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GRADE 10 HISTORY

TOPIC 2

EXPANSION AND CONQUEST IN THE

15TH

-18TH

CENTURIES

HOW DID EUROPEAN EXPANSION CHANGE THE

WORLD?

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HOW DID EUROPEAN EXPANSION CHANGE THE WORLD?

Introduction

The 15th century marked the beginning of European expansion and conquest. This movement of Europeans, east and west, had important consequences, not only for the Europeans themselves, but for the indigenous peoples they encountered and for the world in general. Over time, voyages of discovery led to increased European influence, and in some cases, European domination. The slave trade arose as a consequence of colonisation, and at the same time colonialism was a product of slavery in the Americas and the Cape. This section explores the reasons why and how, in less than two centuries, Europe was able to colonise large parts of the world.

REASONS FOR EUROPEAN EXPANSION

Why was European expansion possible?

Based on a combination of technological advances, political, economic and religious motives, a number of western European states e.g. Spain and Portugal, funded sea voyages in the late 1400s. These voyages laid the foundation for an increase in global connections, as well as European expansion and conquest. Regions which had been isolated for centuries were thus brought into direct contact with global trade routes. Europe, particularly Western Europe, asserted itself as the major colonial force. This European expansion and conquest of other lands had a great impact on the world.

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What role did the “Spice Trade” play in European expansion and conquest?

The spice trade was a commercial activity that started in ancient times. It involved the buying and selling of spices such as black pepper, cloves and nutmeg as well as incense, hemp and opium. It was the major driving force in the world economy from the end of the Middle Ages into modern times. During the Middle Ages Muslim traders dominated the maritime spice trading routes in the Indian Ocean as well as the land routes. This was changed by the European Age of Discovery. During this time the spice trade became an important commercial activity for European traders. The route to the Indian Ocean from Europe via the Cape of Good Hope was first discovered by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498. This resulted in a new maritime route for trade with the East, increased European involvement in the Spice Trade and European expansion.

A map adapted from wapedia.mobi/en/Indian Ocean showing the Spice Trade Routes.

What were the reasons for European expansion and colonisation?

There are many debates regarding the reasons for European expansion. The following factors offer some suggestions why European powers were able to colonise large parts of the world between the 15th and 18th centuries:

Economic Reasons

Shift in European life from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Seaboard:

Leadership in European political and economic life was becoming increasingly dominated by Portugal, Spain, France and England and later the Dutch.

These nations all had monarchies that were growing in strength.

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They all had Atlantic coastlines and led the way in finding new trade routes and lands, as a way of counteracting the monopoly (control) the Italians had on eastern trade.

Profit:

The main reason for all European sea expeditions was the accumulation of wealth.

Profitable trade between Africa, Europe and Asian powers had existed for thousands of years.

Most of the luxuries, spices and finished goods in Mediterranean and European markets came through the land trade routes of the Great Silk Road.

Goods were also transported by water across the Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Mediterranean region.

Societies throughout the Mediterranean and in Europe were dependent on this trade and various Asian powers became very wealthy by supplying these goods.

Access to the Great Silk Road and the naval routes of the Indian Ocean were controlled by China and Islamic powers, such as the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman leaders also extended their control to the Mediterranean coastline of North Africa.

Control of Trans-Saharan trade with West Africa meant control of gold, ivory and slavery.

Islamic leaders forced payments of taxes and controlled the passage of people and goods.

The Ottoman control of major trading routes angered the Europeans. The goal of European leaders and merchants was thus to find:

An alternative trade route to Asia and Africa without having to deal with the "stranglehold" of the Ottoman Empire.

They hoped this would be achieved by opening sea routes which circumvented (avoided) Ottoman control.

If a state could establish control of direct sea-based trade routes, it would: have direct access to goods and wealth; avoid heavy taxes; keep prices down; end the dependency on trade controlled by Islamic states.

Technological Advances

How did advances in shipbuilding promote sea travel?

At the start of the 15th century, European ships were inferior to those used by the Arab and Chinese traders, but within 200 years they were building the best ships in the world.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, there were major improvements in sail and ship design, which produced ships that were:

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larger; able to sustain long-distance voyages; capable of carrying larger loads.

The Portuguese modified the Arab caravel. These new ships made the long-distance voyages to the Far East and the “New World” possible.

The mounting of cannons on these stronger ships enabled European states to have naval supremacy.

How did improvements in navigational equipment encourage exploration?

Sea travel was quite dangerous in the 14th century. Once land was out of sight, it was extremely difficult to determine your position.

Before the 15th century, a typical sea vessel would have only left the shoreline for a maximum of two days.

Sustained and successful long-distance sea voyages would not have been possible without advancements in navigational equipment. The compass, astrolabe and the quadrant were invented and used in the 15th century.

A sketch of a Spanish caravel.

Political and social structure

For the technological advances in shipbuilding and navigation to be used for voyages of exploration, a state needed a motivated leader and enough capital to launch a successful sea expedition.

These expeditions therefore required a strong and established state.

These voyages also relied on a strong commercial sector i.e. established trading connections, a commercial middle class and a developed banking sector which was able to fund these expeditions.

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Not all European states were strong or stable enough. The regions that were politically unstable due to wars did not become colonial powers.

In Central Europe there were ongoing wars between numerous German states.

Italy, which was divided, was unable to compete with Western European expansion.

Western European states benefited from: centralised governments; a strong and expanding commercial sector; an ambitious merchant class.

Motivation

The ability to achieve global economic and political control was not limited to these western European states. Advances in shipbuilding and navigational technology were known to many maritime states.

By the middle of the 15th century a number of other powers, including Ming China and the Ottoman Empire, were capable of these sea voyages.

However, it was western European states that were motivated enough to seize the opportunities provided by new military technology and naval advancements.

Raw materials

The other economic goal of sea-based expeditions was to gain direct and profitable, untaxed control of important raw materials such as gold, silver, ivory and salt.

A desire to increase supplies of gold needed to purchase spices, silks, and other Asian goods was the main reason for the first Portuguese expeditions.

Colonial expansion, made possible by global exploration and conquest, later led to another economic advantage, the use of captured land for commercial agriculture.

Territories in the Americas, for example, were seized to search for gold, and then were used to grow cash crops. This resulted in huge profits, not just from the extraction of gold and silver, but from sugar, coffee and tobacco that were grown on plantations.

Early European expeditions thus established areas of territorial control which laid the foundation for later expansion and colonisation.

Religion

Another factor influencing European expansion was the desire to spread Christianity, which dated back to the time of the Crusades.

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, as a result of competition between Catholic and Protestants, also resulted in a drive to spread Christianity and increased the urgency on the part of some rulers, to undertake these voyages.

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Vasco da Gama was said to have named “Christmas and spices” as the goals of his voyage to India.

Knowledge

The desire to learn more about the world was another factor that influenced European expansion and later, conquest.

This was part of the revival of the classical world, a renewal of the desire to learn of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.

European nations coming out of the isolation of the Middle or Dark Ages had a desire to find out more about the world.

There was also a strong and growing interest in more accurate maps.

This desire to find out more about the world combined with economic and religious goals, to motivate monarchs to fund expeditions to foreign lands.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

What were the reasons for Spanish and Portuguese expansion and conquest in the 15th to 18th centuries?

The first European powers to undertake risky but profitable voyages of exploration and expansion were the Iberian states of Portugal and Spain.

Both of these states had: "new" monarchies that had established centralised governments that were

able to control overseas territories. growing commercial sectors. proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. As a result

they had highly developed maritime cultures that were aware of new innovations in shipbuilding and navigation.

Thus these two states, using their technological abilities and motivated by economic and religious factors, launched the first expeditions of exploration, which rapidly turned into voyages of conquest and expansion.

During the "Iberian Phase" of European expansion, the mid 1400s to the1600s, Portugal and Spain took the lead as seafaring powers, paving the way for colonisation and the creation of empires by the Dutch, French and English.

The later phase of colonisation involving the latter three countries, termed the "Northern European" phase of colonisation, took place between the late 16th and 18th centuries.

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CASE STUDY: SPANISH CONQUEST IN AMERICA

Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain.

Why did the Spanish take such an interest in the Americas?

Spain funded its own expeditions to establish a global presence under the newly unified Catholic monarchy of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. However, instead of going east and competing with Portugal and the Ottoman Empire, the first Spanish expedition went west.

By the 15th century it was generally accepted by those in the maritime (seagoing) community that the earth was round. There were, however, errors in geographic understanding. For example:

Europeans believed the earth was much smaller than it proved to be, and they did not know about the existence of the Americas to the west.

Many assumed that by going west from Spain, ships would reach the coast of Asia within a few weeks.

A sketch of the Spanish explorer

Christopher Columbus.

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What role did Christopher Columbus play in Spanish expansion in the Americas?

In 1492, Christopher Columbus led a Spanish expedition of three ships, the Pinta, Santa Maria, and the Nina. He expected to land in Cipango (Japan) or somewhere on the mainland of Asia. After 33 days, much longer than expected, Columbus's ships sighted land.

Columbus declared they had reached "the Indies" and claimed the land for the Spanish monarchy.

Although they did not realise this at the time, the Spanish had not reached Asia, they had actually landed on an island in the Caribbean.

This event is often referred to as the "discovery" of the Americas. It must be noted, however, that it was only a discovery from the viewpoint of the Europeans.

The Americas had actually been "discovered" and populated by people, later called Native Americans, thousands of years before.

Europeans called the Native Americans Indians because of Columbus’ error.

A sketch showing the first landing of Columbus on the island of San Salvador.

Columbus's expedition was a significant event as it marked the end of over 25 000 years of isolation for Native Americans. After 1492, these people became influenced by the economies, peoples, diseases, politics, and religions of Europe, Africa and Asia.

The Spanish continued to send expeditions to explore these regions which, for a while, they still believed were somewhere near Asia. In 1513, an expedition crossing inland came upon the Pacific, a “new” ocean i.e. not the Atlantic, confirming the suspicion that Spain's new territorial possessions were not islands off the coast of Asia, but were actually part of a whole new continent that they had not known existed. This became known as the "New World".

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What were some of the results of the Spanish expansion in the Americas?

1. The establishment of Spanish dominance in the Americas

A long period of conquest and suppression of native peoples of the Americas followed these first voyages of exploration and "discovery" as the Spanish built an enormous empire.

Although the Spanish benefitted from the vast riches in their new American colonies, they continued to search for a western route to the East for economic opportunities. The Spanish eventually achieved this with Magellan’s expedition

around the southern tip of South America.

2. Competition between Spain and Portugal

The Spanish were not the only European power interested in the Americas. Portugal also embarked on voyages of exploration and expansion which led to competition between the two powers.

In 1494, Spain and Portugal appealed to the Catholic Church to determine claims in this emerging competition. This resulted in the Treaty of Tordesillas, which

recognised Spanish and Portuguese colonial claims. This treaty was significant as it highlighted the mind-set of Western Europeans at

this time - that they were superior and therefore “entitled” to claim new lands and control of the sea.

What was the nature of Spanish expansion in the “New World”?

Following Columbus’s voyage in 1492, there was a great amount of Spanish activity in the “new world”. This exploration led to conquest and then colonisation.

By 1506, most of the Caribbean had been explored by the Spanish, from Honduras to the mouth of the Orinoco River, known at first as Tierra Firme.

During the first ten years of the century, the only secure Spanish settlement in the New World, however, was Santo Domingo, on the island of Hispaniola. This was established by Diego Columbus, brother of Christopher Columbus, in 1496.

The speed of Spanish expansion and consolidation over the region soon intensified:

by 1515, with the conquest of Cuba and the founding of Havana, the Caribbean islands were under Spanish control;

They became the base for further Spanish exploration and conquest; in 1521, the Aztec kingdom was conquered, followed by the Mayan

Kingdom in Yucatan and between 1524 and 1526, the rest of Central America was brought under Spanish control;

the Spanish then looked to South America. The coast of Venezuela was the first region to attract Spanish settlers from 1523, followed by the defeat of the Inca Kingdom in Peru in 1533;

Columbia, Ecuador and then Chile were gradually brought under Spanish control;

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in the 1540s the Spanish colonised the east coast of Argentina.

THE CONQUEST OF THE AZTECS

A map showing the Aztec Empire in 1519.

What did Cortés and the Spanish find when they landed in Mexico in 1519?

The Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in 1521 was a major victory for the Spanish that resulted in a change of the power structure of the region.

A group of Spaniards, led by Hernando Cortés, landed on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico in 1519, where they found the advanced society of the Aztecs. The Aztec Empire stretched along the Valley of Mexico, and Tenochtitlan was its capital. By the time Cortés landed in Mexico with 600 soldiers, the Aztecs:

had accumulated enormous wealth from trade and tributes from conquered peoples.

expanded their empire from 1200-1520. controlled most of present-day Mexico.

What was the process of Spanish conquest in Mexico?

As already mentioned, Cortés reached the coast of Mexico with about 600 men from Cuba in March 1519. He had 16 horses and 20 guns with him. Taking advantage of discontent among people subject to Aztec rule, Cortés and his men were able to conquer an empire with a population of millions. On 8 November 1519, he entered Tenochtitlan, the capital city of the Aztec Empire, supported by about 1 000 Tlaxtalecs. The Tlaxtalecs were indigenous Indian people who had been subjugated by the Aztecs and were willing to be allies of the Spanish in the hope of breaking free from Aztec rule.

A portrait of the Spanish

explorer Hernando Cortés.

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But, to the astonishment of the Spaniards, no force was needed. Montezuma, the Aztec king, welcomed the foreigners with gifts. Many Aztecs thought that the arrival of Cortés had been predicted in an Aztec myth. In this myth the Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl, was due to return from the east, the same direction from which Cortés and his men arrived. Eventually, they managed to take the Aztec leader, Montezuma, hostage. This event led to an Aztec uprising. The Aztecs drove the Spaniards out of Tenochtitlan in July 1520 but Cortés survived and led the final attacks on Tenochtitlan.

Advantages for the Spanish:

the determination of Cortés and his men; superior discipline; guns and horses.

Some historians argue that that the use of guns was not a major factor, as the

Spaniards made little use of them and relied mainly on swords, pikes, and crossbows. By 1521, the Spaniards had succeeded in taking the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. They then proceeded to build what is known today as Mexico City. By 1540, Mexico City became the metropolis of Spanish America. From there, Spanish rule spread out in all directions.

A sketch showing Hernando Cortés meeting the Aztec king Montezuma.

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Why were the Spanish able to defeat the Aztecs?

The following spider diagram sums up some of the factors considered to have led to the

Spanish defeat of the Aztecs:

Factors that led to the defeat

of the Aztecs

1. Superior weapons - the

Spanish had superior

weapons – steel swords

and armour and guns

compared to the Aztec

wooden swords.

2. Horses – gave the Spanish

greater speed, mobility and

height in battles. The Aztecs

were not familiar with them.

3. Allies – local people who

had been conquered by the

Aztecs and were living under

their control, took this

opportunity to free

themselves from Aztec rule

and aided the Spanish.

4. Religion – a series of

omens that had been

predicted occurred that led

the Aztecs to believe that

Cortés was a god who had

disappeared towards the east

promising to return.

Montezuma welcomed

Cortés with gifts.

8. Montezuma – some

people have criticized

Montezuma for being

an indecisive and weak

leader. 5. Smallpox – was brought by

the Spanish to the Americas and

the Aztecs had no immunity to

the new disease. An epidemic

that occurred during the siege

of 1520 killed thousands.

7. Attitudes towards war - the Aztecs

captured their enemy to keep for religious

sacrifices, while the Spanish killed their

enemies. Captured Spaniards were rescued.

6. Bad timing – the Spanish arrived while the

Aztecs were harvesting their crops. They were not

prepared for war.

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The consequences of the Spanish invasion on the indigenous Aztec society

The Spanish conquest of the Aztecs played a significant role in the development of the Americas and has been the subject of much historical debate.

There were many long-term effects for the indigenous peoples of Mexico:

the conflict between the Spaniards and Aztecs resulted in the loss of men from both sides;

many Aztec treasures were lost; the Aztecs had no immunity to the diseases brought by the Europeans; it is estimated that three-quarters of the native population died as a result

of violence or diseases like smallpox and measles in just the first hundred years of the conquest;

when the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, fell on 13 August 1521, the Spaniards destroyed the city, and built Mexico City on top of it;

most of the Aztec civilization was thus destroyed as a result of the Spanish conquest.

The Spanish conquest brought about an exchange of ideas and products:

they introduced domestic animals like horses, sheep, cattle, and pigs to the American continent;

they brought sugar and different kinds of grains and fruits with them; the discovery of the “New World” also had a significant impact on the

European diet. The Spaniards took products like potatoes, tomatoes, beans and maize back to Europe;

the Spanish converted the indigenous population to Catholicism, which is still the predominant religion in Central and South America today.

Historical debates regarding the Spanish defeat of the Aztecs

The Spanish defeat of the Aztecs has been criticized extensively for many years.

It is the centre of a huge historical debate focusing on the role of the conquerors. The Spaniards have been criticized for their harsh methods as well as

their motives. Many people argue that it was not their place to take control of new lands

by force, often done cruelly. Virtually all of Aztec culture was carelessly destroyed in the conquest.

The Spanish defeat of the Aztecs whether or not one agrees with their methods or motives, has had lasting effects on both the indigenous societies in America and European people. Mexico today in some way reflects both indigenous and Spanish cultures.