EXAMINING THE MEANINGFULNESS OF WORK OF ORGANIZATIONALLY EMPLOYED JOURNALISTS AND SELF-EMPLOYED MEDIA ENTREPRENEURS

By

KORTNI F. ALSTON

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2016

© 2016 Kortni F. Alston

To William, Julia, and William Alston, Jr. who have always inspired me. As extraordinary parents and my amazing sibling, thank you for allowing me to live the life that I have

always imagined. Your continuous support made this all possible.

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Aristotle said it best, “Pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work” (Aristotle,

n.d., para. 1). It has been a pleasure and an honor working with my dissertation

committee. I would like to thank Dr. Julie Dodd, Dr. Johanna Cleary, Dr. Churchill

Roberts, and Dr. Ryan Duffy. These four esteemed scholars shared their expertise,

direction, and guidance. I thank Dr. Dodd for serving as my dissertation chair. It was

Dr. Dodd’s work and teaching philosophy that I was so drawn to. After teaching more

than 11,000 students at the University of Florida, she is retiring as a professor. Her

student-centered approach with understanding the needs of her mentees is exemplary.

I feel so fortunate to have learned from such an extraordinary educator. She has

inspired me on every turn. I thank Dr. Johanna Cleary serving on my committee after

her retirement. She has inspired me on so many levels. Dr. Cleary worked as a news

director and later became a scholar. Her drive is matched by her compassionate

support. I thank Dr. Churchill Roberts for his motivation, cheerfulness, and inspirational

stories. His work as a professor and documentarian inspires my desire to continue to

produce programming post-doctorate. I thank Dr. Duffy for inspiring my passion to

study positive psychology. His mentorship exposed me to the science of happiness,

meaningful work, and calling. Dr. Duffy introduced me to the world of positive

psychology and the International Positive Psychology Association, which has been life-

changing for me as a scholar and practitioner.

The level of support was also evident throughout the College of Journalism and

Communications. I thank Dr. Debbie Treise for serving as a champion always in my

corner. Like Dr. Dodd, her student-centered approach has been advantageous on both

5

a professional and personal level. This level of motivation, inspiration and empathic

understanding was evident in the staff, especially, Jody Hodge, Kim Holloway, and

Sarah Lee. Aside from the department, Denise Long at the Institutional Review Board

has been extremely supportive. Her inspirational lunches and motivational messages

have cheered me up and cheered me on.

I thank the professional journalism organizations that have served me on every

level of my career from television reporter to news director turned scholar. First, I like to

thank the National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ) and our President Sarah

Glover. I truly appreciate your continuous support and for NABJ members and friends

that went above and beyond. I thank Dawn Angelique Roberts, April Turner, Scott

Berry, Michael Lyles Jr., Gayle Hurd, Tenisha Taylor Bell, Davina Sutton, Sandra Bentil,

Dr. Trevy McDonald, Erika Brown, Kerry Charles, Jasmine Felder, and Troy Johnson. I

thank the Society of Professional Journalists, especially Jennifer Royer and Maggie

LaMar for your support and resources. I thank the National Association of Hispanic

Journalists, and our Executive Director Alberto Mendoza for your time and commitment

to this investigation. I thank the Native American Journalist Association and our

Executive Director Rebecca Landsberry for your enthusiasm and support. I thank

NewU and especially, Doug Mitchell for his leadership, guidance, and support.

An African proverb states that it takes a village and obtaining a Ph.D. is no

exception. I thank my friends and family members that served as my happiness

cheering squad. I thank you for always cheering me on especially Dr. Shaunee

Wallace, Dr. Faith Abbott, Dr. April Abbott, Jeanette Jordan, Rachel Mann, Carla Willis,

Teria Rogers, Travis Sattiewhite, Danny Hermosillo, T.J. Aulds, Rob London, Amber

6

Christoferson, Kandia Johnson, Thomas Ireland, Travis Brown, Benji and Claire Kurtz,

Monica McDonald, Karen Schradin Ladley, Kathy Harper, Ginger Blackstone, Erica

Newport, Jennifer Brindisi, Amy Gustavson Garland, Gina Marinelli, Sharon Wells,

Theresa Brooks, Betsy Rhame-Minor, Monica Lindsey Ponder, and Peggy Dooley. My

mentors have served me beyond measure, especially Brett Chambers, Dr. Terry

Stephens, Dr. Pamela Love-Manning, Ardenia Myrick, Neyda Martinez, Rose Tibayan,

Dr. Bala Subramanian, and Denise Bates.

Lastly, my family has transcended the term of unwavering support. I thank my

father (William Alston, Sr.) and mother (Julia M. Alston) for teaching me that there are

no limits. I thank my brother (William Alston, Jr.) for providing positivity, support, and

motivating me on all levels. I thank you for always reminding me of my strengths,

passion, and purpose.

7

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... 10

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... 11

LIST OF DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................. 12

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 15

Digital World Engages Audience and Advertisers ................................................... 15Power Struggle in Broadcasting Improves Industry ................................................. 17Differentiation Strategy ............................................................................................ 19Innovation-Development Process ............................................................................ 20Print Journalism and Innovation .............................................................................. 23The State of Media in the 21st Century ................................................................... 24Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 28

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 35

The Meaning in Meaningful Work ............................................................................ 35Map of Meaningful Work .......................................................................................... 36The Elements of the Map of Meaning ...................................................................... 37

Developing and Becoming Self ......................................................................... 37Unity with Others ............................................................................................... 38Expressing Full Potential ................................................................................... 39Service to Others ............................................................................................... 39Tensions between Doing and Being versus Self and Others ............................ 40

Good Entrepreneurs: Monetization to Meaning ...................................................... 40Job Satisfaction in Journalism ................................................................................. 42

Creativity in Self-Actualizing People .................................................................. 45Job Satisfaction among Minorities ..................................................................... 46

Race and ethnicity ...................................................................................... 46Gender differences ..................................................................................... 48

Media Entrepreneurs ............................................................................................... 49Disruption in Journalism .......................................................................................... 51Research Questions and Hypotheses ..................................................................... 54

8

3 METHODS ............................................................................................................... 57

Survey Methodology: Web-based Approach to Journalist Engagement ................. 57Design ...................................................................................................................... 59Pilot Testing ............................................................................................................. 61Participants .............................................................................................................. 63Limitations ................................................................................................................ 64Survey Distribution ................................................................................................... 65

Asian American Journalists Association ............................................................ 66National Association of Black Journalists .......................................................... 67Native American Journalists Association .......................................................... 69National Association of Hispanic Journalists ..................................................... 70Society of Professional Journalists .................................................................... 70NewU ................................................................................................................. 71Social Media Snowball Effect ............................................................................ 71Key Informants .................................................................................................. 72

Survey Follow-Up .................................................................................................... 73Instruments .............................................................................................................. 75

4 RESULTS ................................................................................................................ 81

Results of the Study ................................................................................................. 81Respondent Profiles ................................................................................................ 81Research Questions and Hypothesis ...................................................................... 83Qualitative Analysis ................................................................................................. 87Open-Ended Questions and Themes ...................................................................... 87

Journalists Return to News ............................................................................... 87Journalists Rewards of Working In News .......................................................... 88Journalists Limitations In News ......................................................................... 89Journalists Perceptions of Work Satisfaction .................................................... 90Media Entrepreneurs Self-Employment Journey ............................................... 90Media Entrepreneurs Rewards of Self-Employment ......................................... 91Media Entrepreneurs Limitation in Self-Employment ........................................ 92Media Entrepreneurs Perception of Work Satisfaction ...................................... 93

5 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 97

Research Contributions and Implications ................................................................ 97Service to Others ............................................................................................... 98Unity with Others ............................................................................................... 99Expressing Full Potential ................................................................................. 100Developing and Becoming Self ....................................................................... 101

Future Research .................................................................................................... 101Happiness at Work .......................................................................................... 103Part-Time Entrepreneur ................................................................................... 105Curriculum Development ................................................................................. 106Journalists Engagement .................................................................................. 107

9

Meaningful Work Best Practices for News Organizations ............................... 108Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 110

APPENDIX

A INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD CONTENT .................................................... 112

B SURVEY INSTRUMENT ....................................................................................... 114

C MAP OF KEY INFORMANTS ................................................................................ 126

D JOURNALISM SOCIAL MEDIA GROUPS ............................................................ 127

Entrepreneurial Journalism Facebook Groups as of January 12, 2015 ................. 127Entrepreneurial Journalism LinkedIn Groups as of January 12, 2015 ................... 127

E SPJ WEEKLY ELECTRONIC NEWSLETTER ...................................................... 128

F NABJ ELECTRONIC NEWSLETTER .................................................................... 132

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 135

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ........................................................................................... 146

10

LIST OF TABLES Table page 1-1 Trending Media Giant Organization Layoffs over the Past Year ......................... 33

3-1 List of Response Rates of Self-Employed and Organizational Journalists ......... 79

4-1 Mean Service Scores .......................................................................................... 95

4-2 Mean Difference between Service Scores .......................................................... 95

4-3 Mean Unity Scores .............................................................................................. 95

4-4 Mean Difference between Unity Scores .............................................................. 95

4-5 Mean Expressing Full Potential ........................................................................... 95

4-6 Mean Difference between Expressing Full Potential Scores ............................... 96

4-7 Mean Developing the Inner Self .......................................................................... 96

4-8 Mean Difference between Developing the Inner Self Scores .............................. 96

4-9 Pearson Correlation of Pathways ........................................................................ 96

11

LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 2-1 Map of Meaning ................................................................................................... 56

3-1 Journalists Tweet Response to Survey ............................................................... 80

12

LIST OF DEFINITIONS Hashtag “Hashtag, as a brand-new organizational object of information, has

emerged from this context and soon become widely adopted by Twitter users to facilitate their navigation in this deluge of information” (Yang, Sun, Zhang, & Mei, 2012, p. 261).

Key Informant “A key informant is an expert source of information” (Marshall, 1996, p. 92).

Key Informant “A key informant is an expert source of information” (Marshall, 1996, p. 92).

Media Entrepreneur

Part-time Self-Employment

“The creation and ownership of a small enterprise or organization whose activity adds at least one voice or innovation to the media marketplace” (Hoag, 2005).

“Part-time entrepreneurs are people who work a regular wage job some of the time and work at their own businesses the other part of the time” (Petrova, 2005).

13

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

EXAMINING THE MEANINGFULNESS OF WORK OF ORGANIZATIONALLY

EMPLOYED JOURNALISTS AND SELF-EMPLOYED MEDIA ENTREPRENEURS

By

Kortni F. Alston

August 2016

Chair: Julie E. Dodd Major: Mass Communication

This study examined the meaningfulness of work comparing organizationally

employed journalists and media entrepreneurs. The comprehensive meaningful work

scale (CMWS) was used to measure meaning in work consisting of four quadrants:

Unity with Others, Service to Others, Expressing Full Potential, and Developing and

Becoming Self (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009). Two hundred and twenty-six journalists

(N=165) and media entrepreneurs (N=61) were measured in a web-based survey

questionnaire. National professional journalism organizations participated in the

distribution of the survey. Those organizations included: the Society of Professional

Journalists (SPJ), the National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ), the National

Association of Hispanic Journalists (NAHJ), the Asian American Journalists Association

(AAJA), the Native American Journalists Association (NAJA), and NewU. The results of

this study indicated that media entrepreneurs experience greater meaning than

organizationally employed journalists in Service to Others and Expressing Full Potential.

There was no significant difference between media entrepreneurs and organizationally

employed journalists in their perception of their work in terms of Unity with Others and

14

Developing and Becoming Self. Eight open-ended questions provided further insight on

the work satisfaction of the two groups. This information on meaningful work comparing

organizationally employed journalists and media entrepreneurs provides deeper

understanding of these two groups in a time of disruption in the media landscape.

Specifics of meaningful work for each of these groups, as well as practical implications,

are discussed. The role of using social media, especially Twitter, to increase survey

participation is included.

15

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Digital World Engages Audience and Advertisers

Twenty-first century habits in media consumption are a combination of likes,

shares, reposts and instant messaging, which are some of the terms that define the

activity that speaks to the media landscape. Business Insider journalist Jillian D’Onfro

points out, “People are spending nearly an hour every day scrolling through Facebook

status updates, liking Instagram posts, or chatting on Messenger” (2016, para. 1). The

level of activity is evident in the rise of digital advertising, which increased 20% in 2015

to $60 billion (Mitchell & Holocomb, 2016). This growth has shifted from 2014, with 65%

going to some of the top technology companies: Facebook, Google, Yahoo, and Twitter.

The dramatic increase was monumental news for digital companies; however, that

increase hasn’t profited journalism organizations. Amy Mitchell and Jesse Holcomb

(2016) examined the State of Media 2016 for Pew Research. They state, “Increasingly,

the data suggest that the impact these technology companies are having on the

business of journalism goes far beyond the financial side, to the very core elements of

the news industry itself” (Mitchell & Holcomb, p. 6). Journalism organizations

previously had a different level of content control. Mitchell and Holcomb state,

In the predigital era, journalism organizations largely controlled the news products and services from beginning to end, including original reporting; writing and production; packaging and delivery; audience experience; and editorial selection. Over time, technology companies like Facebook and Apple have become an integral, if not dominant player in most of these arenas supplanting the choices and aims of news outlets with their own choices (p. 6)

Technology companies have created new forms of content distribution from electronic

mail to search engines. The advancement with technology companies created a

16

downturn for media organizations. In 2015, newspapers’ digital advertising revenue fell

2% and its non-digital decreased at 10% (Mitchell & Holcomb, 2016). The drop in

advertising had a major impact on media jobs. Mitchell and Holcomb (2016) state, “The

newspaper workforce has shrunk by about 20,000 positions, or 39%, in the last 20

years. And three newspaper companies – E.W. Scripps, Journal Communications, and

Gannett – are now one, reflecting a trend toward consolidation in the industry” (p. 9).

Print publications have not been the only media platform impacted by technology

disruption. Broadcast organizations have also been affected by job cuts, restructuring,

and searching for sustainable business models. Mitchell and Holcomb (2016) state,

“CNN announced in March 2016 that it would begin a ‘strategic restructuring’ which

would lead to investments in areas like mobile product development and a net gain of

about 150 staff for CNN Digital” (p. 26). MSNBC and NBC News are also working

together to develop a digital leadership strategy. Fox News partnered with Facebook in

2015 to host a Republican candidate debate.

Media organizations’ search for business models and strategic management

during a time of disruption isn’t novel to the industry. William S. Paley and David

Sarnoff, two media giants in the broadcast industry, dealt with disruption in the mid-

1900’s. Al Neuharth was a major disruptor to the print news industry with his

introduction of USA Today in 1984. The journey of innovation, self-discovery and

meaningful work in media made by these three created models of monetization and

journalism practices that are utilized today. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “To

be human is to be in search of meaning. At some deep level we are defined as human

beings by caring about what is meaningful to us” (p. 7). Their creation of the map of

17

meaning provides an overview of meaningful work and life. It also provides context of

the search for meaning for news workers -- past and present -- and their search for

purpose and solutions.

Power Struggle in Broadcasting Improves Industry

On September 30, 1966, William S. Paley spoke to an audience of his peers at a

testimonial dinner hosted by Communication and Electronics. Paley was asked to

share a few words about David Sarnoff, a fierce archrival. The celebration marked

Sarnoff’s 60th anniversary and contributions to the industry (Paper, 1987). In a banquet

room filled with industry leaders, Paley put aside differences. He said, “There are many

here who can speak with more authority than I of David Sarnoff’s qualities of leadership,

endurance, and inexhaustible energy. But no one can speak with greater authority of

his strengths and perseverance as a competitor. He never relaxed in his efforts and I’ve

got the scars to prove it” (Paper, 1987, p. 16). Through the battle of these two broadcast

giants, they developed an empire of the air (Lewis, 1991). Paley and Sarnoff were

visionaries and entrepreneurs at a time when innovation of radio and television seemed

mystical. Paley, the chairman of Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and Sarnoff,

the president of Radio Corporation of America (RCA), were competitors, which

ultimately inspired strategies and practices that are still used more than 50 years later.

Mike Hofman posed this question, “Was David Sarnoff an entrepreneur or cunning

corporate warrior” (2009, para. 1). Hofman’s response was, “In some respects, the

broadcasting pioneer was a little of both” (Hofman, 2009, para. 1). Those

characteristics crafted Sarnoff’s strategic management approach to RCA. Paley and

Sarnoff believed in the magic of the broadcast medium. Alef (2005) states, “Paley was

18

dismissive of the competition and of all the naysayers who doomed radio to oblivion as

a passing fad” (para. 7).

Paley and Sarnoff also realized and valued the art of monetization of

broadcasting at a time when the strategic direction of the medium was in its infancy.

Now in the 21st century, media leaders are addressing some of the same kind of

disruption that Paley and Sarnoff experienced in the industry but now caused by the

Internet and the decline of traditional media income sources. The Pew Research

Center investigated the shifting journalism landscape of 468 outlets, many launched

within the past decade and have created nearly 5,000 editorial jobs (Jurkowitz, 2014).

The Huffington Post is still “flirting on profitability” (Doctors, 2014). Jurkowitz (2014)

states, “For all the expansion, it is far from clear there is a digital news business model

to sustain these outlets” (p. 5).

Although Paley and Sarnoff have been cited as the Bill Gates and Steve Jobs of

their time, these giants had difficulties (Israel, 2012). Israel points out “Sarnoff and

Paley struggled with business models that would balance quality with more popular and

profitable sitcoms at the time” (Israel, 2012, para. 3), a conundrum that is indicative

even now. While there is growth in digital journalism positions, there is a loss in legacy

news organizations, which has led to job cuts in media companies across the country.

The American Society of News Editors has followed employment trends in the news

industry and found 16,200 full-time newspaper journalism positions were lost from 2003

to 2012 (Jurkowitz, 2014). Ad Age reported a decline of 38,000 magazine jobs. These

cuts were also consistent with layoffs in major media organizations, such as Tribune

and Time Inc. When the Pew Research Center researchers asked about the

19

“explosion” of hiring in digital organizations and if a sustainable business model had

been developed, the participants responded: “No, That’s the irony” (Jurkowitz, 2014, p.

6).

Legacy and digital media of the 21st Century can learn from broadcast pioneers

Sarnoff and Paley. Hofman argues, “Rather than fearing the disruption caused by new

technology, David Sarnoff embraced it, building a broadcast empire first in radio and

then in TV” (Hofman, 2009, para 1).

Differentiation Strategy

While NBC generated additional revenue by charging affiliates, Paley provided

an alternative. His approach delivered programming to CBS affiliates at no cost. Alef

(2005) states, “NBC made its money charging affiliates for programming. Paley

chartered a different course. He offered the affiliates CBS’s programming for free” (para

8). This was done in exchange for a guarantee they would carry programs on a certain

date and at a certain time. Since many of these stations had limited resources, “Paley’s

offer was akin to giving candy to a child” (para 8). Paley benefited by being able to tell

advertisers, the ones paying for programming, when and where their ads would be

broadcast. This value proposition proved lucrative CBS’s gross revenue increased from

$1.4 million to $4.7 million (Alef, 2005); the number of affiliates increased to 114

stations. This strategy was effective and sustainable even during the Great Depression.

Meehan critically analyzed CBS’s change in programming policy (1986). “Paley

executed a brilliant strategy to catapult CBS ahead of NBC in the ratings” (p. 396).

Paley didn’t have the means to lure highly paid and sought after performers. He raided

RCA’s talent by manipulating program ownership, distribution, and tax laws. Unlike

their competitor, CBS agreed to distribute programs that were directly owned by

20

celebrities. Meehan (1986) states, “By incorporating, the star could shift the taxable

status of revenues paid by the network from personal income to capital gains, thereby

increasing the star’s take-home pay without increasing the star for the network” (p. 396).

While entertainment was a key programming strategy for NBC, CBS also worked

on the development of public affairs content. In 1931, radio news credibility was

lacking. Paley worked to shift the public’s concerns. CBS’s standards were to share

both sides to help the listeners judge for themselves (Alef, 2005). Paley hired Edward

R. Murrow, and the newsman made CBS a leader in broadcast journalism. During

Murrow’s tenure, he was promoted from war correspondent to vice president of public

affairs. Paley (1979) discussed this transition in his memoir, As It Happened, and

states:

Ed and I had talked about his future before I left England and had discussed in great detail how to best convert our wartime news organization into a strong and permanent news department covering world-wide events on a regular basis (p. 178).

While Murrow had misgivings about becoming the voice of the CBS news operation,

Paley (1979) was confident in his competencies referring to him as experienced with

“the scope and depth of mind to head the department” (p. 178). Paley’s intuition about

Murrow was on target -- the news became the jewel for CBS, which made them known

as the “Tiffany Network.” Jackson Turner (2000) states, “CBS dubbed the Tiffany

Network for its string of top-rated shows in the 1960s, consistently dominated the

Nielsen ratings with very few exceptions” (p. 110).

Innovation-Development Process

NBC’s foundation was one of scientific innovation, grounded and cultivated by

RCA. In the 1900’s, Sarnoff operated an empire -- RCA was comprised of 240,000

21

stockholders, generated nearly $2 billion a year, and employed hundreds of thousands

of individuals. RCA’s business portfolio was diverse, including phonograph records,

automation, and earth-orbiting satellites. Lyons (1966) points out, “The Radio

Corporation manufactures products ranging from tiny transistors to rocket-launching

apparatus” (p. 7). Innovation seemed to be engrained in RCA with pure tenacity.

Sarnoff’s greatest fight in his career was his vision of the innovation of television. Lyons

(1966) argues, “[Sarnoff] chose to push the development and commercial introduction of

television, at an ultimate cost to RCA of the sum of 50 million! It was mostly a lonely

war he fought” (p. 9). Sarnoff foresaw the demand for television, which is a construct in

the innovation-development process. In his analysis of innovation, Everett Rogers

(2003) pointed out, “The innovation-development process often begins with recognition

of a problem or need, which stimulates research and development activities designed to

create an innovation to solve the problem or need” (p. 137). In the 1940s, for a third

time, RCA attempted to develop television as a reality for mass consumption. The

innovation of television was a timely and costly endeavor. Vladimir Zworykin, a

Russian-born American engineer and inventor of the kinescope and iconoscope, made

the dream a reality at RCA. In 1929, when Zworykin met Sarnoff, he shared that the

invention would take two years and $100,000. In the documentary The Story of

Television, based on Sarnoff and Zworykin’s initial meeting, the two men reminisced

about the invention and cost. Sarnoff points out, “Your estimate missed by quite a bit. It

cost RCA more than 50 million dollars to create, develop, and then produce America’s

first all electronic television system” (The Story of Television, 2012). Sarnoff also

22

added that RCA spent another $70 million dollars to pioneer and develop the color

television system (The Story of Television, 2012). Abramson (1995) states,

At the bottom of the worst depression in modern times, RCA decided to lift some of the secrecy surrounding the Zworykin television system. The first demonstration, on May 16, 1932, was a closed affair; restricted to one hundred RCA licensees representing fifty radio set and tube manufacturers. The press was excluded, though the New York Times did report that the demonstration occurred (p. 115).

Meehan (1986) states, “Through its military research during the war, RCA had

increased its expertise in transmitting information through the lower portion of the very

high frequencies (VHF) in the electromagnetic spectrum” (p. 398). Scientific research is

the creator of most technological innovations with relationship between methodology

and practicality (Rogers, 2003). Rogers (2003) points out, “Scientific knowledge is put

into practice as an innovation that will solve a perceived need or problem. Applied

researchers are the main users of basic research” (p. 140). Kressel and Lento (2012)

stated that Sarnoff’s greatest gift was “envisioning markets that did not yet exist for

technology still under development” (p. 116). His prediction of profitable ventures

seemed to be part of Sarnoff’s abilities. When he was 25 years old, Sarnoff wrote a

memo about the future of radio, which is referred to as the “radio music box,” which in

retrospect seems almost telepathic. He wrote the memo while serving as a commercial

manager at RCA. The radio music box memo was addressed to his supervisors as well

as E.J. Nally, chief executive officer at General Electric. In discussing Sarnoff’s

concept, Benjamin (2002) stated:

The use of the phrase ‘music box’ confirms Sarnoff’s vision of some type of encasement for a reception device for wireless signals, another point Sarnoff restated in 1920 in allusions to making “radio a household utility in the same sense as piano or phonograph.” This box could be sold to consumers at a considerable return (p. 104).

23

Paley and Sarnoff’s creative entrepreneurial strategies continue to be admired. Miller

(2014) states, “Had CBS and NBC not been run in the 1920s by innovative risk takers

who responded to competition imaginatively and with vigor, one or another of these

players could have been driven out of business early on” (para. 26).

Print Journalism and Innovation

Al Neuharth was the innovator and disruptor for the newspaper industry in the

20th Century. After becoming head of Gannett, the largest newspaper chain in the

United States at that time, Neuharth determined that Gannett would launch a national

newspaper. Like Paley, Neuharth had the financial resources of a major media

organization to bankroll his innovative ideas. In 1980, Neuharth set up Project NN,

selected four newspaper leaders, and gave them a budget of $1.2 million to research

newspaper readership and circulation designs (Prichard, 1987).

Neuharth called on Gannett personnel in developing concepts for design and

content, but Neuharth, like Paley and Sarnoff, had a personal vision that guided many of

the big decisions. He decided that the newspaper’s name would be USA Today. He

determined that the newspaper would be broadsheet and not tabloid and that the front

of every section would have color photographs, which was highly unusual at the time.

Because a key segment of the readership would be travelers, Neuharth determined that

the newspaper would have a strong sports section to appeal to the predominately male

business travelers, a news roundup of all 50 states, and national weather coverage that

included what became a trademarked weather map (Prichard, 1987).

When USA Today launched in 1982, critics complained that USA Today

coverage was superficial with short stories and the newspaper was too flashy with color

photographs on the front of every section. Even the design of the newspaper vending

24

machine was considered radical, as it used a television set design to capture the

interest of potential newspaper purchasers. Neuharth had been involved in the design to

help readers who would be standing at the racks of newspaper vending machines make

the decision to purchase USA Today because of the newspaper’s and the vending

machines design (Prichard, 1987).

Even many within the Gannett organization were critical of USA Today. Creating

USA Today had taken income away from Gannett newspapers, as the local money was

redirected to the national initiative. Editors and reporters from Gannett newspapers had

their time reallocated to work for the national newspaper. Neuharth was very hands on

in his management style and created anxiety throughout Gannett as he hired and fired

individuals for USA Today projects (Prichard, 1987).

By 1986, USA Today had gone from being an outlier to be the industry innovator

and changer. Newspaper design expert Mario Garcia said, “The single most important

development in newspaper design in the first half of the 1980s is undoubtedly the debut

of USA Today” (Prichard, p. 332). Over time, the look of USA Today became the

standard for US newspapers – with color photographs, reefers (front-page paragraphs

that refer to stories elsewhere in the paper), and large weather maps. With Neuharth

continuing in leadership, the newspaper implemented other innovations, including ads

on the front page of the newspaper (Prichard, 1987).

The State of Media in the 21st Century

Legacy media have been disrupted in the 21st Century by what Clay Shirky

(2009) refers to it as, “The Internet demise of the newspaper industry. . .” (p. 25). That

demise of the newspaper industry is what Rogers would call an unintended

25

consequence of the Internet. The digital revolution also is “altering” the operations in

other industries (Shirky, 2009).

The cutbacks and layoffs have reduced employment opportunities and prompted

journalists to examine alternatives, like freelancing (Edstrom & Ladendorf, 2012).

Edstrom and Ladendorf (2012) state, “Often [journalists] had more pushed than pulled

into self-employment” (p. 717).

Job cuts in the news industry has become so grave that the Huffington Post has

dedicated vertical sections (Carla Willis, personal communication, February 14, 2016) to

job cuts. Vertical sections are defined as “A section of related content against which

you can sell targeted ad. You can have a tech vertical, or a real estate vertical”

(Hoffman, 2014). Those vertical titles included: Newspaper Layoff, ABC News Layoffs,

CNN Layoffs, Gannett Layoffs, and many others. In 2016, Al Jazeera made headlines

by shutting down Al Jazeera America. Joyella (2016) reports that the organization was

laying off an estimated 700 people across 12 bureaus, downsizing from a workforce of

900 when Al Jazeera opened operation in the United States in 2013.

Layoffs at Cable News Network (CNN) also have made headlines. Nguyen

(2014) found that the job cuts of 300 news workers were the result of restructuring.

Nguyen (2014) points out, “While the layoffs were inevitable at CNN, employees had

earlier complained to Politico that Jeff Zucker, president of CNN Worldwide and former

CEO of NBC Universal, was executing the layoffs poorly” (para. 5). In 2014, Hinckley

covered the restructuring under Zucker’s leadership. Hinckley (2014) states, “Zucker

confirmed CNN will be included in the overhaul” (para. 7). This undertaking is ominous

at best, Hinckley (2014) argues, “The widespread expectation is that they will include

26

major changes at CNN’s sister Headline News (HLN) and layoffs for some of Turners

13,000 workers” (para. 6). Celebrity journalists weren’t immune to the lack of job

security with HLN’s Jane Valez-Mitchell being laid off along with Christine Amanpour’s

staffers. Maglio and Chariton (2014) state, “Turner Broadcasting plans to lay off 1,475

employees over the next two weeks – a 10 percent reduction in staff. Approximately

900 employees from all of Turner in Atlanta will be let go, while CNN Worldwide will lose

a total of 170” (para. 8). CNN production services team was disbanded, and chief

medical correspondent Dr. Sanjay Gupta’s medical team were advised to reapply for

their positions.

Radio also has been impacted by media disruptions. In 2014, Clear Channel

Music and Entertainment began to cultivate an “alignment” of their sales staff (Appel,

2014). The Los Angeles Times published the Associated Press report that Clear

Channel Communications’ total numbers of layoffs were 1,850 (Gray, n.d., para 1).

Gray (n.d.) states, “The nation’s largest owner of radio stations is grappling with

economic meltdown” (para. 1).

Media organizations also cut their photography staff. Fairfax Media announced

that they would lay off 75% of its photographers saying they would outsource

photography to Getty Images, a decision that prompted a strike among the editorial

staff. Carson (2014) pointed out, “Journalists know photographers’ value their own work

– a remarkable photograph can elevate a story to page one – but does management?

Put broadly, just how far can management go into outsourcing a newspaper – printing,

distribution, sub-editing, writing and now photography – without impacting on the quality

of a product?” (para. 5). In 2015, Sports Illustrated made headlines by laying off all staff

27

photographers. Smith says that Sports Illustrated’s commitment to photography has not

faltered in spite of the cuts. He added that the magazine is committed to covering

games and the portraits of sports figures but is doing so with contract employees. The

Poynter Institute, a global leader in journalism and an organization that concentrates on

the professional development in the industry, focused on an investigation after layoffs of

28 Chicago Sun-Times photographers. A year after the Chicago-Sun Times

photojournalists were let go, Kirkland (2014) asked, “Where are they now?” Kirkland

pointed out, “Most of them have landed on their feet, according to email and phone

interviews with many of the photographers. While they were sometimes hesitant to

dwell on the layoffs, the former Sun-Times staff filled me in on how their lives – and

those of the photographers I couldn’t reach – have changed since May 30, 2013”

(Kirkland, 2014, para. 2). Four were hired by the Sun-Times as a multimedia

journalists, four were forced into early retirement, four were hired by Yahoo, and some

found positions at universities and colleges; however, three left the industry, including

one who decided to become a fire fighter.

While news workers deal with restructuring, they also must cope with the

expectations of being productive. Employee motivation is a powerful model. Nohria,

Groysberg, and Lee (2008) state, “Getting people to do their best work, even in trying

circumstances, is one of managers’ most enduring and slippery challenges” (p. 1). They

point out that a motivator for employees is “the drive to bond” (Nohria, Groysberg, &

Lee, 2008, p. 2). It is advantageous for managers to create a culture that provides a

sense of belonging. Nohria, Groysberg, and Lee (2008) state, “The drive to bond, when

met, is associated with strong positive emotions like love and caring and, when not, with

28

negative ones like loneliness and anomie. At work, the drive to bond accounts for the

enormous boost in motivation when employees feel proud of belonging to the

organization and for their loss of morale when the institution betrays them” (p. 2).

Culture-building efforts are important to employee motivation. A culture that garners

bonding provides “value collaboration” and “encourage sharing of best practices”

(Nohria, Groysberg, & Lee, 2008, p. 4). These factors are helpful to news

organizations working on employee engagement during a time of disruption.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the meaningfulness of work and job

satisfaction of news workers and media entrepreneurs in 2016. The survey collected

data from radio, television, and print journalists who work for news organizations and

also from those who are media entrepreneurs. The survey design used a

comprehensive meaningful work scale (Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012) and measured

perceptions with the pathways of the four quadrants of the Map of Meaning: Developing

and Becoming Self, Expressing Full Potential, Unity with Others, and Service to Others.

Research on meaningful work (MW) has been beneficial to scholars and practitioners.

Steger, Dik, and Duffy (2012) state:

Continued scholarly research is needed to ascertain the full range of organizational benefits of employing individuals who perceive their work as meaningful. For organizations interested in MW force, research should pursue the question of whether MW arises because meaningful workers are attracted to some organizations, or whether organizations can foster MW among their employees (p. 333).

An individual’s work defines much of a person’s use of time. The Bureau of

Labor Statistics (2015) reported that Americans between the age of 25 to 54 with

children spent 8.9 hours a day at work. They spent more time at work than combined

29

activities of household work (1.1 hours), caring for others (1.2) hours, and leisure and

sports (2.5 hours). Hall (1994) states:

The work of others is equally important to our lives. Even for the most independent among us, the way we live is dependent on the labor of thousands, even millions of others, not just in the workforce of our own society, but from many quarters of the globe (p. xvii)

Hall used television programming as an example in understanding the workforce and

the complexities of labor that viewers may take for granted in the production of a show.

He pointed out that there are actors, actresses, directors, producers, camera crew,

technicians, writers, editors, and even make-up artists who are involved. Additionally,

Hall also discussed the entire ecosystem of creating the film, which includes business

executives that are involved in bringing the product to market.

This investigation addresses the differences in perceptions about work and work

satisfaction of self-employed and organizationally employed journalists. Historically,

journalists were known to transition into public relations positions (Fedler, Buhr, &

Taylor, 1988). However, in the 21st Century, media professionals are moving into

freelancing and that trend is growing globally (Deuze, 2007; Nies & Pedersini 2003;

Walters et al., 2006). There is a gap in the literature concerning this paradigm, Hanitzch

and Wahl-Jorgensen (2009) argue, “Research tends to overlook particular categories of

news workers. It predominantly charts the professional cultures of privileged full-time

news reporters over casualized, multi-skilled, and free-lance journalists” (p. 12). How do

organizationally employed journalists feel about their work satisfaction and their

relationships at work as compared with media entrepreneurs? There is a dearth of

existing studies that provide clear evidence as to this motivation in correlation to

meaningful work.

30

The growth of entrepreneurship is evident beyond the communications field, with

the Princeton Review providing an annual survey of more than 300 undergraduate and

graduate business schools with entrepreneurial programs (The Princeton Review,

2015). An example is Florida State University’s Jim Moran School of Entrepreneurship,

based on a $100-million gift from the Jan Moran and Jim Moran Foundation. FSU

President John Thrasher called the gift as transformational, providing collegiate

entrepreneurial education (Brooks, 2015).

For the purpose of this study media entrepreneurship is defined as: “the creation

and ownership of a small enterprise or organization whose activity adds a least one

voice or innovation to the media marketplace” (Hoag, 2008). In his research Hoag

stresses that future research is imperative concerning media entrepreneurship.

Hoag and Compaine (2006) interviewed 14 media entrepreneurs, ranging from

Chuck Ferrell of Newsroom Solutions, an online business-to-business newswire service,

to Jimmy Wales of Wikimedia Foundation and Wikipedia.org. Hoag and Compaine

(2006) argue:

These interviews also point in a direction that is consistent with Peterson’s observation of magazine publishers from as long as 100 years ago. Many, if not most, media entrepreneurs are motivated at least as much as social, political, or cultural mission as by profit motive. This is congruent with the history of older media, particularly book and magazine publishing. Both book publishing and book selling have been replete with owners who have been taken with the nobility of their mission as a need to sustain a healthy business (Discussion and Conclusion, para. 3)

They point out that future research needs to focus on two areas. First, additional

research can contribute to the expansion of the Panel Study on Entrepreneurial

Dynamics (PSED), which is a collection of data by nascent entrepreneurs in various

industries. They argue that there is a need for further investigation on media

31

entrepreneurship in the utilization of the individual-nexus approach and others. Second,

additional interviews are needed to replicate this investigation to assure their qualitative

analysis is robust.

Developing programming related to entrepreneurship development is a trend for

professional journalism organizations. The National Association of Black Journalists

(NABJ) has created seminars as part of its Media Institute to address the concerns of

journalists who are making the transition into media entrepreneurism. In 2010, NABJ

held “It’s All About Business: Entrepreneurship, Public Relations and Hot Button

issues.” In partnership with the NABJ Digital Journalism Task Force, Diverse Social

Media Editor, and Digital Journalists Facebook groups, and Alldigitocracy.org, the

organization collaboratively created a webinar series for members. The group worked

to customize the series with the distribution of a brief seven-question online survey to

meet the needs of members. The Society of Professional Journalists included sessions

on entrepreneurship at their Excellence in Journalism conference. Kara Swisher spoke

about being a female entrepreneur in technology, pointing out that the threat to

employment is even greater for women because the “tech world and journalism [are] so

male-based” (KSPJ, 2014, para. 4).

In 1994, Unity for Journalists was founded to aggressively work on the

challenges in the industry from the perspective of minority employees. The board of

directors is comprised of the Asian American Journalists Association, the National

Association of Native American Journalists, and the National Lesbian and Gay

Journalists Association. Unity has created seminars reflecting the shift in the industry.

In 2016, they organized an event referred to as New Disruptions in Digital Media

32

Entrepreneurship to discuss opportunities for start-ups to innovate in media and focus

on what disruption will look like within the next two to five years.

The mission of journalism organizations to better understand both employee

engagement and those individuals transitioning into self-employment is evident in their

activities, which makes understanding meaningful work advantageous to the industry.

33

Table 1-1. Trending Media Giant Organization Layoffs over the Past Year Media

Organizations

Reason Total

Workforce

Layoffs

Year NBC

Universal

Restructuring

7%

20 to 30

2015 Viacom Restructuring Undisclosed Undisclosed 2014

CNN Restructuring 8% 300 2014 Gannett Undisclosed Undisclosed 233 2013

34

Table 1-2. Entrepreneurial Activities among Journalism Organizations Professional Journalism Organizations

Entrepreneurial Activities

Type of Engagement

Year

National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ)

Side Hustle Webinar Series – What do you want?

Blog

2015

NABJ III Navigating the Future of Journalism

Cruise

2015

Its All About Business, Entrepreneurship, Public Relations, and Hot Button Issues

Workshop/Panel

2010

NABJ Media Institute

Committee

The Ray Taliaferro Entrepreneurship

Grant

New Disruption in Digital Media Entrepreneurship

Conference Panel Discussion

2016

Unity

NewU

Training Project/Competitive Camp/Grant

Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ)

Kara Swisher spoke at Excellence in Journalism being a female entrepreneur

Conference Discussion

2014

35

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The Meaning in Meaningful Work

An individual searching for meaning may contemplate this question: Why am I

here? (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). As noted previously, individuals spend so much time

working many yearn to have careers that are meaningful. Chalofsky (2003) states, “It is

the way we express the meaning and purpose of our lives through the activities (work)

that take up most of our waking hours. For some, work is their life . . .” (p. 73).

Meaningfulness is defined as “the value of a work goal or purpose, judged to the

individual’s own ideals or standards” (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004, p. 14). In career

literature, Steger, Frazier, Oishi, and Kaler (2006), define meaningfulness as, “the

sense made of, and significance felt regarding, the nature of one’s being and existence”

(p. 81). Meaningful work implies a relationship between the individual and the

workplace as it relates to commitment and a more purpose-driven existence. Steger,

Dik, and Duffy (2012) state, “People who say their work is meaningful and/or serves

some greater social or communal good report better psychological adjustment, and

simultaneously, possess qualities that are desirable to organizations” (p. 2).

At the present, employees seek more meaning in their life at work (Holbeche &

Springett, 2004; Conger, 1994). As cited in Martela (2010), work is advantageous in

expressing purpose in life (Hoar & Kirwan-Taylor, 2004). Bowie (1998) argues that

meaningful work provides individuals with independence and autonomy. He states, “I

believe this free choice should extend beyond the initial choice of a job. It should

extend into the workplace itself” (Bowie, 1998, p. 1085). For this reason, considering

36

the extent of meaningful work for journalists and media entrepreneurs is significant and

valuable.

Map of Meaningful Work

Lip-Wiersma (2002a, 2002b) created a map of a meaningful work model based

on a holistic framework of research (Figure 2-1). The visualization of meaningful work

creates a practical guide for organizations and individuals. Lips-Wiersma and Morris

(2009) state, “Those using the framework reported that it assisted them to make

meaning visible, have conversations about it and make conscious choices in relation to

meaningful work” (p. 496). The map is a holistic development model, which provides a

simple and well-defined framework on the process of meaningful living and work (Lips-

Wiersma & Morris, 2011). The model has four constructs, which include: (1) Developing

and Becoming Self, (2) Service to Others, (3) Unity with Others, and (4) Expressing Full

Potential (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009). Developing and becoming self has three sub-

themes that comprise of moral development, staying true to one’s self, and personal

growth. Lips-Wiersma & Morris (2009) state,

Meaningful work is also experienced as a result from personal growth through ongoing learning: “with new responsibilities parts of myself emerged that I did know I had I was blossoming.” Finally, meaningfulness is experienced as a result of “being true to oneself” through maintaining one’s unique identity: I can be me in this organization. I can dress in feminine clothes, be serious, be light, be me (p. 501)

Service to Others has two sub-themes that makes work meaningful, which contain

meeting needs of humanity and making a difference (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009).

Unity with Others focuses on three subthemes, which cover sharing values, working

together, and belonging. The last construct is Expressing Full Potential. Lips-Wiersma

and Morris (2009) argue that individuals desire to express their full potential through

37

“creating, achieving, and influencing” (p. 501). They also point out that spirituality

influences our “life’s purpose” and it would serve scholars to research those individuals

and encourage them to perform these acts in society (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009).

The Elements of the Map of Meaning

Lip-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state that there are three main facets that

comprise the quadrants of the map of meaningful work. The first focuses on the “four

pathways to meaningful work,” which is advantageous for individuals to seek meaning

through four constructs. As noted previously, they are Developing and Becoming Self,

Unity with Others, Service to Others, and Expressing Full Potential. The second of the

four pathways can be resolving a conflict between meeting the need of self and the

need of others along with the need of being, which is centered on reflection and doing

that focuses on action. The third is the synergy of all these elements overall in context

with inspiration and the reality of one’s self and one’s circumstances.

Developing and Becoming Self

Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state that Developing and Becoming Self is

Based on wanting to be a good person or the best we can be. Or for some, it can mean getting the self out of the way, developing the self that God wants us to be, or becoming the higher self within us (p. 20)

Lips Wiersma and Morris (2011) discovered patterns with participants, which some

shared that developing inner self involved being a good person, staying close to myself,

and “be the change you want to see in the world” (p. 21). Within this construct, Lips-

Wiersma and Morris (2011) found three subthemes (1) moral development, (2) personal

growth, and (3) being true to self. Moral development is explicated by highlighting the

character and the distinction between right and wrong (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011).

Personal growth is a deliberate act that is “cultivated,” Lips-Wiersma & Morris (2011)

38

state, “the idea of allowing growth to come naturally into existence” (p. 22). For

example, participants in their study referred to this growth as revealing insights,

developing strengths, and life-long learning. Being true to self is stayed attuned to

one’s guiding values.

Unity with Others

Lip-Wiersma and Morris (2011) discovered participants believed that their lives

were meaningful when shared with other human beings. Lips-Wiersma and Morris

(2011) state, “At the heart of this pathway is understanding that humanity is essentially

one and that experiencing this is what enriches our humanity” (p. 25). In this construct

participants replied as follows: it provides teamwork, a sense of community, and “we

can do more together than alone” (p. 25). Three main subthemes were uncovered such

as working together, belonging, and sharing values. Working together comprises of

supporting one another. Lip-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “. . .it covers being in the

company of others, to be combined in some way with others, so that one’s power and

resourcefulness are increased. And it includes the idea of mutual support” (p. 26). The

concept of values includes: articulating, having common values, and making them

public. One participant states,

In my work I need to find some sort of bond with people, some common shared beliefs or value that you place on humanity in the broader sense of the word. And I get quite excited when I locate people like that at work because you don’t come across them to often (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 28).

Belonging focuses on a sense of connection and being part of a collective, which

provides insight that an individual needs to be part of a group.

39

Expressing Full Potential

Expressing Full Potential refers to the meaningfulness of the individual. Lips-

Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “It is different from Developing the Inner Self because

it is active and outward directed, whereas the former is inward and reflective” (p. 30).

The core of Expressing Full Potential is comprised of the concept that every individual is

unique, and each is responsible for contributing their gifts to the world. Lip-Wiersma

and Morris (2011) revealed some of the participants’ responses: “being responsible for

making the most of my gifts and talents” and “sounding my note in the universe” (p. 31).

Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) also discovered three subthemes, which are creating,

achieving, and influencing. Creating refers to “the need to bring into existence, give rise

to or originate” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 31). Achieving is the individual’s need

to accomplish (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011). Influencing comprises of the need to

cultivate one’s own destiny, Lips Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “the power to bring

something about” (p. 34). Participants comments include: “Getting others on board,”

“Inspiring others,” and “Drawing attention to important issues” (p. 34). For example, an

individual believes their role is to help build the organization. One participant states,

“We had a problem with the manager. But I went to see him and we go our trolleys

back” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 34).

Service to Others

In Service to Others, Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) argue, “Serving others is

about human need to make a contribution to the well-being of others, from helping an

individual to making a difference in the wider world” (p. 35). They found that

participants in this construct desired helping others. Some of the responses:

“Generosity of spirit,” “I’m here for something bigger than myself” and “What is the point

40

of my life if it is only for me?” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 36). Lips-Wiersma and

Morris (2011) found two main subthemes, which are “making a difference and meeting

the needs of humanity and the planet” (p. 36). In making a difference, participants

desired giving back and advocating the needs of individuals. Lips-Wiersma and Morris

(2011) refer this as answering: “Do I help others in my workplace?” (p. 37). The second

subtheme is meeting the needs of humanity and the planet, which is an individual’s

need to serve or be helpful to a wider group (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011).

Tensions between Doing and Being versus Self and Others

While the four different pathways just described are useful in an individual’s

discovery of meaning, the four pathways lead to “tensions,” which is “too much focus on

one can lead a loss of meaning” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 39). Lips-Wiersma

and Morris (2011) point out that, “meaning is found in working through all pathways, and

in how we balance or address fundamental tensions” (p. 40). They found two tensions:

(1) being and doing and (2) self and others. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) defines

Being as, “[focusing] on the need to reflect. It covers such things as silence, patience,

taking our time and thoughtful togetherness” (p. 40). Moreover, Lips-Wiersma and

Morris (2011) argue that doing is “being in action” (p. 40). A universal theme was

discovered, which is the need to act and the balancing act between self and others.

Self and others covers the challenge of meeting the needs of others and one’s self. Self

emphasizes the need of development and the expression of one’s self. However, other

signals our need to contribute or make a difference in the world.

Good Entrepreneurs: Monetization to Meaning

The needs of humanity can also be found in those who create businesses.

Cornwall and Naughton (2003) explored this and asked the question “Who is a good

41

entrepreneur?” They argue the importance of investigating entrepreneurship within a

moral context, and failure to pursue this is problematic for entrepreneurs and society.

The scholars dismantled the term “entrepreneurship” to dissect its meaning. Cornwall

and Naughton (2003) state,

Since this definition of entrepreneurship focuses on the process of building businesses, much of the research is at the enterprise level of analysis. However, it is impossible to remove the entrepreneur from entrepreneurship. Without it, you simply have an empty vessel (p. 62)

Unlike an empty vessel, the motivation for good entrepreneurs is far from meaningless.

The researchers discovered their entrepreneurial mission is to (1) earn a living, (2) grow

personally and professionally, (3) place family first, and (4) to unify faith and work.

Cornwall and Naughton (2003) state, “Realizing that their work is not helping them to

grow, entrepreneurs act to change their situation. In so doing they are able to offer

others an opportunity to participate in more meaningful work as well” (p. 70). Oswald

von Nell-Breuning and Dempsey (1936) explain that through the practice of virtue in the

Catholic social tradition that an entrepreneur “gives first thought to service and second

thought to gain” (p. 115). Another dimension of this type of entrepreneur is the ability to

develop a sense of community in one’s work. For example, Dale Merrick, Bob

Wahlstedt, and Lee Johnson, the entrepreneurs who created Reell Precision

Manufacturing (RPM), determined their mission was important to them based on work

experiences they attained in their previous employment. They cultivated conditions for

RPM that was about employee growth. Cornwall and Naughton (2003) state,

By designing better jobs through training and skill development, promoting a culture of participation and ownership, committing to livable wages, having a no lay off policy, developing family friendly policies, and so forth, the leadership that RPM created the conditions for a community of work to take place (p. 71)

42

Furthermore, businesses work to serve the needs of their customers. Their

existence is based on a customer’s desire to purchase products and services. Lips-

Wiersma and Starcher (2013) state, “A purpose of ‘serving the real needs of humanity’

clearly articulates that the ultimate purpose of the organization is not to make profit or to

increase shareholder value, but to make a contribution to society” (The distinct purpose

of ‘serving the real needs of humankind,’ para. 2). Lips-Wiersma also shared the

journey of RPM in research. She cites Robert Wahlstedt who states,

It may be possible to be successful in a materialistic sense through the pursuit of self-interest, sometimes even in an unbridled manner. When self-interest becomes enlightened, business success is highly likely, and the person will respected when ethical constraints are accepted. None of these, however, assure fulfillment or satisfaction. As Maslow, the Bible, other sacred writings teach, and experience confirms, we as human beings, find satisfaction and fulfillment only when we reach beyond ourselves and become immersed in the pursuit of the common good (Lips-Wiersma & Starcher, The spiritual foundation of leadership, para 5)

International Positive Psychology Association is an organization with members

from 70 countries, which include scholars and practitioners. The mission of the

organization is to share positive psychology with a mass audience and implement

applied methods. Many of the practitioners representing the organization provide

businesses and individuals with coaching, corporate training, and executive leadership

in applied positive psychology. The further understanding of meaningful work can serve

as an invaluable tool for practitioners. Dik, Duffy and Eldridge (2009) state, “Helping

clients learn meaning-making techniques may have a significant impact on their find

meaning at work” (p. 629).

Job Satisfaction in Journalism

Creating a work environment that creates employee job satisfaction is a key role

for managers (Tietjen & Myers, 1998). Tietjen and Myers (1998) “Satisfaction creates

43

confidence, loyalty, and ultimately improved quality in the output of the employed” (p.

226). In their study, they investigated motivation and job satisfaction analyzing the

theories of Frederick Herzberg and Edwin Locke. Tietjen and Myers (1998) state,

“According to Herzberg et al, (1959), motivators cause positive job attitudes because

they satisfy the worker’s need for self-actualization (Maslow, 1954), the individual’s

ultimate goal” (p. 227). Thus, job satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but subsequently

“no dissatisfaction” (Tietjen & Myers, 1998, p. 227). Tietjen and Myers use the example

of the hygiene of work conditions, those hygiene factors lead to job dissatisfaction but

the elimination of those factors do not provide job satisfaction. For example, a work

situation where the air conditioning fails to work in the summer can lead to employee job

dissatisfaction. However, having an air conditioner that operates properly doesn’t mean

that the employees will be “particularly satisfied.” Locke (1969) states, “Since a job is

not perceived or experienced as such, it cannot initially be evaluated as a single unit.

Overall job satisfaction is the sum of the evaluations of the discriminable elements of

which a job is composed” (p. 334).

In a longitudinal study of job satisfaction among Flemish professional journalists’,

Deprez and Raeymaeckers (2012) argue “. . . this concept is very valuable in times of

evolving news staff, changing working environments, and increased interest in factors

such as burnout” (p. 247). This approach provided research on professional satisfaction

amongst journalists and the evolution of job satisfaction. They distributed two surveys,

one in 2003 and the other 2008, which focused on intrinsic and extrinsic variables in

relation to job satisfaction. Deprez and Raeymaeckers survey results suggest that

Flemish journalists are fairly satisfied. Job-intrinsic elements scored higher than job-

44

extrinsic factors. Journalists expressed a decline in satisfaction concerning working

hours, pay, and work pressure. Deprez and Raeymaeckers state, “Freelancers and

journalists on a payroll differ especially in their assessment of the individual autonomy,

job security, abundance of contacts, and variation in content” (p. 247).

In their study of women freelance journalists and job satisfaction, Massey and

Elmore (2011) argue, “The findings show that female respondents were satisfied with

their work hours, earnings, and ability to combine their atypical newswork jobs with

raising children” (p. 672). The findings suggest that self-employment provides a more

family-friendly work setting than the work environment of news organizations. Massey

and Elmore (2011) state, “With few exception, [freelance journalists] did not regret going

into business for themselves as freelance jobs. 9 in 10 (88.8%) would do it again” (p.

681). The majority of the participants strongly agreed that freelance journalism was an

“ideal job” (74.7%), and most were satisfied with freelance work (75.7%). Massey and

Elmore (2011) state, “For women, self-employment as freelance newsworkers thus may

function as a refuge; as a ‘place’ where they can find their own right mix of work and

family” (p. 681).

Locke (1969) argues, “The first question a scientific investigator must ask is not

‘How can I measure it?’ but rather, ‘What is it?’” (p. 334). Locke was referring to job

satisfaction. More than 40 years later, scholars have added to the body of knowledge

conceptualizing and measuring job satisfaction. Mass communications scholars urge

news organizations to engage news workers. Cleary (2008) states, “Managers should

consider discussing with all employees their goals and plans for providing training

because employees working in an information vacuum seem to have a low level

45

confidence that their supervisors are giving thought to their professional development”

(p. 212).

Creativity in Self-Actualizing People

Abraham H. Maslow began studying people who were positively healthy, self-

actualizing, and evolved individuals. Maslow (2013) states, “The consequence was that

I found it necessary to distinguish ‘special talent creativeness’ from ‘self-actualizing (SA)

creativeness’ which spring much more directly from the personality, and which showed

itself widely in the ordinary affairs of life, for instance, in a certain kind of humor” (p.

137). He also points out that these individuals are more spontaneous and showcase

more expression than average individuals. Maslow (2013) states, “They were more

‘natural’ and less controlled and inhibited in their behavior, which seemed to flow out

more easily and freely and with less blocking and self-criticism” (p. 137). In his

investigation, he found that self-actualization in creative people is often child-like in

nature. Maslow states, “Another observation was that SA creativeness was in many

respects like the creativeness of all happy and secure children. It was spontaneous,

effortless, innocent, easy, a kind of freedom from stereotypes and clichés” (p. 138).

Maslow discussed that the subjects were individuals between their 50s or 60s, but they

maintained two aspects of childlikeness -- (1) being open to experience and (2) having

“second naiveté” (Maslow, 2013, p. 138). Open to experiences focuses on the being

expressive and spontaneous. Second naiveté creates an “innocence of perception and

expressiveness was combined with sophisticated minds” (Maslow, 2013, p. 138).

Maslow discusses that these are fundamental characteristics are given to human beings

at birth, however, those characteristics can be inhibited or buried over time.

46

Job Satisfaction among Minorities

Race and ethnicity

Diversity and inclusion of news workers has been a goal that many journalism

organizations of color have worked to reach. Sharon Bramlett-Solomon (1992) states,

“For more than two decades, the U.S. news industry has been under pressure to

employ and promote blacks, Hispanics and other ethnic minorities” (p. 703). Bramlett-

Solomon examined the predicators of job satisfaction among black journalists. In 1988,

she distributed a survey to those attending the National Association of Black Journalists

(NABJ) conference in St. Louis. Four hundred and twenty-two individuals participated in

the investigation. Journalists (49.5%) reported being fairly satisfied at a higher level

than very satisfied (20.7%). Bramlett-Solomon (1992) states, “The findings show that

having decision-making power and receiving positive comments from superiors are

more important determinants of job satisfaction among black journalists than salary” (p.

710). Five variables were measured that exhibited positive relationships with work

satisfaction. Education was the predictor that showed high levels of significance.

Bramlett-Solomon (1992) states, “That is as education goes up among the respondents,

job satisfaction goes down” (p. 710).

Job satisfaction was measured among Chinese journalists from Shanghai.

Chan, Pan and Lee (2004) examined if professional aspirations were related to job

satisfaction of social change. Five hundred and fifteen full-time journalists participated

in the questionnaire. The results of the survey showed that Shanghai journalist are

“quite” satisfied with their work. Journalists reported that they were satisfied with their

relationship with colleagues and their managers. They did report less levels of

satisfaction among extrinsic aspects of their work, which dealt with salary, benefits, and

47

promotion. Chan, Pan, and Lee (2004) state, “Similar to their Western counterparts,

perceived job autonomy has a positive effect on Shanghai journalists’ job satisfaction,

but the effect is stronger among those who prefer the western model of professional

journalism” (p. 264). They urged examining when Shanghai journalists reported the

least satisfaction concerning material benefits. Chan, Pan, and Lee (2004) state,

“Further research is needed to unpack the seeming paradox of journalists’ improved

socio-economic status and their dissatisfaction with the extrinsic attributes of their job”

(p. 267).

Maggie Rivas-Rodriquez, Federico Subervi-Vélez, Sharon Bramlett-Solomon,

and Don Heider (2004) examined minority journalists’ perception of minority executives.

Their investigation measured journalists attending a five-day convention known as

Unity, with members of the National Association of Black Journalists, the National

Association of Hispanic Journalists, the Native American Journalists Association, and

the Asian American Journalists Association. Seven hundred and eighty-two minority

journalists participated, including 379 African Americans, 151 Latinos, 132 Asian

Americans, and 48 Native Americans. They were asked about the value of minorities in

managerial and decision-making. Rivas-Rodriquez, Subervi-Vélez, Bramlett-Solomon,

and Heider (2004) state,

Overall, the journalists of color surveyed for this study agree that a minority at the head of a media organization can make a positive difference, particularly in four areas – the news organization’s sensitivity to racism, its coverage of minority groups, providing greater job opportunities for all minorities, and influencing how the news media think about minority groups (p. 52)

The study provides insight on the longevity of media professionals. Seventy percent of

individuals reported seeing themselves working in media during the next five years.

48

Gender differences

Job satisfaction among newspaper women have been investigated among

scholars in mass communications. Grace Barrett examined work satisfaction both in

terms of intrinsic and extrinsic factors among women. A survey methodological

approach was adopted to measure job satisfaction of women employed as writers,

reporters, and editors. Two hundred thirty-nine participants were in agreement with the

statement: “My present job has met or exceeded the expectation I had when I started it”

(Barrett, 1984, p. 596). Barrett (1984) states,

American newspaperwomen generally express positive job attitudes, though tempered by their perceptions of inequities. Those who feel underpaid and/or frustrated in their attempts to advance professionally tend to be more negative. As newspaperwomen become more numerous, the barriers they perceive may diminish. (p. 599)

Newspaper women expressed equal treatment with male counterparts. Those with a

bachelor’s degree reported that they did not plan to remain in the industry in comparison

to those without a bachelor’s degree.

Scott Reinardy explored newspaper women leaving the industry. In a survey of

715 newspaper journalists, female journalists reported higher levels of exhaustion in

comparison to men. Reinardy (2009) states, “In this study, women certainly provided

distinguishing differences from men in terms of burnout and life issues that influence

burnout. There are significant differences in perceived organizational support, role

overload and job demands for men and women” (p. 46). Women in the study earned

$44,005 on average, working 44.8 hours per week. Women were asked if they were

considering opting out of journalism and 62% responded “yes” or “didn’t know.”

Reinardy (2009) states,

49

It’s clear that while a majority of journalism graduates are women, they do not feel compelled to remain in journalism. Until some of the issues in this study are addressed, women will continue to be underrepresented in newspaper newsrooms. And for those already working in newsrooms, exhaustion, cynicism and lack of efficacy could drive them out (p. 54)

Media Entrepreneurs

A deficit exists in a conceptual framework concerning the phenomenon of

entrepreneurship (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). That has led to the lack of an

agreed-upon definition of entrepreneur. Shane and Venkataraman (2000) state,

“Perhaps the largest obstacle in creating a conceptual framework for the

entrepreneurship field has been its definition” (p. 218). Leading entrepreneurship and

business management scholars, Shane and Venkataraman (2000) state,

“Entrepreneurship is concerned with the discovery and exploitation of profitable

opportunities” (p. 217).

In this investigation, media entrepreneurship is explained as, Hoag and

Compaine (2006) states, “the creation and ownership of a small enterprise or

organization whose activity add at least one voice or innovation to the media

marketplace” (para. 1). Hoag refers to media entrepreneurship as a “marketplace of

ideas.” In this study, freelance journalists and those that identify as self-employed are

considered part of this population. As suggested by Hoag, “The ‘media’ in media

entrepreneurship refers to traditional mass communications systems and content

genres as well as other technologies for mediated human speech” (p. 75). This

reference focuses on traditional publishing and electronic media, such as broadcasting,

cable and the use of the Internet for any of these media. Hoag (2008) has combined

this and states, “Common usage of the term entrepreneurship tends to lump new

venture creation together with small business” (p. 75). Media entrepreneurship also

50

covers both for-profit and non-commercial usages of media. Hoag (2008) refers to the

importance of the use of enterprising non-commercial companies such as National

Public Radio, CSPAN, and Wikipedia (2008). In this investigation, the question will be

asked (1a) Are you self-employed? (1b) Are you a part of mass communications

systems? This investigation will focus on those who are media entrepreneurs, which will

comprise freelancers in the areas of radio, television, and print. Participants will not

need to provide information on being a limited liability corporation (LLC) because this

can be limiting to media entrepreneurs that may not have the business acumen. Roush

(2006) argues, “Teaching business and economics in journalism and mass

communication schools has long been ignored despite the fact that students in all areas

of media will have to work with budgets, financial statements, and annual reports at one

time or another in their careers and despite requests from the industry” (p. 196). In his

book on the business of journalism, Herrick (2012) argues, “Many successful web-

based businesses have been started by people with little or no business experience” (p.

38). Ferrier (2013) argues that curriculum development in media entrepreneurship is

fundamental. She states, “Journalists are taking powerful new roles in the sustainability

of media businesses and in imagining news ways to communicate news and

information. Journalism schools have a key role in helping students take ownership of

their futures and the future of media” (Ferrier, 2013, p. 237).

However, there is a debate as to the cultivation of journalism ethics and business

practices when historically there have been lines drawn in this area (Baines & Kennedy,

2010). Baines and Kennedy (2010) examined the perceived conflicts of the ethos of

journalism and values of business practices. Their argument is that journalism students

51

need to gain skills that combine serving as information brokers and reliable analysts.

They maintain that traditional news and career structures are dissolving. They point

out, “But to turn their innovative ideas into self-supporting enterprises, students also

need to acquire business skills and knowledge and the opportunity to develop

enterprising qualities and approaches that journalism educators are rarely qualified to

deliver” (Baines & Kennedy, 2010, p. 109).

Quinn (2010) argues that there is an opportunity for journalism education in this

online entrepreneurial world. He examined the global crisis of media organizations and

despite the job loss there is a mindset of multimedia journalism on the rise. Quinn

(2010) states, “Educators need to appreciate the issue of mindset and prepare students

for a range of opportunities associated with the internet, the blogosphere and new

entrepreneurial forms of media” (p. 69). Roush (2006) argues, “Mass communication

schools, for the most part, missed out on adding business and economics-related

classes to their curricula in the 1990’s, when the field exploded due to the dramatic rise

in the stock market and the development of the Internet and technology-related

companies” (p. 198).

Due to this oversight, this investigation will not penalize media entrepreneurs that

have not formed a limited liability company (LLC), which includes the creation of an

operation agreement, licenses and permits (SBA, n.d.). This study will focus on media

entrepreneurs that have chosen self-employment opposed to working in a traditional

news organization.

Disruption in Journalism

Harvard business professor Clayton M. Christensen is well-known for his

theoretical framework on disruption. He has been often cited by Neiman Reports, a

52

website and print publication that promotes the standards in journalism. In mastering

the art of disruptive innovation in journalism, Christensen, Skok, and Allworth (2012)

state, “Journalism institutions play a vital role in the democratic process and we are

rooting for their survival. But only the organizations themselves can make changes

required to adapt to these realities” (p. 6). They point out that the search for business

models has remained elusive for many media organizations. Christensen et al. (2012)

cited from Pew research and states, “There might be a 90 percent chance you’ll

accelerate the decline if you gamble and a 10 percent chance you might find the new

model” with one executive suggesting, “No one will want to take that chance” (p. 6).

Christensen et al. (2012) point out that this disruption shouldn’t be a surprise,

Disruption theory argues that a consistent pattern repeats itself from industry to industry. New entrants to a field establish a foothold at the low end and move up the value network --- eating away at the customer base of incumbents – by using a scalable advantage and typically entering the market with a lower-margin profit formula (p. 6)

They argue that this has happened in the automotive and steel industry. What can

media organizations learn from this shift and how can legacy news organizations

sustain themselves? Christensen et al. (2012) state,

Waiting for online advertising to materialize or hoping for a return to the old way of working is futile. The time for delay has passed: Newsroom should embrace this disruption head-on and look for other avenues within the value network that are ripe for growth and innovation (p. 8)

They recommend key areas for journalism executives and business leaders to consider:

(1) the audience value, (2) increase revenue “exploit other aspects of value” and (3)

explore the role of “culture and capabilities” while the landscape shifts, the culture may

need to as well.

53

In their study of news work within the culture of job insecurity, Ekdale, Tully,

Harmsen, and Singer (2015) state,

News organizations often suffer from a paradox of their own making. While they encourage workers to change news practices, they often engage in efforts – poor communication, unclear metrics for success, increased work expectations, weak justification for layoff decisions (p. 396).

They investigated journalists’ response to a culture of job insecurity in a case study of

news professionals at an independently owned company in the United States. The

company has a 50,000 daily circulation newspaper, TV news station, and websites.

The news manager sent out a recruitment electronic correspondence to 124 news

professionals of journalists, managers, and editors, requesting their participation.

Twenty individuals consented to participate. The qualitative study consisted of in-depth

interviews. Later, Ekdale et al., sent out an online questionnaire to all news

professionals. Two surveys were issued about five months apart. The second

questionnaire was distributed one week after the company announced layoffs. Ekdale

et al., (2015) state, “Interviews and questionnaire responses indicate that job insecurity

has become a significant undercurrent of working at the media company in our study.

Several interviewees noted that the 2009 layoffs had a notable effect on employee

morale and newsroom culture” (p. 387). They analyzed patterns and segmented news

workers in four categories: (1) hopeful, (2) obliging, (3) fearful, and (4) cynical. One

fearful news worker states, “You better be ready for whatever is going to happen,

especially if you’re not sure where things are headed” (Ekdale, Tully, Harmsen, &

Singer, 2015, p. 392).

The effects of downsizing on personnel comes at a determent, Reinardy (2010)

argues, “The results indicate that for those employees experiencing a decline in trust,

54

morale, satisfaction, and commitment, newspapers are creating production-line

journalism that is seen as a void of purpose and function” (p. 1). He administered a 75-

question survey of 2,150 newspaper layoff survivors. Reinardy (2010) argues,

In terms of the study, investment is not just bodies in the newsroom. Investment includes maintaining the wellbeing of the news workers, developing trust in the organization, building morale, and job satisfaction, which in turn will be reciprocated with commitment and a desire to produce quality work (p. 16).

Layoff survivors had emotional, psychological and physical issues (Reinardy, 2010).

Reinardy further observed that highly satisfied journalists worked harder, but this may

be interpreted as a fear of job loss.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The research questions investigated in this dissertation, explored meaningful

work and job satisfaction of media employees and media entrepreneurs:

Hypothesis 1: More media entrepreneurs than organizationally employed

journalists will find meaning in their work as it relates to Service to Others.

Research Question 1: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally

employed journalists perceive their Service to Others?

Hypothesis 2: More journalists will have higher perception in their work

concerning Unity with Others.

Research Question 2: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally

employed journalists perceive their Unity with Others?

Hypothesis 3: Media entrepreneurs will report higher levels of Expressing Full

Potential than organizationally employed journalists.

55

Research Question 3: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally

employed journalists perceive their work in terms of enabling them to Express Full

Potential?

Hypothesis 4: Media entrepreneurs will have higher levels of Developing Inner

Self than organizationally employed journalists.

Research Question 4: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally

employed journalists perceive Developing Inner Self in terms of their work?

.

56

Figure 2-1. Map of Meaning

This figure illustrates the Map of Meaning. Source: (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2009, p. 503)

57

CHAPTER 3 METHODS

Survey Methodology: Web-based Approach to Journalist Engagement

The research questions and hypotheses in this study were designed based on

the theoretical framework of the Map of Meaning (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011). Using

a survey approach, journalists, and media entrepreneurs were asked to respond to a

series of question in order to determine their perceptions of meaningful work and job

satisfaction.

According to Blair, Czaja, and Blair (2013), a survey methodology provides

advantages in conducting research:

The two great advantages of Internet survey are the low cost and the speed of data collection. Internet surveys eliminate not only the interviewer costs of face-to-face and telephone survey but also the paper, questionnaire reproduction, postage, and data entry costs of mail surveys (p. 57)

Trying to engage broadcast journalists in a research study has challenges due to their

demanding work schedules. Adams and Cleary (2007) state, “Although not a magic

bullet, the convenience factor of wed-based surveys – for both practitioner and

researcher – cannot be ignored. Effectively utilizing the technology to foster a more

collaborative examination of the news industry is the next step” (p. 118). Adams and

Cleary (2007) discussed the results of their research efforts on using a web-based

survey to study broadcast news personnel. They discovered after several repeated

attempts that they were able to achieve a response rate of 51.4%. They also uncovered

patterns in participation that were attributed to market size. They shared this

experience to provide best practices to engage this population. Adams and Cleary’s

(2007) recommendations include: (1) personal interaction is a great way to increase

58

response rates, (2) technological advances provide flexibility and can cause difficulties,

(3) time of day and news cycle is crucial for participation, (4) customize time and days

when e-mail will be sent, (5) specificity as to what the participant can offer is vital, and

(6) limit the length of the survey.

In this investigation, a survey methodological approach served as the most

strategic approach to engage journalists and entrepreneurs. Fowler (2013) found that

the location of the respondents affected response rates. “Response rates for most

survey research projects lie somewhere between these two extremes. Response rates

generally are higher in rural areas than they are in central cities” (Bias associated with

non-response, para. 3). Fowler found that using various approaches in data collection

helped minimize non-responses, suggesting the use of electronic and/or postal mail for

the first phase of engagement, followed by telephone interviews to non-respondents.

The combination can create an effective design (Fowler, 2013).

In a similar study, but in the pre-Internet days, Fedler, Buhr, and Taylor (1998)

investigated job satisfaction among journalists who leave media organizations, using a

20-item questionnaire. They mailed cover letters and telephoned respondents. Out of

the 82 former journalists contacted, 62 responded with a response rate of 76%. They

concluded that there is life after news with participants responding that they were not

only content, but also financially secure. Fedler, Buhr, and Taylor (1988) state,

Most of these respondents found new jobs with more money, more freedom, better working conditions and real job security. Their new jobs also gave them an opportunity to continue performing the tasks they enjoyed most while employed by news media. The only real loss was the excitement provided by news reporting (pp. 22-23)

In the interim, advance notification serves as a methodological strategy to

increase response rates of online surveys. Kaplowitz, Hadlock, and Levine (2004)

59

examined the differences between mail and web-based survey response rates.

Kaplowitz et al. (2004) state, “A reminder mail notification had a positive effect on

response rates for the Web survey application compared to a treatment in which

responded only received an email containing a link to the Web survey” (p. 100).

Notifications are vital. Granello and Wheaton (2004) state, “To reduce the problem of

lowered response rates, several researchers have advocated a system of multiple

reminders” (p. 390).

Design

This investigation focused on journalists and media entrepreneurs measuring

meaningful work and job satisfaction. Based on a review of the literature the table

(Figure 3-1) was constructed to identify the number of participants.

The sample for the study was identified through the leadership of six professional

journalism organizations that had a total of approximately 12,700 members. However,

the membership in these professional journalism organization can include a fair amount

of redundancy, with many journalists and media entrepreneurs as members of more

than one professional journalism organization (Powell, 2012). Additionally, even though

each organization shared information about the survey with its membership, it is unclear

how many of the members actually viewed the message about the survey. For example,

SPJ and NABJ included an announcement about the survey as part of electronic

newsletters to members, but it is unknown how many individuals opened the newsletter

and then read the newsletter. Additionally, placement of the announcement in the

newsletter about the survey had an impact on how many individuals actually saw the

announcement. Both SPJ and NABJ placed the survey either at the end or near the end

60

of their electronic newsletter, which would require the reader to scroll down screens of

other stories.

To increase the response rate, the researcher sent direct emails or direct tweets

to 1,034 individual journalists and media entrepreneurs, asking them to complete the

survey and providing a link to the online survey.

The survey could be completed anonymously, so the researcher was not able to

determine how many of the survey participants responded based on contacts from

professional organizations and how many responded based on personal contact from

the researcher. A total of 358 responded to the survey, however, only 60% (N=226)

completed the entire survey. So the surveys of those 226 who completed the

comprehensive meaningful work scale were the population used for analysis. The

response rate was 38% based on the 594 personal contacts that the researcher made

using Facebook and Twitter.

For mass communication research having a response rate of less than 30% is

common in web-based surveys (Wimmer & Dominick, 2006). Web surveys

methodological approaches are suitable, which offer more accessibility via the Internet

(Dillman, 2007; Greenlaw & Brown-Welty, 2009). Carpenter, Nah, and Chung (2015)

investigated community journalists with a web-based survey. It was sent out to 322

individuals, which garnered a 34.2% response rate and a 26.3% completion rate. The

response rates of journalists can vary from 19.5 to 29.7% (Cassidy, 2007, 2008; Dailey,

Demo, & Spillman, 2005; Lee, 2005; Reinardy, 2009; Smith, Tanner, & Duhe, 2007).

The design of the survey must be strategic to engage journalists who work in

fast-paced news environments. Adams and Cleary (2007) argue,

61

Researchers studying this population are competing with relentless deadlines, constant bombardment of unsolicited information,

Including email and perhaps a degree of recipient cynicism about the value of academic studies. This kind of scientific newsroom research is important to answering questions about current industry practices including hiring, training, organizational communication, editorial standards, and so on (p. 104)

Brevity is beneficial in the creation of questions that are meaningful with specificity in

order to gather rich data. Adams and Cleary (2007) recommended designing surveys

with less than 50 questions that will take no more than 10 minutes to complete.

In this investigation, a questionnaire was designed with the comprehensive

meaningful work scale. The survey contained 40 questions, with many using a likert-

type scale, which will comprise levels of frequency, ranging from “never” to “almost

always”.

Qualtrics survey software was used to design and distribute the survey and to

compile the results.

Pilot Testing

Two pilot tests were conducted to refine the questionnaire. The first pilot test

was given to four individuals, which included journalists, media entrepreneurs, and a

communications scholar and entrepreneur. The objective of the pilot test was to allow

the investigator to evaluate the clarity of the questions and determine the time required

to complete the survey. As noted previously, both journalists and media entrepreneurs

work in very fast-paced environments and will allow little time to devote to a lengthy

survey. Additionally, entrepreneurs that may be the sole proprietor may not have the

time to participate in fear that it would interfere with managing their business activities.

The pilot group was given an electronic copy of the questions and an evaluation form

62

and asked to comment on the clarity of the questions and the appropriateness of the

question based on the scale of analysis.

The first pilot survey included 40 questions. The responses from those who took

the survey helped the researcher improve the wording of some questions and eliminate

other questions, working toward having a survey that would take no more than 20

minutes.

The second pilot group was comprised of five individuals, which included

journalists and media entrepreneurs, including two individuals from the first pilot study.

The second pilot group focused on the design of the online survey and provided

feedback on both open-ended questions and CMWS. The second pilot group was

emailed the link to the survey and an evaluation form. The feedback addressed their

web-based survey experience, which focused on how they viewed the survey either on

a personal computer or mobile device. They were asked to comment on the

construction questions and how long taking the survey required.

The survey included 42 questions, including two open-ended questions. The

participants in the second pilot study said the time to complete of the survey was

between 15 to 20 minutes.

Based on feedback from the pilot studies and the importance of determining the

“why?” of some of the closed-ended questions, the survey was expanded to include 52

questions, including eight open-ended questions (Appendix B). However, not all

questions would be answered by all participants. For example, “If you are a full-

entrepreneur, were you ever a full-time employee for a media organization?” This

question may not apply to all the respondents that are media entrepreneurs.

63

Participants

More than a year was spent on recruitment and strategy with the researcher

developing contacts with the leadership of six professional organizations whose

members are media employees and media entrepreneurs. Those groups were: (1) the

National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ), (2) the Asian American Journalists

Association (AAJA), (3) the National Association of Hispanic Journalists (NAHJ), (4) the

Native American Journalists Association (NAJA), (5) the Society of Professional

Journalists Association (SPJ), and (6) NewU (Appendix C).

Many of these organizations have developed programs for journalists that

provide skills to assist in their transition into entrepreneurship. The NABJ Media

Institute for Media Professionals and Entrepreneurs was designed to share best

practices for freelance and transitioning journalists in the area of public relations, news,

and entrepreneurship. NABJ National President Bob Butler stated:

In an era where digital convergence has displaced thousands of professionals and diversity efforts in the journalism and PR industries are either declining or forgotten, it is imperative that we build relationships that allow us to help our members build sustainable careers (NABJ, 2013, para. 8)

As part of the initiative to assist in that process, NABJ Region III hosted

“Navigating the Future of Journalism: Charting a New Course.” The four-day event took

place on Carnival Cruise with Nassau, Bahamas, as the destination. The voyage

provided mid-career and aspiring journalists with panels and workshops to assist in

navigating a news environment as journalists or media entrepreneurs. The audience

was able to meet leaders in the industry that have successfully made the transition out

of the newsroom.

64

Online News Association has historically created programs that provide

strategies and investment capital to media entrepreneurs. The News Entrepreneur

Working through Unity (NewU) is funded through the Ford Foundation to create diversity

in entrepreneurship among journalists. The organization works with journalists to assist

them in understanding the development of a small business. They manage a two-day

start-up boot camp for entrepreneurial journalists. The program provides media start-

ups the opportunity to win funding ranging up to $20,000.

Limitations

The data collection from organizationally employed journalists and media

entrepreneurs for this study was subject to several limitations.

First, how the professional organizations distributed the announcement of the

survey impacted how many responded to the survey. For example, SPJ included the

announcement in the April 27, 2016, issue of their Leads Weekly electronic newsletter.

The survey was placed in the Outside of SPJ section and titled “University of Florida

Happiness Survey for Journalists.” The Outside of SPJ section is the last segment in

the newsletter. Members would have to scroll close to the end of the newsletter to find

the call to action for survey participants. Additionally, a few days prior on April 22,

NABJ also shared the survey with members. It was distributed in a newsletter titled

“Congratulations NABJ members.” The correspondence recognized the

accomplishments of journalists from network anchor Lester Holt to Pulitzer Prize

winners. The researcher has been a member of the organization for nearly 20 years.

The organization recognized the investigator and the study, however, the

announcement was placed at the very end of the newsletter.

65

Second, the response rate was impacted due to the population of this

investigation -- industry professionals. The engagement of this sample size cannot be

derived from a convenience sample. Ferber (1977) states, “Unlike probability samples,

with a convenience sample the section cost is minimal, simply because the same is

selected on the basis of just that, convenience” (p. 57). To obtain survey participants

who are media professionals, the use of Amazon’s Mechanical Turk was not

appropriate. Amazon Mechanical Turk connects individuals and business with the

expectation to share human intelligence. Downs, Holbrook, Sheng, and Cranor (2010)

examined the selection of Mechanical Turk workers. They found that participants tend

to be younger and lower income. Downs et al., (2010) state, “Some respondents may

be participating in mTurk studies for quick cash rather than inherent interest, and may

not be inclined to answer conscientiously” (p. 2402). Iperiotis (2010) argues,

“Significantly more workers from India participate on Mechanical Turk because the

online marketplace is a primary source of income, while in the US most workers

consider Mechanical Turk a secondary source of income” (para. 1). This doesn’t fit the

demographic or characteristics of journalists, Schultz (2002) states, “In 1992, about 11

percent of all news journalists held a graduate degree and about 7 percent held a

graduate degree in journalism/communication” (p. 224). The use of Amazon Mechanical

Turk wouldn’t be permissible as a tool to increase response rates for journalists and

media entrepreneurs.

Survey Distribution

Professional journalism organizations encouraged members to take the survey.

Some posted the survey on their online platforms, which consist of social media and

email distribution. The goal of the investigator was to create a snowball effect with

66

entrepreneurs and journalists, which had given them full use to distribute the survey to

their peers. Invitations were sent to the national journalism organizations, asking them

to promote the survey with their members. In the email notification to leaders and key

informants, they were advised that they would receive an executive summary of the

results for distribution at the end of the investigation. Participants were also informed of

the executive summary at the end of the survey. How each organization distributed

information about the survey was determined by the leadership of the organization.

In full disclosure the researcher also serves as a member of all of the

organizations except NewU. Additionally, the researcher actively serves in a regional

leadership level for NABJ.

Asian American Journalists Association

National leaders of AAJA permitted distribution of the survey, allowing the

researcher, who is a member of the organization, to post on their Facebook social

media page. The organization has a main Facebook page along with several public and

closed groups that include: AAJA Florida, AAJA-Asia Tokyo, AAJA Atlanta, AAJA

MediaWatch, AAJA-Small Market Broadcast, AAJA-Student Broadcast Journalists, and

AAJA-Asia. AAJA has a membership of more than 1,000 journalists.

On April 2, 2016 the survey was posted to AAJA chapter Facebook page

including AAJA Florida and AAJA MediaWatch, while awaiting access to AAJA main

Facebook page and other member sites. On April 4, the researcher added a post to her

main page. It generated nine shares and one from an key informant from AAJA . On

April 5, the key informant posted on her page. On April 26, the researcher reposted on

the AAJA Florida and AAJA MediaWatch. In the meantime, the researcher was given

access to post to AAJA Small Market Broadcast Journalists, AAJA Atlanta, AAJA Sports

67

Journalists, AAJA Philadelphia, AAJA Chicago, AAJA Photo, AAJA New England, AAJA

Michigan, and AAJA Tokyo. Later that evening, the researcher was granted access to

the main page. On April 27 the investigator posted on AAJA-Asia. On May 1, AAJA

leaders and members participating were acknowledged for their support along with a

call to action for more voices. This post was showcased on the researcher’s personal

page and posted to the following AAJA sites: AAJA main page, AAJA MediaWatch,

AAJA-Student Broadcast Journalists, AAJA Florida, AAJA Small Market, AAJA Atlanta,

AAJA North Carolina, and AAJA Michigan. On May 6 the researcher posted on the

AAJA-Asian Tokyo page. On May 7, a call to action was created making sure members

were aware the survey would close later that day. Additionally, the researcher’s

personal post was reposted on the page on the following committees groups, which

include: AAJA Florida, AAJA Atlanta, AAJA MediaWatch, AAJA Small Market

Broadcast Journalists, AAJA Chicago, AAJA Photo, and AAJA North Carolina.

National Association of Black Journalists

NABJ president Sarah Glover has been supportive in this endeavor and agreed

to encourage members to participate via their list serve and all social media platforms,

such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. NABJ is the largest journalism organization of

color with more than 3,200 members.

On April 2, 2016 the survey was officially launched, with the survey shared on the

researcher’s personal Facebook page with key informants with twenty-three individuals

tagged to the post. The researcher used her personal Facebook page to share

information about the survey and encouraged key informants to share with their

network. At this point, the researcher was awaiting the response of national leaders to

post it. On April 4 another post was added to the researcher’s main page. It generated

68

nine shares, out of those shared three were key informants that are members of NABJ.

Later that evening, a key informant and former national board member provided a call to

action on her personal page tagging the researcher to the post. On April 5 a key

informant and president of a local NABJ chapter shared the link to his page encouraging

members to participate. This was also followed by another NABJ member who works

as a television reporter in a small market. Her call to action was personalized. The key

informant states, “A fellow #NABJ friend and scholar is completing her dissertation at

UF! Please take a moment to check it out. If you are a journalist, please complete this

quick survey.” The researcher was also tagged to this post. On April 8 a member of

NABJ that has also held leadership positions in the organization, posted on her page.

On April 20 the researcher created a personal call to action, this time using the

investigator as part of the narrative, which shared her background as a journalist and

news director. Additionally, it also added why this research was important to the

researcher. Adams and Cleary (2007) state, “The voices in the trenches are so often

overlooked that they need to be reminded their opinions matter to the industry” (p. 116).

Considering this recommendation, the messaging was composed with informing the

sample size as to why their participation is essential. The messaging focused on the

climate of layoffs, restructuring, and digital opportunities. Additionally, after a discussion

with key informants more content was added to share why this investigation was

important to the researcher. In the call to action, journalists were informed that it was

conducted by a former TV reporter and news director turned happiness researcher and

reminded of the importance of this work focused on well-being and meaning. That form

of messaging seemed to work with ninety-five individuals tagged. This April 20 post

69

generated twenty-eight shares and many of the shares from NABJ members. On April

22, NABJ national president shared the survey on her page. At that time, five NABJ

members shared the survey on their personal pages. On May 1, a revised call to action

was created keeping with the personal narrative, but this time thanking them for

participating and also acknowledging the organization, which was posted on

researcher’s personal page. This call to action was posted on the following NABJ

Facebook pages: NABJ Media-Related Members Task Force, NABJ Digital Task Force,

NABJ Region I, NABJ Students, and NABJ Region III. On May 7, the researcher posted

specifically to NABJ, and twenty-four individuals were tagged including the National

President, Region III Director, and several journalists and media entrepreneurs, which

was posted on the researcher’s main page. Later, a post was constructed and sent

directly to the following NABJ sites: NABJ Media Related Task Force, NABJ Region I,

NABJ Digital Journalism Task Force, and NABJ Region II.

On April 22, NABJ sent out an electronic newsletter to members including the

survey. The “Congratulations NABJ member” newsletter highlights the

accomplishments of members. The researcher was featured with the link to the survey.

That mention was the last and eighth feature in the correspondence.

Native American Journalists Association

National leaders of the NAJA personally posted the survey on their Facebook

main page. NAJA has a membership of more than 500.

On April 5, NAHJ posted the survey to their Facebook group using the call to

action that the researcher created. On May 7 NAJA and the two key informants that

provided support in this effort were personally thanked, which appeared on their main

Facebook page.

70

National Association of Hispanic Journalists

NAHJ offered to share the survey via email and across social media platforms

such as Facebook. NAHJ has more than 1,700 members. On April 4, it was shared on

the researcher’s main page. It generated nine shares and out of that group one was a

key informant and member of NAHJ. Later one key informant personally posted it to

his page. His call to action stated: “To all my journalists and media entrepreneurs, and

there are a few of you, my good friend Kortni could use your $0.02. Please check out

the link, won’t take much of your time at all. Thank you, I appreciate it.” That same key

informant posted on his page just 24 hours after his initial post again urging individuals

to participate (April 5). To increase engagement on May 5 the researcher created a call

to action with NAHJ, thanking them for their support and encouraging members to

participate. Sixty-eight individuals were attached to the messaging. On May 7, a call to

action that personally thanked and tagged the executive director and three key

informants for NAHJ for supporting this effort.

Society of Professional Journalists

SPJ provided multiple forms of engagement, which included sharing information

on the newsletter, Facebook page, and Twitter. SPJ has more than 7,000 members.

On April 24, the researcher posted that SPJ shared the survey via email. On the

investigator’s personal Facebook page, the print screen image of SPJ newsletter was

shared tagging forty-three key informants from different journalism organizations, which

included the following: SPJ, NABJ, NAHJ, and NAJA. On April 22 three SPJ members

shared the survey on their personal pages. On May 7 the researcher was able to post

on the SPJ site informing them that they survey would close at the end of the day. In

71

that post, SPJ leadership was personally thanked for their level of support, which was

posted on their main Facebook page.

On April 15, SPJ tweeted about the survey. “Journalists & media entrepreneurs:

How meaningful is your work? Take this 45-question survey for insight.” The survey

generated six likes and three retweets.

On April 13 SPJ sent the survey to members via their electronic newsletter. The

SPJ leads weekly is a newsletter to keep members connected. The survey was

featured close to the end of the newsletter right before their journo news quiz. The

survey was featured under the title Outside SPJ.

NewU

NewsU equips media entrepreneurs with support, skills, and access. Doug

Mitchell is the co-project director of this fellowship program. Mitchell distributed the

survey across different channels to engage media entrepreneurs. It is unknown when

those emails were sent out this is a private and closed group. They don’t have a

community presence online.

Social Media Snowball Effect

Fabiola Baltar and Ignasi Brunet (2012) examined the virtual snowball sampling

method of utilizing Facebook. Balter and Brunet (2012) state, “We cannot ignore the

importance of virtual relationships on people’s lives. Every day an amount of activities

take place in this ‘online’ reality where individuals express thoughts, intentions, and

opinions about the ‘real’ world” (p. 57). They argue that online samples can serve as a

technique in improving the quality and rate of response in data collection. Their

investigation focused on the snowball sampling effects of the inclusion of Facebook.

Brickman-Bhutta (2012) states, “Facebook and other social networking site allows us to

72

carry chain-referral methods into the age of the Internet, while exploiting the strength of

Web-based questionnaires” (p. 4). Baltar and Brunet investigation wasn’t to cultivate a

definition of virtual snowballing. Their study was to provide insight for social scientists

on leveraging the Internet concerning research. Baltar and Brunet (2012) argue, “We

can discuss if the Internet is or is not an appropriate means for conducting scientific

research. However if research is done with the same methodological rigor we can use

practices for many scientific objectives” (p. 71). At this time, there are several

Facebook groups for media entrepreneurs, such as What is Your Plan B, TV

Freelancers, and Media Entrepreneur (Appendix D).

Unlike journalists who work under “the same roof” (Carpenter, Nah, and Chung,

2015), media entrepreneurs are a disconnected group. Carpenter, Nah and Chung

(2015) state, “This is a problem researchers in other academic fields must face as fewer

people are working under organizational umbrellas” (p. 516). These work styles have

shifted; Deuze (2007) states, “. . . media work takes place on an individual level, often

within the context of a team, a group, or a department of a larger organization – which

teams or groups increasing are not necessarily located in the same building, city, or

country” (p. 87). To address these methodological limitations, the adoption of Adams

and Cleary’s (2007) best practices are imperative. Network sampling was utilized.

Davis, Gallardo, and Lachlan (2013) explain that network sampling is used to recruit

participants through networks, which include social, workplace, and professional

organizations.

Key Informants

Key informants serve as a powerful “source of information” (Marshall, 1996, p.

92). The technique is utilized in ethnographic research methods. Marshall investigated

73

the key informant technique and identified characteristics of the “ideal” key informant,

which include: role in the community, knowledge, willingness, communicability, and

impartiality. Marshall (1996) states, “All key informants are regarded as extraordinary

by those around them and usually, but not invariably occupy a position of responsibility

and influence. This status should have been achieved, rather than ascribed to the

individuals” (p. 92). In this investigation, key informants were identified as those

influencers in journalism that have a willingness and a role within the community

structure to share knowledge information, yet encourage members to take part.

Survey Follow-Up

After making her own Facebook posts and while waiting for some professional

journalism organizations to share the survey on their main pages or via electronic

newsletters, the researcher reevaluated the strategy of relying exclusively on the

professional organizations to promote the survey. The first week of launching the

survey, Qualtrics reported 54 respondents. The second week generated 14

respondents. However, the initial strategy of focusing on Facebook was later expanded

to the use of other social media platforms.

Adams and Cleary (2007) suggest “The personal touch, even if labor intensive is

still the best way to boost response rates” (p. 113). Regarding to this study, direct

correspondences to journalists and media entrepreneurs increased engagement. The

first week of the launch of the survey, all participating journalism organizations were

notified. NAJA shared the survey to members via their Facebook page. SPJ was one

of the first organizations to distribute the survey to members via email and Twitter. The

response rate increased once direct contact was fostered. The researcher directly

emailed 259 on LinkedIn and 181 on Facebook.

74

The personal touch, especially via Twitter, helped improve the response rate.

For this study, 594 journalists and media entrepreneurs were directly notified via tweets.

Most of those direct contacts were sent in the late afternoon and evening giving

journalists and media entrepreneurs an opportunity to see the messages after their

morning meetings or after the newscasts. The messages were designed to make

completing the survey seem enjoyable. In some cases, GIFs or graphic images were

used to either stand out and to engage individuals to respond. The researcher identified

journalists and media entrepreneurs on Twitter with the use of keywords, such as,

media entrepreneur, journalist, and freelance journalist. These keywords were explored

in both plural and singular use. Once the keywords were explored, accounts identified

the sample size. A tweet was sent out to those individuals directly. During that time,

two observations were made (1) those individuals that were tweeted directly often sent

follow-up tweets saying they had completed the survey, and (2) the response rates

began to increase on survey participation.

For a three-week period, the researcher tweeted daily either directly to

prospective participants and/or sent general mass tweets. The hashtags used in this

investigation included: #mediaentrepreneur, #mediaentrepreneurs, #journos,

#journalists, #journalist, #freelancejournalists, and #freelancejournalist. Hashtags were

such as #CNNlayoffs and #Edshift, an organization working for the development of

media entrepreneurs, also provided connection to the target population for the survey.

Data collection lasted for a five-week period, ending on May 8. Between April 17

to 23, when the researcher utilized direct contact through social media, 106 individual

completed the survey -- the highest level of engagement during the investigation. On

75

April 22 was the largest number at 37 responses. The fourth week 66 responses were

recorded. However, the last week was second largest in engagement with 94

responses.

Instruments

The web-based survey was divided into three sections, which include the

following: part one of demographical information (specific job description either

organized worker, journalists or self-employed, media entrepreneurs), part two

comprised of the comprehensive meaningful work scale, and part three focused on

second portion of demographical information (professional journalism affiliation, race,

and income).

The Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS) was developed by Lips-

Wiersma and Wright (2012) provides a holistic development model for meaningful work.

It is a precise and comprehensive scale to measure meaning in work and life. The

scale was designed based on the responses Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2009)

investigated through participant’s narrative. A 91-item scale was crafted with revisions,

which reduced the scale to 71-items. Lips-Wiersma and Morris instructed participants

to report their importance. A 1-5 Likert scale was utilized to measuring the frequency of

their perceptions of meaning of life and work. Out of the 167 participants, 40 items

arose, with a mean over 4.0 on a 1-5 Likert scale. Additional examination further

reduction emerged with six factors of 28 items. While continuing to develop the scale,

500 surveys were dispersed to full-time employees. Later, Lips-Wiersma and Wright

(2012) crafted a confirmatory factor analysis, which included 275 participants in New

Zealand. The analysis revealed seven constructs representing 28-items of meaningful

work. The final account of the CMWS allows participants to self-report meaningful work

76

on a 1-5 Likert scale with 28 items, which measures constructs of Expressing Full

Potential, Service to Others, Unity with Others, Developing and Becoming Self, Reality,

Inspiration, and Balancing tensions.

Data Collection and Analysis

The online survey was available via Qualtrics. In addition to the general call for

participation from six different media organizations, the researcher made individual

contacts to a total of 1,034 potential participants. Three hundred and fifty-eight

responses were recorded, which would be a response rate of 34.6% based on the

individual contacts. Professional journalism organizations distributed information to

their members; however, it wasn’t until journalists and media entrepreneurs were

directly notified, that participation in the survey increased. As Adams and Cleary noted

concerning the investigation of Just, Levine and Regan, that they were able to garner a

60% response rate. The sample size of the study focused on news directors. Adams

and Cleary (2007) state, “with the assistance of a full research support team that

provided both prior contact with survey recipients and significant follow-up to increase

participation” (p. 107). A completion mean of 60% was achieved. Unlike Just, Levine,

and Regan, in this investigation, the engagement was facilitated by the principal

investigator, which made the best practices of Adams and Cleary imperative. Adams

and Cleary (2007) recommend providing the personal touch to increase engagement,

utilizing technology to provide flexibility, and the value of sharing specifics about what

participants can offer to the investigation.

As recommended by Adams and Cleary (2007), various best practices were

included to increase the response rate. Of primary concern was designing a survey that

77

took less than 10 minutes to complete. A progress bar was added to the survey so that

the participants could see their progress toward survey completion. CMWS was

designed as a forced response ensuring that participants completed the scale. Eight

open-ended questions were added to provide qualitative analysis – with media

entrepreneurs answering four questions and the organizationally employed journalists

answering four questions.

Qualitative Analysis and Validation

Creswell, Shope, Plano Clark, and Green (2006) recommend qualitative research

components be added to qualitative studies to provide “understanding for the research

(p. 8). In this investigation, eight open-ended questions were included in the survey.

Both journalists and media entrepreneurs were asked to comment on their experiences

working in newsrooms and/or the creation of developing their media-related business.

Questions included the factors that led them to leave media organizations and what

were the rewarding qualities of working for media organizations.

In this study, the open-ended questions are to discover themes and patterns

beyond the numerical scores. This approach follows Sandelowski’s (1991) work

encouraging having participants use a narrative approach to help provide “order and

meaning” (p. 161) to their answers. In writing answers to the open-ended questions,

journalists and media entrepreneurs shared their experiences working in newsroom and

the challenges they have faced.

Those qualitative responses also enabled the researcher to draw more meaning

from the scores compiled from the survey. As Creswell (2013) argued,

In the entire qualitative research process, the researchers keeps a focus on learning the meaning that participants hold about the problem or issue,

78

not the meaning the researcher brings to the research or writers from the literature. The participant meanings further suggest multiple perspectives on a topic and diverse views (The characteristics of qualitative research, para. 12)

79

Table 3-1. List of Response Rates of Self-Employed and Organizational Journalists Author Investigation Potential

Participants Responses Response

Rate Eschenfelder (2014)

Why Women Are Leaving in TV News and Why It Matters

986

129

13.1%

Figaro, Nonato, & Grohmann (2012)

The Journalist as “Audience” and “Worker”

304

108

88%

Deprez & Raeymaeckers (2012)

Longitudinal Study: Job Satisfaction Flemish Journalists (2008)

2,230

682

31%

Longitudinal Study: Job Satisfaction Flemish Journalists (2003)

2,257

1,026

45.5%

Born & Witteloostuijn (2012)

Drivers of Freelance Career Success

3,142

1,612

Edstorm & Ladendorf (2012)

Freelance Journalists as a Flexible Workforce in Media

1,500-2,000

60-65%

Massey & Elmore (2011)

Job Satisfaction and Women Freelance Journalists

506

101

20%

Adams & Cleary (2007)

Using Web-Based Technology to Reach Newsroom Respondents (first project)

51%

Using Web-Based Technology to Reach Newsroom Respondents (second project)

50%

Fedler, Buhr, & Taylor (1998)

Journalists Who Leave the New Media Seem Happier

82

62

76%

80

Figure 3-1. Journalists Tweet Response to Survey

(Source: @KortniAlston (2016, April 30) Courtesy of the author’s personal Twitter page.)

81

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

Results of the Study

The survey was designed to determine the meaningfulness of work comparing

organizationally employed journalists and media entrepreneurs. Respondents were

measured using the comprehensive meaningful work scale (CMWS) and open-ended

questions. Many respondents provided details concerning their narratives in job

satisfaction. The qualitative analysis garnered perspectives ranging from limitations to

rewards at work.

The survey was available online via Qualtrics and went live on April 2, 2016, and

was available for five weeks, closing on May 8, 2016.

Respondent Profiles

The respondent profiles are based on the 334 respondents that completed the

demographic section of the survey. More than 68% were organizationally employed

journalists (N=226), and 32% were media entrepreneurs (N=108). Men (N = 95)

comprised 38% of the survey participants, women (N= 156) 62% (N=251). The

majority, 66% identified their work as journalists (TV, radio, print, online), with 32%

identifying themselves as self-employed (entrepreneur, freelancer, contract worker)

(N=334). Eighty-one percent of self-employed journalists considered their work as part

of the mass communications system (N=101). Based on race and ethnicity, most

respondents (52%) identified as White, 37% as African or American/Black, 5% as

Hispanic, 5% as Latino, 4% as Asian, 3% as American Indian/Native American, and 1%

as Arab.

82

The majority of the individuals who participated in the survey held membership

with a professional journalism organization with 28% in the National Association of

Black Journalists, 22% in the Society of Professional Journalists, 10% in Online News

Association, 5% in the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, 3% in the Asian

American Journalist Association, 3% in the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists

Association, and nearly 1% in the Native American Journalists Association. Some

individuals were members of more than one organization. Of the survey’s respondents,

37% were not members of any of those journalism organizations. Nearly, 16%

indicated “other” membership and listed some of the following organizations:

Investigative Reporters and Editors (IRE), Public Radio News Directors Incorporated

(PRNDI), and National Press Photographers Association (NPPA).

Slightly more than half (51.7%) of respondents (N=251) reported that they have a

Bachelor’s Degree, with an additional 23.9% indicating that they held a Master’s

Degree, and 3.98% having a doctorate. Of the remaining respondents, 8.3% indicated

some college, .80% indicated Associate’s Degree, and .80% indicated high school. The

number of years in the industry ranged from one to fifty-seven.

Journalists make up the majority of the participants (67.6%) compared to media

entrepreneurs (32.3%) (N=334). Respondents were given geographical options

concerning where their companies were located. The largest percentage of participants

indicated that they worked in metropolitan area (75.2%) followed by suburban (16.4%)

and rural (8.4%).

Participants were asked to indicate their income level. Of those who reported,

5.74%(N=244) reported less than $10,000, 3.69% reported income between $10,000 to

83

$19,999, 9.43% reported income between $20,000 to $29,999, 13.93% reported

$30,000 to $39,999, 15.16% reported income $40,000 to $49,999, 11.4% indicated

income between $50,000-$59,999, 8.61% reported $60,000 to $69,999, 9.43% reported

$70,000 to $79,999, 7.79% reported $80,000 to $89,999, 2.46% $90,000 to $99,999,

5.74% reported 100,000 to $149,999, and 6.56% reported more than $150,000.

Participants were asked, “How satisfied are you with your income?” They majority of the

respondents reported moderately satisfied 26%, while 17% indicated moderately

dissatisfied followed by 16% extremely dissatisfied, and 13% slightly satisfied (N=241).

Research Questions and Hypothesis

CMWS was used to measure Service to Others, Unity with Others, Expressing

Full Potential, and Developing and Becoming Self. The scale for this investigation

incorporates 28 items. The answer categories range from always (1) to never (5). The

means that have been constructed have been created by the questionnaire. Qualtrics

recorded 358 responses with 60 percent completion rate, which means that 204

completed all elements of the survey from the scale, demographics, and all open-ended

questions. Out of the responses, 226 were used to measure meaningful work.

Journalists made the majority of responses at 165 followed by media entrepreneurs at

61.

RQ1: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally employed journalists

perceive their Service to Others?

H1: More media entrepreneurs than organizationally employed journalists will

find meaning in their work as it relates to Service to Others

Meaning from Service (Service Score) was measured using the average of

responses to CMWS Question 7. Those questions included: “I have a sense of

84

belonging” to “I make a difference that matters to others.” Lower Service Scores were

associated with higher perceived meaning from service. As shown in Table 4-1, the

mean Service Score for journalists was 2.387 (SD=.825, n=165) compared to 1.862 for

media entrepreneurs (SD=.617, n=61).

As shown in Table 4-2, the mean difference in Service Scores between

journalists and media entrepreneurs of .542 was statistically significant at p ≤ .01,

t(224)=4.515, p = 0.000. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is accepted -- Media entrepreneurs

experienced greater meaning from Service to Others than organizationally employed

journalists.

RQ2: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally employed journalists

perceive their Unity with Others?

H2: More journalists will have higher levels of frequency in their work concerning

Unity with Others.

Perceptions of belonging (Unity Score) were measured using the average of

responses to CMWS Questions 6. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “This pathway

refers to the meaningfulness of living together with other human beings” (p. 25). This

pathway deals with teamwork, collaboration, and interconnectedness. Lower Unity

Scores were associated with higher perceived Unity with Others. As shown in Table 4-

3, the mean Unity Score for journalists was 2.49 (SD=.849, n=165) compared to 2.33 for

media entrepreneurs (SD=.962, n=61).

As shown in Table 4-4, the mean difference in Unity Scores between journalists

and media entrepreneurs of .164 was not statistically significant at p ≤ .01, t(224)=1.24,

85

p = 0.164. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 is rejected, as organizationally employed journalists

did not experience greater Unity with Others than media entrepreneurs.

RQ3: How do media entrepreneurs and organizationally employed journalists

perceive their work in terms of enabling them to Express Full Potential?

H3: Media entrepreneurs will report higher levels of Expressing Full Potential

than organizationally employed journalists.

Perceptions of Expression (Expression Score) were measured using the average

of responses to the following CMWS questions: “I create and apply new ideas or

concepts,” “I experience a sense of achievement,” and “I am excited by the available

opportunities for me.” Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “This pathway refers to the

meaningfulness of sounding our own note in the universe” (p. 30). Lower Expressing

full potential scores were associated with higher perceived expression of creativity and

achievement. As shown in Table 4-5, the mean Unity Score for journalists was 2.73

(SD=.949, n=165) compared to 2.12 for media entrepreneurs (SD=.890, n=61).

As shown in Table 4-6, there was a significant difference in mean Expressing Full

Potential scores between journalists and media entrepreneurs t(224)=4.369, p = 0.000.

Therefore, hypothesis 3 was accepted -- media entrepreneurs experienced greater

meaning from Expressing Full Potential than organizationally employed journalists.

RQ4: How do media entrepreneurs and journalists perceive Developing and

Becoming Self?

H4: Media entrepreneurs will have a higher level of Developing and Becoming

Self than organizationally employed journalists.

86

Developing and Becoming Inner Self (Development Score) was measured using

the average of responses to CMWS Question 9. Lower Development Scores were

associated with higher perceived development of inner self. Developing and Becoming

Inner Self score was measured using the sum of responses of three items “In my work,

my sense of what is right and wrong gets blurred,” “I don’t like who I am becoming at

work,” and “At work I feel detached from my real self.” The items are stated in the

negative, therefore, higher Develop and Becoming Inner Self scores were associated

with higher perceived development of inner self. The final research question focuses on

the perception of Developing and Becoming Inner Self between media entrepreneurs

and journalists. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “This pathway or quadrant of the

model refers to the meaningfulness that comes from active involvement with the person

we are becoming as a result of being engaged in our life and work” (p. 20). As shown in

Table 4-7, the mean Developing and Becoming Inner Self score for journalists was 4.32

(SD=.672, n=165) compared to 4.38 for media entrepreneurs (SD=.881, n=61).

As shown in Table 4-8, there was not a significant difference in mean Developing

and Becoming Self scores between journalists and media entrepreneurs t(224)=4.369, p

= 0.000. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected. Media entrepreneurs did not

experience greater meaning from Developing and Becoming Self than organizationally

employed journalists.

To assess CMWS reliability, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients

were calculated. Results of the analysis are reported in Table 4-9. Strong statistically

significant correlations were found between all study variables. The correlation between

Service to Others and Unity with Others r = .511**, p = .000; the correlation between

87

Expressing Full Potential and Developing Inner Self r = -.392**, p = .000. Therefore the

correlation between Expressing Full Potential and Service to Others r = .656**, p = .000.

Expressing Full Potential and Unity with Others r = .506**, p = .000; Developing the

Inner Self and Service to Others r = -.327**, p = .000; Developing the Inner Self and

Unity with Others r = -.419, p = .000; and Developing the Inner Self and Expressing Full

Potential r = -.392**, p = .000.

Qualitative Analysis

The survey included eight open-ended questions, with four questions targeted to

the organizationally employed journalists and four questions targeted to the media

entrepreneurs. Journalist questions addressed the factors that tackled returning to

news organization, rewarding qualities of working in newsrooms, and the limitations of

frustrations. As for media entrepreneurs, many questions replicated some of the

questions journalists were asked; however, it focused on their perception of self-

employment.

Open-Ended Questions and Themes

Journalists Return to News

Seventy-two respondents answered the question, “As a former freelancer or

entrepreneur, what factors led you to accept a job in a media organization?” Several

themes emerged in the response -- pay/income, benefits, and stability. One of the

respondents discussed her journey back to the newsroom.

I worked on staff for few years in native New York, moved to Vermont for 7 years to raise kids and freelanced, moved to Connecticut and took part time staff job, then returned to freelance a major daily and as a wedding photographer up until 2008 crash. Husband lost his job in 2009 with a hostile takeover from a Fortune 500. I worked in a portrait studio for a year before getting full time reporter job in 2011. I am still hanging on, but

88

we did lose our newsroom in February and now work from home-mobile looking to jump to radio.

One of the topics that was shared was income, which often led into comments on

benefits, stability, and the security of stable compensation.

Four respondents spoke to a possible trend of journalists that are working for

news organizations and serving as part-time entrepreneurs.

I am still an entrepreneur. I work full time in TV news and I run a video production company as well. I enjoy what I did with my company more than my main job for the simple fact that I have creative control over everything I work on. The major factor for working in media was to gain experience and make lasting relationships with whose in the business. Working for a well-known company is a big plus too!

Another respondent shared the value and the stability of working for an organization

and self-employment while dealing with restructuring.

The commitment of a guaranteed platform to write and edit and get my views published, plus to come out of the solo silo and work with a collaborative group, especially with a guy like me with experience in one of the country’s top publications before recent downsizing. I still freelance on the side.

Journalists Rewards of Working In News

Nearly half of the sample, 155 respondents, provided brief comments on the

question: “What do you consider to be the rewarding qualities of working in a media

organization?” Several themes that emerged were sharing information/stories,

communities, and work that makes a difference. Journalists shared how passionate

they are about providing information to the public and the impact of their work. Overall,

their responses seem to overlap with all three. One respondent states, “Doing what I

love. Connecting with people. Keeping people informed.” The sense of community

internally and externally was shared among journalists. One respondent stated:

89

The more you’re out in the community, the more sense of belonging you have. Another benefit is that you’re representing the organization. You’re not constantly having to pitch yourself to why outlets should pick you up for stories and people typically don’t ask after you gain credible experience.

Another theme was the benefit of working with a team.

Working in a group. Team dynamics. I like working with others and the exchange of ideas. I am a ‘people person’ and enjoying working with different personalities. I also like the station environment and cache.

Serving others with a shared sense of purpose was also reported. Additionally, having

a greater reach of people to impact.

Journalists Limitations In News

One hundred and fifty-six respondents answered the question, “What do you

consider to be the limitations or frustrations of working in a media organizations?” The

themes that emerged were work, time, and resources. Work was mentioned by 34

respondents, which ranged from imbalance in their work and personal life to the work

conditions. One respondent wrote:

Death by meetings. Every idea killed, water-downed, and over-thought in our organization. A reporter or producer may have an idea for a big picture project or new segment, then once management gets involved, talks about it for months, and then the idea is dead or neutered. Most of the people who work here are incredibly talented and competent. But, their creativity is often shifted because there’s a fear to do anything new. If a new segment or program falls flat, let it fail and quit doing it. It’s better than always being safe, which in my opinion, is beginning to sound dated. There also seems to be and ‘us and them’ mentality between management and reporters and producers. They don’t provide us with the needed resources and never even stop by the newsroom.

Overall, work conditions seem be a pattern, specifically, time and resources. As one

respondent wrote, “Limited time, scant resources and funding pressures are bitter

enemies to good journalism.” Another responded, “Not having the time or the resources

– whether other co-workers, or the equipment – to gather and tell viewers all of what’s

90

happening around them.” However, analyzing the three themes, the work, “lack” was

used to qualify these element. Respondents discussed a “lack of flexibility,” “lack of

time,” and “lack of resources.” Some also noted a lack of diversity in the workplace.

One respondent states, “Lack of racial diversity in newsroom management and

ownership.”

Journalists Perceptions of Work Satisfaction

One hundred and twenty-four respondents shared their perceptions on the

question, “As a journalist, what else would you like to share about your work experience

related to work satisfaction?” The themes that emerged are feelings, management, and

people. Several respondents discussed “feelings” or to “feel.” These text entries

focused on positive and negative emotions. One journalist shared that journey in detail:

Came into the industry full of hope and promise, and now after working for one company in particular for about 9 months. I feel hopeless, burnout, and am considering leaving the industry. It’s frustrating when you have a management team who doesn’t seem about (1) proper communication: sending out schedules with major changes very late, sending out new company policies late, sending out information for our new ‘sweeps’ program via email and assigning stories without discussion or without including the reporter in the story pitching/information process, etc (2) supplying employees with working equipment or enough equipment to do their jobs (i.e. four reporters sharing two cameras, two computers, and three cards and still all expected to turn stories as mmjs [multimedia journalists] on a daily basis (3) giving feedback to help your talent grow and thus make your station better people in public settings and still provide no concrete feedback about how to improve (4) the community that we work to inform (we never participate in any community events as a station, a few do it on their own).

Media Entrepreneurs Self-Employment Journey

Fifty-five respondents shared their perceptions on the question, “What factors led

you to leave a media organization to become an entrepreneur?” The themes that arose

were layoffs, flexibility, and opportunity. One respondent stated, “Leadership. Growth

91

opportunity with ownership credit. New experience. To be something instead of being

part of something.”

One respondent wrote:

My values don’t align with the hectic pace of the newsroom. I didn’t feel like I had enough time to cover story effectively. I was stressed and burned out. In order to have children, I had to make a change. As a reporter, you’re never off. When my news director demanded we cover each story and include diversity, whether it fit or not, because most of our viewers were African American and we need higher ratings that was the proverbial straw that broke the camel’s back. The call of being my own boss was very appealing and relaxing, compared to the stress of the newsroom.

More comments echoed the value of business development shared with opportunity to

create meaningful content. One respondent stated, “I was fired being a news

photographer, not really getting to see the brighter sides of life. Now the work I do is

inspirational and reflects people enjoying life.”

Layoffs were a major factor in moving some to become media entrepreneurs.

One respondent states, “Layoff, [being] over 50, making too much money, therefore

replaced.” Others were specific to the size of the newsroom organizations, “I was laid

off from a major metro daily,” stated one respondent.

Media Entrepreneurs Rewards of Self-Employment

Seventy-four participants responded to the question, “What do you consider to be

rewarding qualities of working as a freelancer or entrepreneur?” The themes that arose

were freedom, projects, and flexibility. The majority of the responses were focused on

freedom. Of the 74 responses, 15 mentioned freedom, which had a range from editorial

freedom to business development. One respondent states, “The freedom to pick and

choose clients. The variety of work, I’ve worked in just about every industry. LOL.

There’s never a dull moment.” Having the freedom was shared with others combined

92

with content creation while other respondent states, “Editorial freedom, ability to

experiment with new technologies with less pushback. Able to take bigger risks.”

Another wrote: “I love the freedom of writing about interests me and raising awareness

about issues and cause I care about. This makes my work fulfilling and gives me a

great sense of freedom.” Thus, that sense of fulfilling one’s potential with the desire of

creating meaningful projects was shared. One respondent wrote:

Quality completed projects. Happy crew, happy clients. Referrals as a result of great work not follow up calls and badgering. Time to think, live, and aspire to do which allows the room to fall in love with what I am doing all over again.

Additionally, flexibility of work life balance while fulfilling one’s potential was discovered.

One respondent shared their experience:

Flexibility to be with my family when I want and vacation when I want. Additionally, I love the aha moments when I challenge my employees or contractors to do something they didn’t even realize they could and they do. And, I love getting a new contract signed. That person/organization trusts us. That feels awesome, when someone trust that me/our company is worth the money we charge, to accomplish great things.

Media Entrepreneurs Limitation in Self-Employment

Seventy-four respondents answered the question, “What do you consider to be

the limitation or frustration of working as a freelancer or entrepreneur?” The themes that

emerged were income/money/pay, business/clients, and working with others. Media

entrepreneurs discussed a lack of money, unstable income, and access to capital as

limitations. One respondent states, “Financial compensation and cash flow is generally

low creating and holding a position within the organization.” While one another stated,

“Pay rates are bad because of all he content mills and people willing to crank out less-

than-polished content for free.” There is a pattern in the challenges in compensation

and business development. One respondent states, “The business building part. I

93

understand it and it’s taken all of my savings so financially I am starting over. But, I

can’t wait until the checks start pouring in from the seeds that I planted. However,

media entrepreneurs discuss the tirelessness of working in self-employment in

comparison to organizationally employed workers. One respondent shared:

It. Never. Stops. Most people, who just I have a job, can leave it. Entrepreneurship is a lifestyle choice, not a job. Hunting for new work, or more work, when there’s not a lot of work. Hiring people who don’t have our same values and firing them.

Lastly, people and working with individuals was also discussed among the group.

Missing the Unity of others was shared and an entrepreneur states:

Not having regular dialogue with people to bounce ideas off – except my editors via email. Can be isolating. Also, it’s a very hard way to make a living. And, constantly having to look for new work pitching new ideas to editors while working on a lot of simultaneous assignments.

Media Entrepreneurs Perception of Work Satisfaction

Fifty-five respondents provided comments on the question, “As a entrepreneur,

what else would you like to share about your work experience related to work

satisfaction?” The themes that emerged are future, freelance/work, and fulfillment.

Media entrepreneurs shared comments about their enthusiasm for their work: “I love it,”

“I love my life as a freelance journalist,” and “Even with the hustle, I am much happier

working for myself. It would take a major offer to get me back to a media company.”

This level of commitment to building their companies was a pattern. One respondent

states:

Though I am always working, it was like that when I worked for a major daily also. You are on a day off and you see a news story, something just clicks. The same thing happens now, but because I do what I love am only answerable to me, I am much more avid about it. That means that as my employee, I go above and beyond, which makes me satisfied as a boss. And as a boss -- I appreciate myself and the work I do, which makes me satisfied as an employee.

94

While some respondents discussed the importance of self-employment, they shared

future seemed brighter. One respondent states, “Satisfaction as self-employed is what I

want my future employees to realize. Also, future was defined by respondents as future

of journalism. Another respondent states,

As an entrepreneur I’m focused on the future of media and technologies. I can emphasize how media will evolve and look like in the near future at least. But, it hard to find an investor who would follow your vision and be a partner in a project claiming to bring future into life at the current moment. Most investors are cowards when it comes to such projects.

95

Table 4-1. Mean Service Scores Sample N Mean SD

Journalists 165 2.39 .825

Media entrepreneurs 61 1.86 .617

Lower score indicates higher levels of meaningful work

Table 4-2. Mean Difference between Service Scores Serving Scores F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-tailed) Mean

Difference Equal variance assumed 13.552 .000 4.515 224 .000 .542

Equal variance not assumed 5.150 143 .000 .542

Table 4-3. Mean Unity Scores Sample n Mean SD

Journalists 165 2.49 .849

Media entrepreneurs 61 2.33 .962

Lower score indicates higher levels of meaningful work

Table 4-4. Mean Difference between Unity Scores Serving Scores F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-tailed) Mean

Difference Equal variance assumed 1.978 .161 1.24 224 .215 .164

Equal variance not assumed 1.17 142 .243 .164

Table 4-5. Mean Expressing Full Potential Sample n Mean SD

Journalists 165 2.73 .949

Media entrepreneurs 61 2.12 .890

Lower score indicates higher levels of meaningful work

96

Table 4-6. Mean Difference between Expressing Full Potential Scores Serving Scores F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-tailed) Mean

Difference Equal variance assumed 2.327 .129 4.369 224 .000 .611

Equal variance not assumed 4.501 131 .000 .611

Table 4-7. Mean Developing the Inner Self Sample N Mean SD

Journalists 165 4.32 .672

Media Entrepreneurs 61 4.38 .881

Table 4-8. Mean Difference between Developing the Inner Self Scores Serving Scores F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-tailed) Mean

Difference Equal variance assumed 2.550 .112 -.557 224 .578 -.0613

Equal variance not assumed -.493 87.1 .623 -.0613

Table 4-9. Pearson Correlation of Pathways SERVICE UNITY EXPRESS DEVELOP

SERVICE Pearson Correlation 1 .511** .656** -.327**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 226 226 226 226

UNITY Pearson Correlation .511** 1 .506** -.419**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 226 226 226 226

EXPRESS Pearson Correlation .656** .506** 1 -.392**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 226 226 226 226

DEVELOP Pearson Correlation -.327** -.419** -.392** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 226 226 226 226

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

97

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION

Research Contributions and Implications

The state of journalism has been a topic of dialogue for both scholars and

practitioners in the 21st Century. McChesney (2012) states, “Understanding ‘journalism

as a public good’ also helps explain one of the persistent questions I am asked when I

discuss the crisis of journalism” (p. 688). With disruption in the media industry, layoffs,

and restructuring, organizational goals and priorities of job satisfaction are

advantageous to journalism and journalists. Beam (2006) states, “News workers tend

to be more satisfied if they thought their employer cared about journalists quality and if

they perceived that journalistic quality was rising” (p. 180). Rapid organizational

changes in the industry, consisting of buyouts, layoffs, and job insecurity, drives long-

term concerns about the future of journalism (Ekdale et al, 2015).

Layoffs have become part of the organizational shift of journalists moving into

self-employment. This form of restructuring has not only left those pushed out, but

those that remain in news organizations. Ekdale, Tully, Harmensen and Singer (2015)

examined news work within a culture of job insecurity. They state, “Workers who

remain employed with the downsizing company, the so-called ‘survivors,’ wrestle with

grief, guilt, anger, and doubt. Surviving a layoff can be so worrisome that survivors can

experience more stress and less autonomy than workers who have lost their jobs and

have found new employment” (Ekdale et al, 2015, p. 385). Understanding the

meaningfulness of work to those working in the media – both those working in media

organizations and those who are media entrepreneurs – is of value this investigation to

journalists, media entrepreneurs, managers, news organizations, professional

98

organizations, and educational programs that work with those who aspire to go into

media work. Meaningful work and the well-being of news workers serves them as

individuals, serves us as a collective, and serves society. Measuring meaningful work

among this population is imperative. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2009) provide insight on

the map of meaning and the value of a theoretical framework that can also be applied.

Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2009) argue,

The scholarship and practice of the ‘management of meaning’ often treats the employee as an empty vessel that somehow needs to be provided with meaning through a series of techniques in exchange for which the employee is give more discretionary effort to the organization. Undoubtedly, such practices have, at least in part, become so popular because they responded to the basic human need for meaningful work (p. 508)

Service to Others

Service to Others is the quadrant that was investigated in the first hypothesis. As

hypothesized, media entrepreneurs reported more than journalists in finding meaning in

their work. This hypothesis was supported in the data collected. Serving others

contributes to the experience of meaningful work through “making a difference,” and

“meeting the needs of humanity” (Lips-Wiersma and Morris, 2009) examined

discriminating between meaningful work and the management of meaning, they

discussed the map of meaning. In Service to Others meeting the needs of humanity is

a contributor when individuals connect work to a transcendent cause, which addresses

social, economic, or environmental problems.

It was assumed that media entrepreneurs would report higher levels of Service to

Others based on autonomy. However, legacy may serve a contributing factor. Some

entrepreneurs may create meaning based on community leadership and global

citizenship. Additionally, they may find meaning in giving back that leaves a lasting

99

impression that serves their clients, industry, and families. Legacy and Coombs, Shipp,

and Christensen (2008) examined entrepreneurs as change agents: antecedents and

moderators of individual-level philanthropic behavior. Their investigation provides

researchers with a deeper understanding of the antecedents of entrepreneurship in

relationship to philanthropic giving. Coombs et al. (2008) state, “. . . we propose that

entrepreneurs will be philanthropic when seeking immortality, when they are concerned

with how they are remembered after their death, and when they wish to provide support

for future generations” (p. 7). Their contributions help in the development of

understanding entrepreneurship from the firm level to the individual level.

Adam Grant explores why helping others drives our success. He segments

individuals into three categories, which include givers, takers, and matchers. Grant

(2013) states, “Ultimately, I want to argue that while givers and takers may have equally

large networks, givers are able to produce far more lasting value through their networks,

and in way that might not seem obvious” (p. 31). The data in this study may imply that

media entrepreneurs that have grown their network as journalists continue to increase

that network as entrepreneurs. With that implication, their giving approach to Service to

Others serves them as entrepreneurs. Adams cites LinkedIn founder Red Hoffman

states, “It seems counterintuitive, but the more altruistic your attribute, the more benefits

you will gain from the relationship” (p. 31).

Unity with Others

The study found that there was not a difference in the perception of Unity with

Others between organizationally employed journalists and media entrepreneurs. Lips-

Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “At the heart of this pathway is understanding that

humanity is essentially one and that experiencing this is what enriches our humanity” (p.

100

25). In their workshops, many individuals described it as teamwork, community, and

interconnectedness. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “Synergy is the result of

more than one person pooling energy” (p. 26).

The hypothesis stated that organizationally employed journalists would have

higher levels of Unity with Others. That was based on the assumption that the

workplace environment of a media organization would provide more personal contacts

and more of a connection with others. The media entrepreneurs, although not based in

a newsroom with other employees, may find the same connection with people through

their work with on projects. However, more data collection may provide deeper insight

on media entrepreneurs and journalists levels of Unity with Others.

Expressing Full Potential

As noted previously, Expressing Full Potential is comprised of three themes,

which include creating, achieving, and influencing. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011)

state, “At the heart of this pathway are the concepts that we are all unique, and that we

are responsible for bringing our unique gifts and talents into the world” (p. 30). Lips-

Wiersma and Morris (2011) workshop participants shared the narrative, “Doing my best

work at all times” and “Freedom to express” (p. 31). In this investigation, the

hypothesis was supported with media entrepreneurs experiencing greater meaning from

Expressing Full Potential than journalists. The assumption was constructed on the

value of the work of the entrepreneur based on what Cromwell and Naughton (2003)

call the internal qualities that foster “internal qualities that foster that growth of people

contribute to a community of persons” (p. 72).

Based on the opened-ended comments by organizationally employed journalists,

many found their work to be top-down managed, with their supervisors dictating their

101

work and often limiting their work due to organizational processes or inadequate support

(i.e., equipment or support personnel). Many of the media entrepreneurs were

enthusiastic about their ability to select their own projects and clients and also did not

have the external limitations of a bad supervisor.

Developing and Becoming Self

Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “At the heart of this pathway is the idea

that unexamined life is not worth living, and who we become as a results of being

engaged in work, and in other parts of our lives, greatly matters to us as human beings”

(p. 20). The hypothesis that media entrepreneurs would have a higher level in

Developing and Becoming Self was rejected. More data collection between these two

groups would serve scholars and practitioners. As previously noted, Massey and

Elmore explored female freelance journalists being happier working for themselves.

Massey and Elmore (2011) state, “With few exceptions, they did not regret going into

business for themselves as freelance journalists” (p. 681). Their findings suggest that

freelance journalism is more family-friendly than working for a news organization. That

ability to have a more flexible schedule to accommodate family was a theme in the

responses for this survey. For media entrepreneurs the experience of self-employment

provides not only personal growth, but the value of being true to self with “The freedom

to be me” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 24).

Future Research

Future research on meaningful work of organizationally employed journalists and

media entrepreneurs benefits both scholarship and the industry. Lips-Wiersma and

Morris (2009) recommend four avenues for understanding meaningful work. Their

recommendations would further serve news workers. The four suggestions are (1)

102

understand the intrinsic nature of mean-making, (2) determine why individuals once

being called into higher aspirations search for discrepancies, (3) increase diversity

among cultures, spiritual and human purpose, and (4) balance the range of life roles on

moral issues. While journalists continue to navigate the industry further understanding

of the career intentions and the levels of meaningful work. Lips-Wiersma and Morris’s

suggestions speak to this population known for atypical work schedules and high

aspirations.

As news industry continue to go through disruption, meaningful work is key.

Meredith Wells-Lesley discuss the importance of meaningful work in employee

engagement. Individuals have stronger motivation when there is a pursuit of meaning

in their work (Wells-Lesley, 2013). She urges managers to promote learning more

about employees’ goals and create roles will allow them to express their best self.

Employee engagement also involves employees learning a new skill while giving them a

sense of mastery. Wells-Lesley (2013) states, “Give employees thorough information

about the organization, hot it works and how it is performing. Let employees ‘see the

books’ and explain how their roles are vitally important to the organization as a whole”

(para 14). She also stresses the importance of autonomy and having employees

involved in decision-making in their work, which permits individuals to utilize creativity

and innovation. Well-Lesley (2013) states,

Breaks, even short ones for a walk or lunch in the park, can renew the spirit and create positive energy. Second, look for opportunities to be creative and to make your work more meaningful. Keep an eye for projects and tasks that you will enjoy and talk to your supervisor about incorporating them into your role. Similarly, realize that you are influenced by those around you, so spend your time with co-workers who energize you, not those who deplete your energy.

103

Incorporating these factors will be advantageous for organizationally employed

journalists, as well as, the following factors listed below.

Happiness at Work

In the June, 2015 issue of Live Happy magazine, five network journalists were

featured on the cover with the headline “Good Morning America is happy at work.” The

article captioned “Happiness: It’s Good for Business” included an adjacent picture of

Robyn Roberts, news anchor for Good Morning America. The article examined the

happy traits of companies and featured Good Morning America news team to further

understand how they maintain a positive work environment and weather challenges as

a news organization. Ginger Zee, ABC correspondent, stated,

These aren’t my co-workers, they’re like my brothers and sisters. And having not just the other four in front of the camera, but an entire team who won’t let you stumble or that’s there like a loving family member when you’re having a bad day, makes the good days all more special (Roberts-Grey, 2015, p. 56).

This sentiment was echoed by her coworkers, “Mutual respect is one of the team’s

strongest assets,” said George Stephanopoulous, ABC news anchor (Roberts-Grey,

2015, p. 57). Fisher (2009) states, “The importance of helping employees to be happy

at work may be increasing. There is a widespread consensus that employment

relationships are changing. Employers and employees are general more loosely

connected” (p. 404).

The Poynter Institute, which provides training and support for journalists and

media executives, has understood the importance of happiness at work. On May 16,

2012, Poynter announced Jill Geisler’s practical leadership from her book Work Happy

What Great Bosses Know. Geisler was one of the first female news directors in the

104

television industry. She discussed motivation, employee engagement, and

communication in the workplace during her session. Geisler (2012) states,

Starting in the early ‘90s, I was invited to serve as occasional guest faculty for the institute’s management seminars. It was there that I began to frame and give form to the management ideas and techniques I’d adopted or abandoned. I shared my successes and failures in ways that helped other supervisors improve their performance (p. xvi)

Like Geisler, former news managers, are vital to serve as organizational support for

news executives. Future research must be done on the well-being, employee

employment, and meaning for news workers, media entrepreneurs, and news

executives.

Additionally, affectivity and character strengths will be beneficial to this

population. Lyubomirsky, King, and Diener examined the benefits of frequent positive

affect. They addressed if happiness leads to success. Lyubomirsky et al., (2005)

states, “Furthermore, the data suggest that the success of happy people may be

mediated by the effects of positive affect and the characteristics that it promotes” (p.

846). Character strengths will also provide insight on well-being and life satisfaction

between journalists and media entrepreneurs. Park, Peterson, and Seligman (2004)

investigated characters strengths, well-being, and life satisfaction among 5,299 adults

from the Value in Action Inventory of Strengths. Park et al. (2004) states,

This is a preliminary study of which character strengths are most strongly linked to fulfillment, a question left previously to armchair speculation. We find that hope, zest, gratitude, curiosity, and love are most strongly associated with life satisfaction, and modesty and intellectual strengths least so. To the extent that interventions strive to build life satisfaction, the strengths most robustly associated with well-being might be considered prime targets (p. 617).

Ron Friedman examined the best places to work. He discusses the art and

science of creating an extraordinary workplace. Friedman (2014) states, “The bottom

105

line for many of the world’s most profitable organizations is this: Investing in workplace

happiness doesn’t cost their company money –it ensures they stay on top” (p. xiii). He

argues that investors are taking notice and references Google, Facebook and Wegman

as exemplars. Google is known for innovation and it’s the environment that they have

created to ignite it. At Google, employee’s experience complimentary food selection of

artisan dishes, massages, haircuts, and doctor visits. Further research can determine if

those kinds of business practices need to be replicated in some form with news

organizations to improve the morale and productivity of employees. Some of these

measures can be advantageous in retention of media professionals with a focus on

well-being and job satisfaction.

Part-Time Entrepreneur

In this study, the qualitative analysis provided insight on journalists working for

news organization while working as part-time entrepreneurs. Kameliia Petrova

examines part-time entrepreneurship and wealth effects. Petrova (2005) states,

“Previous studies on entrepreneurship do not deal with part-timers. In contrast, a recent

survey on the establishment of new business reports that 80 percent of nascent

entrepreneurs also hold regular wage jobs” (p. 1). Part-time entrepreneur is explicated

as, “Part-time entrepreneurs are people who work regular wage job some of the time

and work at their own business the other part of the time. . . .” (Petrova, 2005, p. 24). In

a sample of 1052 individuals, 663 were entrepreneurs, and 469 were part-time while

194 were full-time. Petrova developed a mode of entrepreneurial choice to measure if

entrepreneurs are credit restrained. Petrova (2005) states, “The probability of starting a

new business and wealth are positively correlated if and only if there are credit

106

constraints. An entrepreneur who is wealthier should shift his time a lot more into his

business as a result, because the credit constraints would have been relaxed” (p. 10).

Future research can investigate part-time entrepreneurship among

organizationally employed journalists – determining how that combination can affect the

individual’s work satisfaction and can contribute to the productivity of the media

organization. A longitudinal study would provide context on this group further examining

differences in gender, race, and age.

Curriculum Development

The movement of positive psychology serves as a value for scholars and

practitioners. Seligman (2012) states, “So the goal of positive psychology in well-being

theory is to measure and to build human flourishing. Achieving this goal starts by

asking what really makes us happy” (p. 29). The Windesheim University School of

Journalism offers a journalism course that has incorporated positive psychology into the

curriculum. The course emphasizes constructive journalism – journalism’s importance

to society. The program is designed to help journalists see how their work should be

tied to an effort to seek change. The approach provides a sixth W to the: who, what,

where, when, why, with the addition of “what now?” Many Scandinavian media

organizations are embracing constructive journalism, which is known to increase

subscribers and audience loyalty (Constructive Journalism Isn’t Just a Fad, 2016). This

strategy and approach can serve journalism programs and news organizations in the

United States. Students who complete a curriculum that includes an emphasis on

constructive journalism are more likely to have higher perceptions in two of the Map of

Meaning Quadrants – Developing and Becoming Inner Self and expressing Full

Potential.

107

The results of this study also would support the need for

journalism/communications programs to include entrepreneurial journalism as part of

the required curriculum. The open-ended responses of participants indicate that many in

media careers move between organizationally employed journalism positions and

entrepreneurial work, depending on their family situation and changes in the media

industry. So having training in what is involved in being an entrepreneur would be

beneficial to all journalism students. Entrepreneurial Journalism is being offered as a

degree option at CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, which can be obtained as a

certificate or advanced level degree. Arizona State University Walter Cronkite School of

Journalism has a new media innovation and entrepreneurship lab. The infrastructure

provides journalism a space to work with business, engineering, and design students.

The students are encouraged to innovate to cultivate cutting-edge products.

Journalism programs can help equip students with the competencies to innovate

and understand business development and also can include courses that focus on

organizational behavior, wellness, and positive psychology, which can address work-life

balance, meaningful work, and burnout.

Journalists Engagement

Adams and Cleary’s (2008) examination of using web-based technology to reach

newsroom respondents was advantageous in the construction of strategy for this

investigation. Their best practices in newsroom-based research projects must continue

to be utilized and shared among mass communications scholars. They argued the

importance of the personal touch to increase the response rates among journalists.

They also added that even though that personal contact is labor intensive it still is the

best way to increase engagement. In this investigation, it was extremely helpful. The

108

researcher sent nearly 600 direct tweets. This form of engagement was advantageous

to increasing the response rate. With journalists having the ability to respond directly to

the researcher and share the survey within their network. The level of engagement is

key. For a mass communication researcher to engage journalists, it is vital to utilize

technology to share research. Further research can address the effectiveness of

different social media in terms of promoting survey responses. The use of social media

as part of the research process also is important for visibility of the researcher. To

better engage journalists, mass communication researchers may also need to increase

their visibility among this population – by being active on social media -- to build trust

with the survey population group and promote the value of the research agenda.

Professional journalism organizations can help serve researchers in levels of

visibility and the salience of mass communications research. Further research can

determine how researchers and professional journalism organizations can work

together to provide access to the organizations’ membership and also enable the

organizations to use the results of the research to improve their effectiveness in offering

services for their memberships.

Meaningful Work Best Practices for News Organizations

Based on this investigation, three main takeaways will serve practitioners and

educators, helping build employee engagement and garner strategic direction in

curriculum development. The three factors are (1) autonomy, (2) a need to serve, and

(3) balance.

Media entrepreneurs shared that freedom was paramount. One respondent

stated, “More freedom to do things my way.” While another stated, “Freedom to

express why certain topics matter.” These narratives made my media entrepreneurs can

109

help news managers create meaningful work in the newsrooms. For example, news

managers should consider creating more opportunities for organizationally employed

journalists that emphasize levels of autonomy. This can come in a form of creating

systems to share ideas to help grow the news organization or storytelling strategies.

Secondly, journalists shared the value of service. One respondent stated, “It is

satisfying to know you are providing a service to the community and the world.” This is

good news for news managers. Journalists are finding meaning in serving others in the

community. News managers can continue to create a culture that bridges community

and news-gathering. Journalists may also find service internally within news

organizations. This investigation found journalists using social media as a tool to not

only share information but to connect with other journalists. NABJ, for example, has

several Facebook pages that provide support and build community for the members,

from recognizing accomplishments to providing advice on the industry.

In addition, the importance of work balance was shared by media entrepreneurs

and organizationally employed journalists. In this investigation, one journalists states,

“It the small things that count. Many of us, did not select this career path because of

money we are in it because we love it. It is difficult to create, find and keep work/life

balance.” It will be imperative for news managers to work on creating newsroom with

balance. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) states, “Protecting the Self from overwork

versus the needs of client/patients/customers” (p. 170). Due to the demands of the

news business, news managers must create cultures with the expectation of working

while on vacation and being on-call when there is a breaking news story. Because of

those 24/7 work demands, news managers could explore other ways of helping promote

110

the well-being of news workers, perhaps taking the cue from Silicon Valley and offering

massages or car washes.

For journalism educators, understanding meaningful work serves as a proactive

tool to add to their curriculum. Courses can provide students with training in how to

identify story ideas that provide service to the community and help them in how to pitch

those stories, which may not always fit into the standard news values, to news directors

and editors. Journalism students should have training in entrepreneurism to help them

recognize the potential for media work outside traditional news models. Such courses

also would enable students to develop skills that they would need to be successful

entrepreneurs, including developing their own business plan.

Conclusion

Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2011) state, “To be human is to be in search of

meaning, energized by what meaningful to us and able to be our best selves when we

firmly grounded in that which has meaning to us” (p. 197). For Paley, Sarnoff and

Neuharth, that meaning seemingly can be garnered by the assumption of Expressing

Full Potential by creating, achieving, and influencing. Creation in the map of meaning is

“energy towards a vision” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2011, p. 31). As early broadcast

rivals Paley and Sarnoff, these media giants not only had an outlet for expression, but,

an infrastructure for achievement. The subtheme of achieving is evident with Paley,

Sarnoff, and Neuharth as exemplars of success, ambition, and recognition. In short,

their legacies speak to strategy of monetization; however, their quest still held

constructs of meaning, which is an impactful lesson for journalists and media

entrepreneurs in navigating disruption. As Pamela Slim (2013) states,

111

No one is looking out for your career anymore. You must find meaning, locate opportunities, sell yourself, and plan for failure, calamity, and unexpected disasters. You must develop a set of skills that makes you able to earn an income in as many was as possible (Your Body of Work, para. 22).

She discusses that the world of work has changed and individuals must focus on

meaning, skills, mastery, and development of their professional network, factors that will

serve journalists, media entrepreneurs and those in industries that are facing

restructuring.

112

APPENDIX A INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD CONTENT

Purpose of the research study: The purpose of this study is to understand the perceptions of journalists and media entrepreneurs working in television, radio, and print publications. What you will be asked to do in the study: At your convenience and from the location of your choosing, you will be asked to answer a series of questions about your work concerning purpose and job satisfaction. You will also be asked demographic questions such as your age, gender, and non-profit professional journalism affiliation. Time required: 10 minutes Risk and Benefits: No risks will be involved. There are no direct benefits to you for participating in the study. Confidentiality: Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Any information collected by this survey will remain confidential and will be used only for research purposes. No Identifying information such as your name or email address will be collected. The survey has also been designed to remove your IP address from the results. There is a minimal risk that security of any online data may be breached, but since (1) no identifying information will be collected, (2) the online host uses several layers of encryption and firewalls, and (3) your data will be removed from the server soon after you complete the study, it is highly unlikely that a security breach of the online data will result in any adverse consequences for you. Voluntary participation: Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating. Right to withdraw from the study: You have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. You do not have to answer any question on the survey that you do not wish to answer. If using Qualtrics (MTurk) OnThere is a minimal risk that security of any online data may be breached, but our survey host (QUALTRICS) uses strong encryption and other data security methods to protect your information. Only the researchers will have access to your information on the Qualtrics server. No identifying information will be collected or connected with your responses, which will be anonymous. Your MTurk Worker ID will be used and will not be shared with anyone outside the research team. It will it not be linked with your survey responses, and will be removed from the data set once compensation has been made. (Note that your Worker ID can be linked to your Amazon user’s public profile page, so you may wish to restrict what information you choose to share in your public profile.)

113

For Facebook Recruitment Facebook collects information about user actions and links followed, and may use this information for various purposes and share with other parties.

Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:

Kortni Alston, Doctoral Candidate, University of Florida College of Journalism and Communications, kalston@ufl.edu, 832-425-8602

Dr. Julie Dodd, Professor of the Department of Journalism, University of Florida College of Journalism and Communications, jdodd@jou.ufl.edu 352-392-0452.

Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:

IRB02 Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; phone 392-0433

Agreement:

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description

Yes (1) No (2)

114

APPENDIX B SURVEY INSTRUMENT

IfNoIsSelected,ThenSkipToEndofSurvey Q2 Have you participated in this survey before? m Yes (1) m No (2) IfYesIsSelected,ThenSkipToThankyousomuchforyourparticipate... Q3 For each question, unless otherwise instructed, please select the statement that most closely relates to you. Are you a working journalist or have previously worked for a news organization? m Yes (1) m No (2) Q4 Do you work as a… m Journalist (TV, Radio, Print, Online) (1) m Self-employed (entrepreneur, freelancer, contract worker, etc.) (2) IfJournalist(TV,Radio,Print...IsSelected,ThenSkipToForeachoftheitems,pleaseindicate... Q5 As a self-employed journalist, are you and your work part of the mass communications systems (newspapers, broadcasting, cable, or online)? m Yes (1) m No (2)

115

Q6 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

Ihaveasenseofbelonging.

(1)

m m m m m m

Icantalkopenly

aboutmyvalueswhen

wearemaking

decisions.(2)

m m m m m m

Wetalkaboutwhatmatterstous.(3)

m m m m m m

Wesupporteachother.

(4)m m m m m m

Wereassureeachother.

(5)m m m m m m

Weenjoyworking

together.(6)m m m m m m

116

Q7 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

IfeelItrulyhelpouraudienceand/ormyclients.(1)

m m m m m m

Wecontributeto

contentand/or

servicesthatenhance

humanwell-beingand/or

theenvironment.

(2)

m m m m m m

Whatwedois

worthwhile.(3)

m m m m m m

Wespendalotoftimeonthingsthataretrulyimportant.

(4)

m m m m m m

117

Q8 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

Icreateandapplynewideasor

concepts.(1)

m m m m m m

Imakeadifferencethatmatterstoothers.(2)

m m m m m m

Iexperienceasenseof

achievement.(3)

m m m m m m

Iamexcitedbythe

availableopportunitiesforme.(4)

m m m m m m

118

Q9 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

Inmywork,mysenseofwhatisrightandwrong

getsblurred.(1)

m m m m m m

Idon’tlikewhoIam

becomingatwork.(2)

m m m m m m

AtworkIfeel

detachedfrommy

realself.(3)

m m m m m m

119

Q10 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

Atwork,wefaceuptoreality.(1)

m m m m m m

Atwork,wearetolerantofbeing

human.(2)

m m m m m m

Atwork,werecognizethatlifeisimperfectandthatisOK.(3)

m m m m m m

120

Q11 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

Ifeelinspiredatwork.(1)

m m m m m m

Theworkweare

doingmakesmefeelhopefulaboutthefuture.(2)

m m m m m m

121

Q31 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only. If you are a journalist think of how these questions focus on your work in your news organization concerning professional development, relationship with colleagues at work, audience, and your service to the community. If you are self-employed media entrepreneur think about how these questions focus on your work as it contributes to your clients, employees, colleagues, community, and professional development. Answer each on a 5-point scale from always to never, please indicate to the extent to which the following statements currently describe you. You also may indicate NA (not applicable) if the item does not apply to your current working situation.

Always(11) Mostofthetime(12)

Abouthalfthetime(13)

Sometimes(14)

Never(15) NotApplicable

(16)

Thevisionwe

collectivelyworktoward

inspiresme.(1)

m m m m m m

Iexperienceasenseofspiritual

connectionwithmywork.(2)

m m m m m m

122

Q12 For each of the items, please indicate the frequency at which this item occurs in your work. Please respond to the items with reference to your current workplace only.

Always(1) Mostofthetime(2)

Abouthalfthetime(3)

Sometimes(4)

Never(5) NotApplicable

(6)

InthisworkIhavethetimeandspacetothink.(1)

m m m m m m

Wehaveagood

balancebetween

focusingongetting

thingsdoneandnoticinghowpeoplearefeeling.

(2)

m m m m m m

Iamabletocreatetimeandspacetoreflectonmywork

andmyself.(4)

m m m m m m

Ihaveagood

balancebetween

theneedsofothersandmyownneeds.(5)

m m m m m m

123

Q13 What is your highest educational level? m High School Graduate (1) m Some College (2) m Associate's Degree (3) m Bachelor's Degree (4) m Some graduate school (5) m Master's Degree (6) m Ph.D./Ed.D (7) ____________________ Q14 This survey is almost finished. I have a few final, quick questions about you. What is your gender? m Male (1) m Female (2) m Transgender (3) m Do not identify as female, male, or transgender (4) Q15 What professional journalism organizations do you belong to? Click all that apply. q Asian American Journalists Association (1) q National Association of Black Journalists (2) q National Association of Hispanic Journalists (3) q National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association (4) q Native American Journalists Association (5) q Online News Association (6) q Radio Television Digital News Association (7) q Society of Professional Journalists (8) q Other (9) ____________________ q None (10)

124

Q16 How many years have you worked in journalism? Q17 Which category best describes your station’s or company’s location? m Rural (1) m Metropolitan Area (2) m Suburban (3) Q18 Would you describe yourself as… Click all that apply. q African American/Black (1) q American Indian/Native American (2) q Arab (3) q Asian (4) q Hispanic (5) q Latino (6) q Pacific Islander/Hawaiian (8) q White (9) Q19 What is your income range? m Less than $10,000 (1) m $10,000 - $19,999 (2) m $20,000 - $29,999 (3) m $30,000 - $39,999 (4) m $40,000 - $49,999 (5) m $50,000 - $59,999 (6) m $60,000 - $69,999 (7) m $70,000 - $79,999 (8) m $80,000 - $89,999 (9) m $90,000 - $99,999 (10) m $100,000 - $149,999 (11) m More than $150,000 (12) Q20 How satisfied are you with your salary or income? m Extremely satisfied (1) m Moderately satisfied (2) m Slightly satisfied (3) m Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (4) m Slightly dissatisfied (5) m Moderately dissatisfied (6) m Extremely dissatisfied (7) m Not Applicable (8)

125

Q21 Journalists, roughly estimate how many employees work in your newsroom or department? Media entrepreneurs, how many people work at your company, if you are the only employee, please type 1. Q22 If you are an employed journalist within a media organization, have you previously been a freelancer or entrepreneur? m Yes (1) m No (2) Q23 If you are an entrepreneur, were you ever a full-time employee for a media organization? m Yes (1) m No (2) Q27 As a former freelancer or entrepreneur, what factors led you to accept a job in a media organization? Q28 What factors led you to leave a media organization to become a entrepreneur? Q35 What do you consider to be the rewarding qualities of working in a media organization? Q36 What do you consider to be the limitations or frustrations of working in a media organization? Q37 As a journalist, what else would you like to share about your work experience related to work satisfaction? Q38 What do you consider to be the rewarding qualities of working as a freelancer or entrepreneur? Q39 What do you consider to be the limitations or frustrations of working as a freelance or entrepreneur? Q40 As a entrepreneur, what else would you like to share about your work experience related to work satisfaction? Thank you so much for your participation. Professional journalism organizations, such as: NABJ, NAHJ, NAJA, AAJA and SPJ, will be given results at a later date for distribution. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact happiness scholar and principal investigator: Kortni Alston, MBA at kalston@ufl.edu or on Twitter at @KortniAlston

126

APPENDIX C MAP OF KEY INFORMANTS

Professional Organizations

National Association of Black Journalists President: Sarah Glover (NBC News) Initial contact (board member): Dawn Roberts Asian American Journalists Association President: Paul Cheung (Associated Press) Executive Director: Kathy Chow Initial contact: George Kiriyama (KEYT/KCOY/KKFX) National Association of Hispanic Journalists President: Mekahlo Medina (KNBC) Executive Director: Alberto B. Mendoza Native American Journalist Association Executive Director: Rebecca Landsberry, Interim President: Jason Begay (Assistant Professor, University of Montana School of Journalism) National Association of Lesbian and Gay Journalist Association President: Jen Christensen (CNN) Executive Director: Adam Pawlus Online News Association President: Meredith Artley (Vice President & Managing Editor, CNN) Executive Director: Jane McDonnell Society of Professional Journalists President: Paul Fletcher (Virginia Lawyers Weekly) Executive Director: Joe Skeel Communications Coordinator: Maggie LaMar NewU: News Entrepreneurs Working Through Unity Director: Doug Mitchell (NPR) Co-director: Alli Joseph

127

APPENDIX D JOURNALISM SOCIAL MEDIA GROUPS

Entrepreneurial Journalism Facebook Groups as of January 12, 2015

Name of Organization Access Members What’s Your Plan B Closed Group 6,030 Media Entrepreneurship Closed Group 132 TV Freelancers Public Group 3,609 Find a journalist from around the world Closed Group 13,184 New Media Women Entrepreneurs Public Group 237 Entrepreneurial Journalism Network Closed Group 372

Entrepreneurial Journalism LinkedIn Groups as of January 12, 2015

Name of Organization Members LinkedIn for Journalists 85,188 Freelance Journalists Around the Globe 11 Online Journalism 19,908 Innovation in Journalism 5,280 Life After TV News 600

128

APPENDIX E SPJ WEEKLY ELECTRONIC NEWSLETTER

129

130

131

132

APPENDIX F NABJ ELECTRONIC NEWSLETTER

133

134

135

LIST OF REFERENCES

Abramson, A. (1995). Zworykin, Pioneer of Television University of Illinois Press.

Adams, T., & Cleary, J. (2007). Surfable Surveys: Using web-based technology to reach newsroom respondents. Electronic News, 1(2), 103-120.

Alef, D. (2005). William S. Paley: Godfather of Broadcasting. Santa Barbara, California: Meta4 Publishing.

Alef, D. (2007). David Sarnoff: General of Broadcasting (titans of fortune). Santa Barbara, California: Meta4 Publishing.

Appel, R. (2014, April 17). Clear Channel hit by Layoffs | billboard Retrieved from http://www.billboard.com/biz/articles/news/legal-and-management/6062368/clear-channel-hit-by-layoffs

Aristotle (n.d.) BrainQute.com. Retrieved from: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/a/aristotle377765.html

Ashforth, B. E., & Pratt, M. G. (2003). Institutionalized Spirituality. Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance, , 93-107.

Baines, D., & Kennedy, C. (2010). An Education for Independence: Should Entrepreneurial Skills be an Essential Part of the Journalist's Toolbox? Journalism Practice, 4(1), 97-113.

Baltar, F., & Brunet, I. (2012). Social research 2.0: Virtual snowball sampling method using facebook. Internet Research, 22(1), 57-74.

Barrett, G. H. (1984). Job Satisfaction among Newspaperwomen. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 61(3), 593.

Beam, R. A. (1990). Journalism Professionalism as an Organizational-Level Concept. Journalism and Communication Monographs, 121

Beam, R. A. (2006). Organizational Goals and Priorities and the Job Satisfaction of US. journalists. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(1), 169-185.

Beam, R. A., Weaver, D. H., & Brownlee, B. J. (2009). Changes in professionalism of US Journalists in the Turbulent Twenty-first Century. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 86(2), 277-298.

Benjamin, L. (2002). In Search of the Sarnoff" Radio Music Box" Memo: Nally's reply. Journal of Radio Studies, 9(1), 97-106.

136

Bhutta, C. B. (2012). Not by the Book: Facebook as a Sampling Frame. Sociological Methods & Research, , 0049124112440795.

Bowie, N. E. (1998). A Kantian Theory of Meaningful Work. Journal of Business Ethics, 17(9), 1083-1092.

Bramlett-Solomon, S. (1992). Predictors of Job Satisfaction among Black Journalists. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 69(3), 703-712.

Brooks, B. (2015). FSU Recieves $100M for Jim Moran School of Entrepreneurship. Retrieved from https://www.fsu.edu/indexTOFStory.html?lead.gift

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/tus/charts/

Carpenter, S., Nah, S., & Chung, D. (2015). A Study of US Online Community Journalists and their Organizational Characteristics and Story Generation Routines. Journalism, 16(4), 505-520.

Carson, A. (2014). As Fairfax Cuts Photographers, What Price for a News Picture? Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/as-fairfax-cuts-photographers-what-price-for-a-news-picture-26442

Cassidy, W. P. (2007). Online News Credibility: An Examination of the Perceptions of Newspaper Journalists. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 12(2), 478-498.

Cassidy, W. P. (2008). Outside Influences: Extramedia Forces and the Newsworthiness Conceptions of Online Newspaper Journalists. First Monday, 13(1)

Chalofsky, N. (2003). An Emerging Construct for Meaningful Work. Human Resource Development International, 6(1), 69-83.

Chan, J. M., Pan, Z., & Lee, F. L. (2004). Professional Aspirations and Job Satisfaction: Chinese Journalists at a Time of Change in the Media. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(2), 254-273.

Christensen, C., Skok, D., & Allworth, J.,. (2012). Breaking News: Mastering the art of Disruptive Innovation in Journalism. Retrieved from http://nieman.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/pod-assets/ebook/niemanreports/fall2012/NiemanReports-Fall2012CoverStory.pdf

Cleary, J. (2008). A Contract for Success? Attitudes about Professional Development among News Directors and Producers. Electronic News, 2(4), 198-217.

Conger, J. A. (1994). Spirit at Work: Discovering the Spirituality in Leadership Jossey-Bass.

137

Constructive Journalism Isn't Just the Latest Fad. (2016, June 2). Retrieved from https://www.windesheiminternational.nl/research/media/constructive-journalism/news/constructive-journalism-isnt-just-the-latest-fad/

Cornwall, J. R., & Naughton, M. J. (2003). Who is the Good Entrepreneur? An Exploration within the Catholic Social Tradition. Journal of Business Ethics, 44(1), 61-75.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches Sage.

Dailey, L., Demo, L., & Spillman, M. (2005). Most TV/Newspaper Partners at Cross Promotion Stage. Newspaper Research Journal, 26(4), 36.

Davis, C. S., Gallardo, H. L., & Lachlan, K. L. (2013). Straight Talk about Communication Research Methods Kendall Hunt.

Deprez, A., & Raeymaeckers, K. (2012). A Longitudinal Study of Job Satisfaction among Flemish Professional Journalists. Journalism and Mass Communication, 2(1), 1-15.

Deuze, M. (2007). Media Work. Polity.

Dik, B. J., Duffy, R. D., & Eldridge, B. M. (2009). Calling and Vocation in Career Counseling: Recommendations for Promoting Meaningful Work. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(6), 625.

Dillman, D. A. (2011). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method--2007 Update with New Internet, Visual, and Mixed-Mode Guide John Wiley & Sons.

Doctors, K. (2014, January 29). The Newsonomics of Why Everyone seems to be Starting a News Site » Nieman Journalism lab. Retrieved from http://www.niemanlab.org/2014/01/the-newsonomics-of-why-everyone-seems-to-be-starting-a-news-site/

D’Onfro, J. (2016, April 27). How Much Time Do People Spend on Facebook Per Day - Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/how-much-time-do-people-spend-on-facebook-per-day-2016-4

Downs, J. S., Holbrook, M. B., Sheng, S., & Cranor, L. F. (2010). Are your Participants Gaming the System?: Screening Mechanical turk Workers. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2399-2402.

Edstrom, M., & Ladendorf, M. (2012). Freelance Journalists as a Flexible Workforce in Media Industries. Journalism Practice, 6(5-6), 711-721.

138

Ekdale, B., Tully, M., Harmsen, S., & Singer, J. B. (2015). Newswork within a Culture of Job Insecurity: Producing News amidst Organizational and Industry Uncertainty. Journalism Practice, 9(3), 383-398.

Everbach, T., & Flournoy, C. (2007). Women Leave Journalism for Better pay, work conditions. Newspaper Research Journal, 28(3), 52.

Fedler, F., Buhr, T., & Taylor, D. (1988). Journalists who Leave the News Media seem Happier, find Better Jobs. Newspaper Research Journal, 9(2), 15-23.

Ferber, R. (1977). Research by Convenience. Journal of Consumer Research, 4(1), 57-58.

Ferrier, M. B. (2013). Media Entrepreneurship Curriculum Development and Faculty Perceptions of What Students Should Know. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 68(3), 222-241.

Fisher, C. D. (2010). Happiness at Work. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(4), 384-412.

Fowler Jr, F. J. (2013). Survey Research Methods Sage publications.

Fraser, J., & Gold, M. (2001). Portfolio Workers': Autonomy and Control amongst Freelance Translators. Work, Employment & Society, 15(4), 679-697.

Friedman, R. (2014). The Best Place to Work: The Art and Science of Creating an Extraordinary Workplace Perigee Trade.

Geisler, J. (2012). Work Happy: What Great Bosses Know. Center Street.

Granello, D. H., & Wheaton, J. E. (2004). Online Data Collection: Strategies for Research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 82(4), 387-393.

Grant, A. (2013). Give and Take: Why Helping Others Drives our Success Penguin.

Gray, E. (2013). 10 recent Company Layoffs - Clear Channel Communications Inc. - LA Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-layoffs-jgpf9lnc-photo.html

Greenlaw, C., & Brown-Welty, S. (2009). A Comparison of Web-Based and Paper-Based Survey Methods: Testing Assumptions of Survey Mode and Response Cost. Evaluation Review, 33(5), 464-480. doi:10.1177/0193841X09340214 [doi]

Hall, R. H. (1994). The Sociology of Work: Perspectives, Analyses, and Issues Pine Forge Press.

139

Hanitzsch, T., & Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2009). Introduction: On Why and How We Should Do Journalism Studies. The Handbook of Journalism Studies, , 3-17.

Herrick, D. F. (2012). Media Management in the Age of Giants: Business Dynamics of Journalism UNM Press.

Hinckley, D. (2014, August 25). Zucker Signals that CNN Layoffs May Be Ahead - NY Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv/zucker-signals-cnn-layoffs-article-1.1916152

Hoag, A. (2008). Measuring Media Entrepreneurship 1. The International Journal on Media Management, 10(2), 74-80.

Hoag, A., & Compaine, B. (2006). Media entrepreneurship in the Era of Big Media: Prospects for New Entrants. Unpublished Paper, University of Pennsylvania,

Hoar, R., & Kirwan-Taylor, H. (2004). The Meaning Gap Research by Roffey Park Detects a Mood among Executives of Dissatisfaction with Their Working Lot, a Sense that Fulfilment Lies Elsewhere. Management Today-London-, , 44-53.

Hoffman, K. (2014, April 22). New Journalism Buzzwords. Retrieved from https://medium.com/alt-ledes/new-journalism-buzzwords-e52c5c47bcbb#.b7j1mw4vx

Hofman, M. (December, 14, 2009). The Great Leaders Series: David Sarnoff of NBC and RCA | inc.com Retrieved from http://www.inc.com/30years/articles/david-sarnoff.html

Holbeche, L., & Springett, N. (2004). In Search of Meaning at Work. Roffey Park Institute, Horsham,

Ipeirotis, P. G. (2010). Demographics of Mechanical Turk.

Israel, S. (2012). Is Social Media Becoming a Vast Wasteland? – Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/shelisrael/2012/02/28/is-social-media-becoming-a-vast-wasteland/#666f3ce44628

Jackson Turner, L. (2000). But the Republic Stood: Program Producers' Perceived Pivotal Moments in Network Television Broadcast Standards of the 1970s. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(1), 110-124.

Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P. (2009). Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement,

140

Joyella, M. (2016, January 21). Al Jazeera America Begins Painful Process of Layoffs | TVNewser Retrieved from http://www.adweek.com/tvnewser/al-jazeera-america-begins-painful-process-of-layoffs/282667

Jurkowitz, M. (2014). The Growth in Digital Reporting. Pew Journalism Research Project.Accessed March, 26

Kaplowitz, M. D., Hadlock, T. D., & Levine, R. (2004). A Comparison of Web and Mail Survey Response Rates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 68(1), 94-101.

Kara Swisher Spoke at Excellence in Journalism 2014 About being a Female Entrepreneur in Journalism. (2014, September 5). Retrieved from http://www.spj.org/news.asp?REF=1280

Kirkland, S. (2014, May 30). One Year after 28 Sun-Times Photojournalists were Laid Off Where Are They Now? Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/2014/one-year-after-28-sun-times-photojournalists-were-laid-off-where-are-they-now/254014/

Kludt, T., & Stelter, B. (2016, January 13). Al Jazeera America to Shut Down in April. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2016/01/13/media/al-jazeera-america/

KortniAlston. (2016, April 30). Retrieved from https://twitter.com/KortniAlston

Kressel, H., & Lento, T. V. (2012). Entrepreneurship in the Global Economy: Engine for Economic Growth Cambridge University Press.

Kumar, N., Stern, L. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1993). Conducting Interorganizational Research using Key informants. Academy of Management Journal, 36(6), 1633-1651.

Lee, S. T. (2005). Predicting Tolerance of Journalistic Deception. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20(1), 22-42.

Lewis, T. (1991). Empire of the Air: The Men who Made Radio Perennial.

Lips-Wiersma, M. (2012). In Starcher G. (Ed.), Purpose beyond profit: Toward A spirtual Foundation for Corporate Social Responsiblity. Paris, France: Europen Bahai Business forum.

Lips-Wiersma, M. (2002a). Analysing the Career Concerns of Spiritually Oriented People: Lessons for Contemporary Organizations. Career Development International, 7(7), 385-397.

Lips-Wiersma, M. (2002b). The Influence of Spiritual “Meaning-Making” on career behavior. Journal of Management Development, 21(7), 497-520.

141

Lips-Wiersma, M., Dean, K. L., & Fornaciari, C. J. (2009). Theorizing the Dark Side of the Workplace Spirituality Movement. Journal of Management Inquiry, 18(4), 288-300.

Lips-Wiersma, M., & Morris, L. (2009). Discriminating between ‘Meaningful Work’and the ‘Management of Meaning’. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(3), 491-511.

Lips-Wiersma, M., & Morris, L. (2011). The Map of Meaning: A Guide to Sustaining our Humanity in the World of Work Greenleaf Publishing.

Lips-Wiersma, M., & Wright, S. (2012). Measuring the Meaning of Meaningful Work Development and Validation of the Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS). Group & Organization Management, 37(5), 655-685.

Locke, E. A. (1969). What is Job Satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(4), 309-336.

Lyons, E. (1966). David Sarnoff: A Biography. Harper & Row.

Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803.

Magilio, T., & Chariton, J. (2014, October 14). CNN, HLN Layoffs: Jane Valez-Mitchell Out, Entertainment Unit Disbanded. Retrieved from http://www.thewrap.com/cnn-massive-layoffs-underway-entertainment-unit-disbanded-developing/

Martela, F. (2010). Meaningful Work–an Integrative Model Based on the Human Need for Meaningfulness. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting in Montreal, 10th August 2010,

Maslow, A. H. (2013). Toward a Psychology of Being. Start Publishing LLC.

Maslow, A. H., & Murphy, G. (1954). Motivation and Personality.(under the editorship of gardner murphy.). Harper & Bros.

Massey, B. L., & Elmore, C. J. (2011). Happier Working for Themselves? Job Satisfaction and Women Freelance Journalists. Journalism Practice, 5(6), 672-686.

May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The Psychological Conditions of Meaningfulness, Safety and Availability and the Engagement of the Human Spirit at Work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11-37.

McChesney, R. W. (2012). Farewell to Journalism? Time for a Rethinking. Journalism Practice, 6(5-6), 614-626.

142

Meehan, E. R. (1986). Critical Theorizing on Broadcast History. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 30(4), 393-411.

Miller, D. (2014, October 13). How Compeition Created an Industry that Changed the World. Retrieved from http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/238360

Mitchell, A., & Holocomb, J. (2016). State of the News Media 2016. Pew Research Journalism project.

Mitchell, A., & Page, D. (2014). State of the news Media 2014. Pew Research Journalism project.

Mullin, B. (2015, February 4). Laid-Off Sports Illustrated Photographers are all Business at the Super bowl. Poynter. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/2015/laid-off-sports-illustrated-photographers-are-all-business-at-the-super-bowl/316931/

Nell-Breuning, O. (1936). Reorganization of Social Economy: The Social Encyclical Developed and Explained Bruce.

Nies, G., & Pedersini, R. (2003). Freelance Journalists in the European Media Industry. European Federation of Journalists.Verfügbar Über: Www.Ifj.org/pdfs/FinalReportFreelance.Pdf, Zugriff Am, 3, 2004.

Nohria, N., Groysberg, B., & Lee, L. E. (2008). Employee Motivation. Harvard Business Review, 86(7/8), 78-84.

Oakley, F. (2015). Generational Differences in the Frequency and Importance of Meaningful work.

Paley, W. S. (2014). As it Happened Simon and Schuster.

Paper, L. (1987). Empire: William S. Paley and the Making of CBS (1st edition ed.) St Martins Pr.

Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Strengths of Character and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(5), 603-619.

Petrova, K. (2005). Part-time Entrepreneurship and Wealth Effects: New Evidence from the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics. Paper presented at the 50th ICSB Conference, Washington, June, 15-18.

Phillips, S. R., Czaja, R., & Blair, J. (2006). Designing Surveys: A Guide to Decisions and Procedures,

143

Powell, T. (2012). Factors to Consider when Choosing a Journalism Association, Poynter. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/2012/factors-to-consider-when-choosing-a-journalism-association/179330/

Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering Meaningfulness in Working and at Work. Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline, , 309-327.

Prichard, P.S. (1987). The making of McPaper: The inside story of USA Today.

Qualtrics. (2012). Retrieved from http://cloudfront.qualtrics.com/q1/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/QualtricsSurveySoftware.pdf

Quinn, S. (2010). Opportunities for Journalism Education in an Online Entrepreneurial World. Asia Pacific Media Educator, (20), 69.

Reinardy, S. (2007). Satisfaction vs. Sacrifice: Sports Editors Assess the Influences of Life Issues on Job Satisfaction. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(1), 105-121.

Reinardy, S. (2009). Beyond satisfaction: Journalists Doubt Career Intentions as Organizational Support Diminishes and Job Satisfaction Declines. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 17(3), 126-139.

Reinardy, S. (2009). Female Journalists More Likely to Leave Newspapers. Newspaper Research Journal, 30(3), 42-57.

Reinardy, S. (2010). Downsizing Effects on Personnel: The Case of Layoff Survivors in US Newspapers. Journal of Media Business Studies, 7(4), 1-19.

Rivas-Rodriguez, M., Subervi-Velez, F. A., Bramlett-Solomon, S., & Heider, D. (2004). Minority Journalists' Perceptions of the Impact of Minority Executives. Howard Journal of Communications, 15(1), 39-55.

Roberts-Grey, G.,. (2015, Good Morning America's Anchors: Trust Us We Love Our Jobs! Live Happy, 50-59.

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations (Fifth ed.). New York, New York: Simon and Schuster.

Roush, C. (2006). The Need for More Business Education in Mass Communication Schools. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 61(2), 195-204.

Sandelowski, M. (1991). Telling Stories: Narrative Approaches in Qualitative Research. Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 23(3), 161-166.

144

Seligman, M. E. (2012). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being Simon and Schuster.

Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The Promise of Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217-226.

Shirky, C. (2009). Newspapers and Thinking the Unthinkable. Risk Management, 56(3), 24.

Slim, P. (2013). Body of Work: Finding the Thread that Ties Your Story Together. New York, New York: The Penguin Group.

Small Business Administration. Retrieved from https://www.sba.gov/content/limited-liability-company-llc

Smith, L. K., Tanner, A. H., & Duhe, S. F. (2007). Convergence Concerns in Local Television: Conflicting Views from the Newsroom. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51(4), 555-574.

Steger, M. F., Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2012). Measuring Meaningful Work: The Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI). Journal of Career Assessment, , 1069072711436160.

Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the Presence of and Search for Meaning in Life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80.

Tenore, M. J. (2014, September 2). How Constructive Journalism Can Improve the Way Media Makers tell Stories. Retrieved from http://ivoh.org/constructive-journalism/

The Story of Television. (2012, January 2). 1956 David Sarnoff and Vladimir Zwyorkin. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxbdMl1flUc

Tietjen, M. A., & Myers, R. M. (1998). Motivation and Job Satisfaction. Management Decision, 36(4), 226-231.

Usher, N. (2010). Goodbye to the News: How Out-of-Work Journalists Assess Enduring News Values and the New Media Landscape. New Media & Society, 12(6), 911-928.

Venkataraman, S. (1997). The Distinctive Domain of Entrepreneurship Research. Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, 3(1), 119-138.

Vladimir Zworykin in Encyclopedia Britannica. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/biography/Vladimir-Zworykin

145

von Nell-Breuning, O., & Dempsey, B. W. (1936). Reorganization of Social Economy: The Social Encyclical Developed and Explained. Bruce Publishing Company.

Wahl-Jorgensen, K., & Hanitzsch, T. (2009). The Handbook of Journalism Studies Routledge.

Walters, E., Warren, C., & Dobbie, M. (2006). The Changing Nature of Work: A Global Survey and Case Study of Atypical Work in the Media Industry. International Federation of Journalists,

Wells-Lepley, M. (2013, March 12, Meaningful Work: The Key to Employee Engagement.

Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2006). Mass Communication Research: An Introduction. Belmont, CA,

Winslow, D. (2015, January 23). Sports Illustrated Lays Off All Staff Photographers. Retrieved from https://nppa.org/news/sports-illustrated-lays-all-staff-photographers

Wolcott, H. F. (1990). On Seeking-and Rejecting-Validity in Qualitative Research. Qualitative Inquiry in Education: The Continuing Debate, , 121-152.

Yang, L., Sun, T., Zhang, M., & Mei, Q. (2012). We Know What@ you# tag: Does the Dual Role Affect Hashtag Adoption? Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on World Wide Web, 261-270.

146

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Kortni Alston received her Ph.D. in mass communications from the University of

Florida College of Journalism in 2016, mentored by Dr. Julie Dodd, Dr. Johanna Cleary,

Dr. Churchill Roberts, and Dr. Ryan Duffy. She has a Master of Business

Administration with a focus in information systems technology and a bachelor’s degree

in television production. Kortni has taught undergraduate courses in investigative

journalism, ethics, advanced radio reporting, and business writing.

Kortni’s area of research is interdisciplinary combining the areas of positive

psychology, business administration and mass communications; it specifically focused

on the science of happiness, meaningful work, entrepreneurship and innovation.

Kortni’s research concentrations value happier workplaces, well-being, and employee

engagement.

Kortni was a news director and television reporter in major markets including:

Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Houston.