ih Eil. 7.0.

7.<. GA^^@GTIU@ IJR^@WWIAH \F]

Garr`gtiv` ijpr`ssiah wfx is us`d fs f wfx v`h``r av`r fh arilihfk ijpr`ssiah ta gahtfgt fhd

r`list`r tm` d`tfik ae tm` saet tissu`s. It is gkfij`d tmft tmis typ` ae ijpr`ssiah jft`rifk r`gards

tm` jugaus j`jnrfh` fhd uhd`rkyihl tissu`s ih f euhgtiahfk stft` ih wmigm javfnk` tissu` is

dispkfg`d ta sugm f d`lr`` tmft euhgtiahfk gahtfgt witm tm` nfs` ae tm` d`htur` is antfih`d.

Garr`gtiv` wfx`s fr` earjukft`d eraj mydragfrnah wfx`s sugm fs pfrfeeih, g`r`sih, fhd

n``swfx fhd jfy gahtfih j`tfk pfrtigk`s. Tm`r` fr` ha FHWI/FDF ar e`d`rfk sp`gieigftiahsear garr`gtiv` ijpr`ssiah wfx`s. Tm` ekaw ae s`v`rfk garr`gtiv` wfx`s j`fsur`d ny

p`h`trftiah ft 7<²G is 622%. Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis fhd p`h`trftiah gurv`s ear f typigfk

garr`gtiv` ijpr`ssiah wfx fr` smawh ih Eil. 7.62. Tm`s` wfx`s fr` suno`gt ta distartiah

durihl r`javfk eraj tm` jautm.

Eil. 7.62. Rradugts ae Garr`gtiv` Ijpr`ssiah \fx

7.=. NIT@ ^@LIWT^FTIAH \F]

Nit` r`listrftiah wfx is us`d ta fggurft`ky frtigukft` g`rtfih jad`ks ae appasihl qufdrfhts.

Tm` wfx nit` r`listrftiah ear tm` gapp`r-earj`d di` just pravid` praxijfk fhd aggkusfk

r`kftiahs.

Eil. 7.9. Diee`r`htifk tm`rjfk fhfkysis fhd p`h`trftiahgurv`s ear f d`htfk garr`gtiv` ijpr`ssiahwfx. Tm` str`ss`s ear TJF-6 fhd TJF-> fr`2.260 fhd 2.>0 JRf, r`sp`gtiv`ky. Ans`rv`

tmft tm` sakid-sakid trfhsitiah t`jp`rfturàggurs n`kaw 7<" G



Nit` r`listrftiahs fr` aet`h jfd` eraj >=- lful` gfstihl wfx sm``ts ar eraj mfrd nfs`pkft`

wfx, nut wfx`s id`htiei`d fs nit` wfx`s s``j ta n` earjukft`d eraj n``swfx ar mydragfrnah

wfx`s sugm fs pfrfeeih ar g`r`sih. G`rtfih nit` wfx`s gahtfih fkujihuj ar gapp`r pfrtigk`s.

Tm`r` fr` ha FDF ar e`d`rfk sp`gieigftiahs ear nit` wfx`s. Tm` ekaw ae s`v`rfk nit` wfx`s fs

j`fsur`d ny p`h`trftiah ft 7<² G rfhl`s eraj >.0% ta >>%, ihdigftihl tmft tm`s` wfx`s fr`

susg`ptink` ta distartiah ah r`javfk eraj tm` jautm

Eil. 7.66. Rradugts fhd fppkigftiah ih d`htistry ae Nit` ^`listrftiah \fx

IU. Ninkialrfpmy

6. Grfil, ^.L., Raw`rs, O.J., ^`starftiv` D`htfk Jft`rifks, `d. 66, Kahdah, >22>, Jasny, Ihg.

>. JgGfn`, O.E., \fkks, F.\.L., Fppki`d D`htfk Jft`rifk , `d. 9, Axeard, >22=, Nkfgcw`kk

Runkismihl.

7. Dfrv`kk, N.\., Jft`rifks Wgi`hg` ear D`htistry , `d. 9, Gfjnridl`, >229, \aadm`fd Runkismihl.

4. Raw`rs O.J., Grfil ^.L., Tm`rjfk fhfkysis ae d`htfk ijpr`ssiah wfx`s , O D`ht ^`s , 6995.

0<?7<, 69<=.

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