EXAMING DETERMINANTS OF SELF-CONCEPT AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF WHEELCHAIR RUGBY PLAYERS

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN RECREATION

By SHINICHI NAGATA

NORTHWEST MISSOURI STATE UNIVERSITY MARYVILLE, MISSOURI

MARCH 2014

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Running Head: SELF-CONCEPT AND LIFE SATISFACTION

Examining determinants of self-concept and life satisfaction of

Wheelchair Rugby players

Shinichi Nagata

Northwest Missouri State University

THESIS APPROVED

Thesis advisor Date

Dean of Graduate School Date

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Abstract

The current study investigated the impact of Wheelchair Rugby participation on life

satisfaction and self-concept, the relationship between life satisfaction and self-concept, and

cross-cultural differences between American and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players. Sub-

components of self-concept (self-esteem, athletic identity, and group identification) were

identified. Total of 75 Wheelchair Rugby players (58 US and 17 Japanese) responded to the

electronic survey, and retrospective pretest method was used for established instruments. The

data were analyzed with t-test and stepwise regression analyses. Wheelchair Rugby participation

had a positive impact on life satisfaction and athletic identity. US samples also demonstrated the

significant improvement in self-esteem, but Japanese samples did not. US samples were

significantly scored higher in life satisfaction, health satisfaction, self-esteem and retrospective

self-esteem than Japanese samples. US samples also found to gain more life satisfaction and self-

esteem than Japanese did. Life satisfaction was predicted by health satisfaction, self-esteem, and

financial satisfaction. Self-esteem was predicted by country, health satisfaction, financial

satisfaction, athletic identity, and team identification. Overall, the positive impact of Wheelchair

Rugby and cross-cultural difference were demonstrated. Further research should be done to

clarify the cultural differences in variables. Implications include the need for coaches to

encourage Wheelchair Rugby players to remain for life satisfaction benefit.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ················································································· 1 Life Satisfaction and Self-Concept Physical Activity Summary Research Questions II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ··································································· 4

Life Satisfaction Associate with Life Satisfaction Self-Concept and Its Subcomponents Self-Esteem Athletic Identity Group Identification Cross-Cultural Differences Benefit of Physical Activity Wheelchair Rugby Synthesis of Literature Hypotheses

III. METHODS ······················································································ 15 Population and Samples Instrumentation Translation Method Procedures Research Design and Data analysis Internal Validity

IV. RESULTS ······················································································· 23

Respondent Profile Cross-Cultural Difference and Impact of Wheelchair Rugby Involvement Relationship between Life Satisfaction and Other Variables

V. DISCUSSION ···················································································· 40

Answer to the Research Questions Effect of Wheelchair Rugby on Life Satisfaction, Self-Esteem, and Athletic Identity Cross-Cultural Difference in the Effect of Wheelchair Rugby Associates of Life Satisfaction and Self-Esteem

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Predictors of Life Satisfaction Predictors of Self-Esteem Limitations Recommendations Conclusion

APPENDICIES ······················································································ 49

English version questionnaire Japanese version questionnaire

REFERENCES ······················································································ 62

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Adjustment to life following a spinal cord injury (SCI) is a traumatic experience. All

SCI’s present both physical and psychological challenges; however, those that result in

quadriplegia are particularly challenging. Quadriplegia affects the neuromuscular system,

resulting in paralysis of motor ability of the lower and upper body. In addition to significant

physical limitations, it is common for injured individuals to experience emotional distress.

Kennedy and Rogers (2000) reported that the prevalence of anxiety and depression within 6

months of SCI to be consistently higher than the general population (22.7% in SCI population;

5.7% in general population). Furthermore, individuals with SCI tend to have lower self-esteem,

lower perceived locus of control, and higher perceived helplessness than the general population

(Craig, Hancock, & Chang, 1994). Van Koppenhagen et al. (2008) indicated such emotional

distress can result in significantly lower life satisfaction for individuals with SCI.

Life Satisfaction and Self-Concept

Life satisfaction is cognitive judgment of an individual’s quality of life (Diener, Emmons,

Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). This judgment is based on the comparison between personal life

expectations (in other words, his/her standard) and what has actually happened.

A strong relationship between life satisfaction and the self-concept of persons with SCI

has also been documented (r = .767, p < .01; Boschen, & Kathryn, 1996). As such, the

improvement of self-concept may be an effective approach to improving life satisfaction.

Rosenberg (1979) stated that self-concept is a construct of multiple self-perceptions that a person

has about who s/he is. Shavelson and Bolus (1982) identified four domains of self-concept:

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Academic Self-Concept, Social Self-Concept, Emotional Self-Concept, and Physical Self-

Concept. These multidimensional characteristics of self-concept were empirically verified by

Marsh and Shavelson’s (1985) experiments.

Physical Activity

Physical activity and sports programs are potential mechanisms for improving self-

concept (Shapiro & Martin, 2010). Martin and Whalen’s (2012) study examined the relationship

between physical activity involvement and self-concept of athletes with physical disabilities. The

results demonstrated that the higher physical activity involvement was associated with higher

self-concept. Theoretically, such programs should also lead to improvement in life satisfaction.

Unfortunately, there are only limited opportunities for physical activity and sports participation

for individuals with comparatively severe disabilities such as quadriplegia. The nature of their

physical limitations prevents individuals with quadriplegia from fully participating in many of

the existing adapted physical activity and sports programs.

There are, however, several specialized sports programs that are ideal for individuals with

severe disabilities. For example, Boccia, Powerchair Soccer, and Wheelchair Rugby are all

activities that accommodate individuals with severe disabilities. Most of these options, however,

cannot ensure a sufficient amount of physical activity because of the nature of the sport.

Wheelchair Rugby is one of the few options that individuals with quadriplegia can use to obtain

a sufficient amount of physical activity.

Summary

Individuals with SCI are reported to have lower level of life satisfaction than general

population; there is evidence that self-concept plays an important role for improving life

satisfaction. Self-concept is a multidimensional construct of one’s self-perceptions.

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Physical activity is known to improve participants’ self-concept, particularly individuals

with physical disabilities. At the same time, individuals with severe disabilities typically have

limited opportunities for physical activity. Wheelchair Rugby is one of a few sports that provide

opportunities for individuals with severe disabilities to participate in a competitive form of

physical activity. Such activity may have the potential to improve their self-concept thereby

leading to gains in life satisfaction. Yet, there are few studies regarding the psychological

benefits of Wheelchair Rugby involvement.

The first purpose of this study, therefore, was to investigate the impact of Wheelchair

Rugby on life satisfaction and self-concept. The second purpose was to investigate the

relationship between life satisfaction and sub-constructs of self-concept of Wheelchair Rugby

players. The third purpose was to examine the cross-cultural difference in any such relationships

when comparing American on Japanese players.

Research Questions

RQ1: How does Wheelchair Rugby involvement impact life satisfaction and self-concept?

RQ2: Do American and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players differ in regard to the

impact that participation has on life satisfaction and self-concept?

RQ3: To what extent is life satisfaction of Wheelchair Rugby players explained by self-

concept and its dimensions?

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Life Satisfaction

Various definitions of life satisfaction exist in the literature. In terms of overall life

satisfaction, Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin’s (1985) describe life satisfaction as a sub-

component of subjective well-being. It is defined as the individual’s cognitive judgment

regarding his/her life. The individual’s subjective criteria are important, rather than another

person’s perspective (e.g., researcher’s criteria), because people put different values on different

domains.

Associates with Life Satisfaction

Relationship between life satisfaction and self-concept is salient. Boschen and Kathryn’s

(1996) study reported the strong association between life satisfaction and self-concept for

individuals with SCI. A total of 82 individuals with SCI, age 18 to 35, were included in the

analysis of the relationship between life satisfaction and other variables such as disability, health

status, income, locus of control, residential satisfaction, and self-concept. A strong positive

correlation was found between life satisfaction and self-concept (r = .767, p < .01). The authors

reported income (r = .416, p < .05) was another associated variable. Additionally, severity of

disability was not related to life satisfaction (r = -.068, p > .05).

Coyle, Lesnik-Emas, and Kinney (1994) provided a predictor equation of life satisfaction

for individuals with SCI. A total of 91 individuals with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI; both paraplegia

and quadriplegia) were interviewed by 18 interviewers. The results of stepwise regression

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analysis indicated that leisure satisfaction, self-esteem, and health satisfaction were the

significant predictors of life satisfaction (R2 = .59, p < .01).

These results suggested that, in addition to self-concept, other aspects of life such as

leisure, health, and finance were also important. The current study, therefore, partly replicated

the work of Coyle et al. (1994) and investigated the relationship between life satisfaction and

self-concept, health satisfaction, and financial satisfaction.

Self-Concept and Its Subcomponents

Self-concept is defined as the perception about totality of the individual (Marsh &

Shavelson, 1985; Rosenberg, 1979). Marsh and Shavelson stated that interpretations of life

experiences and the environment, which are immensely associated with feedback from others

and attribution type, play an important role in self-concept formation. According to Shavelson

and Bolus (1982), self-concept is multidimensional concept including Academic Self-Concept,

Social Self-Concept, Emotional Self-Concept, and Physical Self-Concept.

The current study focused on such subcomponents of self-concept that pertain to athletes

since the target population of this study was Wheelchair Rugby players. Emotional Self-Concept

is an indicator of particular emotional states (Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). If an individual proud

or shamed of him/herself, it impacts how s/he emotionally evaluates him/herself. In the current

study, self-esteem, which is defined as cognitive and emotional judgment of oneself (Mruk,

2006), is used as an indicator of Emotional Self-Concept because of its similarity. Physical Self-

Concept is an indicator of how an individual perceives his/her appearance and physical ability

(Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). A person who sees him/herself as athletic identifies themselves to

others as an athlete, and experiences success in physical and athletic endeavors would also have

strong identity as an athlete (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993). Social Self-Concept refers to

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the interrelationship of an individual with peers and significant others (Shavelson & Bolus, 1982).

In sports context, interconnection with teammates and coaches reflects group identification.

Self-Esteem

According to Brown and Marshall (2001), self-esteem is related to positive and negative

emotional states including pride, shame, happiness, and anger. It is now known that self-relevant

emotional states (e.g., pride or shame) are more closely related to self-esteem than general

emotions such as happiness and anger. Considering that self-relevant emotional states are closely

related to how individuals perceive themselves (e.g., a person feel proud of themselves), self-

esteem is, theoretically, an indicator of Emotional Self-Concept.

It is known that human beings instinctively protect self-esteem. Rosenberg (1979)

discussed the connection with the Freud’s psychoanalytic defense mechanisms (Freud, 1966).

Each defense mechanism is meant to protect one’s self-esteem from harm. Rosenberg also

pointed out that individuals who are subjected to criticism or negative opinions from others will

not only try to avoid such information, but also try to find positive things to contradict the

contradict threat to esteem.

Guindon (2002) discussed the evolution of the self-esteem construct. The first literature

about self-esteem was written in 1890 by James who said that the self-esteem “reflects a

‘baseline’ feeling of worth, value, liking, and accepting of self that one carries at all times

regardless of objective reality” (p. 205), which is the core element of current self-esteem theory.

The scholars in later days also pointed out that self-evaluation was the primary source of self-

esteem. Other scholars such as Mead in 1934 and Coopersmith in 1967 identified that the

judgment by significant others also plays an important role in one’s self-esteem.

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Self-esteem is strongly associated with life satisfaction. Coyle et al. (1994) interviewed

91 individuals (73 males and 18 females) with SCI to investigate the relationship between life

satisfaction and self-esteem. The age range of the sample were 18 to 50 (median age 31 years old)

and the racial backgrounds were 63% of Caucasian, 33% of African American, and 3% of Latino

American. The result of bivariate correlation analysis indicated the strong positive correlation

between life satisfaction and self-esteem (r = .65, p < .05). As noted earlier, the result of

stepwise regression analysis indicated that the significant predictors of life satisfaction were

leisure satisfaction, self-esteem, and health satisfaction (R2 = .59, p < .01). Leisure satisfaction

was the most significant predictor (R2 = .43, p < .01). The second most significant predictor, self-

esteem, explained an additional 10 % of variance, and health satisfaction added 5% more.

Athletic Identity

Athletic identity is defined as the extent to which the individual perceives him/herself as

an athlete, and the exclusiveness of that identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993). The

athletic Identity construct was developed in the context of multidimensional self-concept

developed by Marsh and Shavelson (1985), which explained the whole self with multiple aspects

of self-perception. Brewer et al. noted that physical and athletic domains of identity affect self-

perception across the life span. Individuals who are involved in sports or exercise typically view

their role or identity as an athlete as important. Individuals who view themselves exclusively as

athletes, however, are at risk of experiencing low self-esteem if they find themselves unable to

successfully participate in athletics (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993).

Previous research has claimed the existence of relationship between athletic identity and

life satisfaction, but the researchers’ interpretation of result is open to question. Tasiemski and

Brewer (2011) collected 1,034 survey responses from individuals with SCI. The sample

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consisted of 173 women and 861 men, ranging in age from 19 to 68 (M = 35.93, SD = 10.03).

Athletic identity was measured by Athletic Identity Measurement scale (AIMS) and life

satisfaction was measured by Life Satisfaction Questionnaire (LiSat-9). The authors reported that

correlation between athletic identity and life satisfaction was statistically significant albeit small

magnitude (r = .15, p < .005); however, this claim is skeptical because the strength of this

correlation coefficient may be out of the acceptable level of the meaningful relationship.

Relationship between athletic identity and self-esteem has yet identified. Van deVliet,

Van Biesen, and Vanlandewijck’s (2008) study of 60 athletes with physical disabilities with

different competitive levels reported non-significant result with minimal degree of correlation

coefficient (r = .27, p > .05). As such, these findings provide limited support to the hypothesis

that there is a relationship between athletic identity and self-esteem, and life satisfaction.

Group Identification

Henry, Arrow, and Carini (1999) defined group identification as an individual’s member

identification in cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects with an interacting group. Group

identification involves an individual-level process of positioning one’s self in a group based on

the level of synchronization with the group, interpersonal attraction among the group members,

and interdependence with the group members.

A limited number of studies have been conducted regarding group identification among

individuals with SCI. One such study conducted by Bat-Chava (1994) examined group

identification within the Deaf population. The author discussed that minority groups often have

disadvantages in social life and resources, but its impact on self-esteem can be either positive or

negative, depending on how the individual perceives the group identification. Some individuals

in stigmatized groups perceive themselves negatively because of their identification as a group

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member; therefore, self-esteem is low. Other individuals perceive membership in a stigmatized

group as positive, resulting in high self-esteem.

Bat-Chava’s (1994) sample of 267 deaf adults [117 males and 150 females of age ranged

from 16 to 87 (M = 42.9)] completed a survey pertaining to family deafness orientation, school

deafness orientation, group identification, psychological mechanisms toward deaf community,

and self-esteem. Results indicated that positive identification with Deaf culture was weak but

positively correlated with self-esteem (r = .18, p < .01). Although the study population was not

individuals with SCI, this study suggested positive group identification may relate to self-esteem.

Cross-Cultural Difference

Laungani (2007) has proposed a theoretical model for understanding cross cultural

differences. This model, which was initially proposed in the cross-cultural psychology literature,

has relevance to the current study and proposes that four factors should be considered when

examining cross cultural difference: Individualism vs. Collectivism; Cognitivism vs.

Emotionalism; Free will vs. Determinism; and Materialism vs. Spiritualism (Laungani, 2007). In

the current study context, the first factor is most relevant. In the description of Laungani,

Individualists emphasize personal responsibility and self-achievement, whereas Communalists

emphasize collective responsibility and collective achievement. In addition, identity formation is

strongly influenced by personal choices in individualism, whereas the role in a group has strong

influence on identity in collectivist cultures. Assuming that these principles apply to Wheelchair

Rugby players, American players would score higher on athletic identity, while Japanese players,

would score higher on group identification.

Lau, Cheung, and Ransdell (2007) examined whether such individualism and

collectivism differences (Laungani, 2007) exist in sports identity and sports participation. A

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model surrounding sports identity and sports participation that was based on an individualist

perspective was examined within samples of both individualist and collectivist oriented

participants. A total of 188 Chinese students and 177 American students participated in the study.

The results of reliability analysis for sports identity scales indicated that the Chinese sample had

slightly lower reliability coefficient than American sample (Chinese: alpha range = .59 to .79;

American: alpha range = .72 to .89). Both samples demonstrated a positive correlation between

sports identity and sports participation; however, the Chinese sample had a slightly lower

association than the American sample (Chinese: r = .23, p < .01; American: r = .43, p < .01). The

result of path analysis indicated the good fit for both samples. Chi-square analysis demonstrated

that there were significant differences between Chinese and American samples in regard to the

association among the variables. The results of this study suggested cultural differences may not

be apparent in the model structure, but there may be differences difference in the strength of

associations regarding each sample.

Benefits of Physical Activity

The general benefits of physical activity for individuals with SCI have been discussed for

many years (Fernhall, Heffernan, Jae, & Hedrick, 2008; Guttmann, 1976; Hanson, Nabavi, &

Yuan, 2001). The benefits in health are especially prominent; the individuals who engage in

physical activity had stronger muscle strength and cardiovascular system. These physical effects

contributed to an approximately 40% reduction in cardiovascular disease. As a result, physical

activity contributes to the longevity of an individual (Fernhall et al., 2008). Hanson et al.

reported benefits regarding community integration. Their study compared variables regarding

community integration between the athletes (n = 30) and non-athletes (n = 18), and concluded

that the athletes were, on average, significantly higher on scores in physical independence (U =

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157.0, p < .01), mobility (U = 99.0, p < .01), occupation (U = 80.5, p < .01), and social

integration (U = 138.0, p < .01).

Tasiemski, Kennedy, Gardner, and Taylor (2005) investigated the relationship between

sports participation and life satisfaction of individuals with SCI. A total of 1,748 randomly

selected individuals with SCI were included in this study. The results indicated that the

individuals with SCI who participated in sports or physical recreation achieved higher life

satisfaction than the individuals who did not participate in such activities (F = 11.45, p < .001).

Furthermore, Tasiemski and Brewer’s (2011) study with 1,034 individuals with SCI

examined whether the ability to participate in favorite sports influenced life satisfaction, athletic

identity, anxiety, and depression. The individuals who were able to participate in his/her favorite

sports (n = 179) and who were not able to (n = 450) were compared with multivariate analysis of

covariance (MANCOVA). The omnibus multivariate effect was found (F = 14.34, Wilks’s Λ

= .92, p < .001). Post hoc analysis indicated that the individuals who were able to participate in

his/her favorite sports had higher scores in life satisfaction and athletic identity, and lower scores

in anxiety and depression.

There is also evidence that sports participation impacts the athletic identity of individuals

with physical disabilities. A survey study of Tasiemski, Kennedy, Gardner, and Blaikley (2004)

with individuals with SCI (n = 678) found athletic identity is significantly higher for the

individuals who participate in sports for more hours in a day than the individuals who participate

less. Factorial ANOVA was conducted to analyze the effect of sports participation and gender on

athletic identity. There were main effects of sports participation (F = 26.79, p < .001) and gender

(F = 23.52, p < .001), but the interaction was not significant. When paired with other research

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findings supporting the relationship between life satisfaction, self-esteem, and athletic identity,

these results further support the potential impact of sport participation on overall life satisfaction.

Wheelchair Rugby

Wheelchair Rugby is well known as a sport for individuals with upper and lower body

mobility limitation. It was developed by a group of Canadian “quadriplegic” athletes in 1977

[International Wheelchair Rugby Federation (IWRF), n.d.]. These founders believed that that

Wheelchair Basketball did not fully include individuals with severe levels of impairment such as

quadriplegia because the game was designed for individuals with less severe disabilities.

Wheelchair Rugby was developed to create a sports opportunity that enabled individuals with

severe disabilities to participate more in the games. According to IWRF (n.d.), only Canada and

the U.S. played Wheelchair Rugby in 1981, but the number of countries grew to 15 by 1993. In

2000, Wheelchair Rugby became an official full-medal sport in the Paralympics, and is currently

played in more than 40 countries.

Adnan, McKenzin, and Miyahara (2001) conducted research to examine the self-efficacy

of ADL skills and Wheelchair Rugby skills between Wheelchair Rugby players and non-

Wheelchair Rugby players. A total of 15 male Wheelchair Rugby players and a total of 15 males

with quadriplegia who had not participated in Wheelchair Rugby participated in the study. A pen

and paper survey was conducted for the data collection. The survey questions were developed by

researchers based on Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. The result of Mann-Whitney U-test

demonstrated Wheelchair Rugby skills and transfer skill self-efficacy were significantly higher

in Wheelchair Rugby players than non-Wheelchair Rugby players.

Goodwin et al. (2009) investigated the benefits of Wheelchair Rugby from sociological

aspect. A total of 11 Canadian Wheelchair Rugby players age between 22 and 48 were

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interviewed. A group interview in structured interview format was employed. Researchers found

three themes. The first theme was that “it’s OK to be Quad”. The participants in their Wheelchair

Rugby community felt easy being as they are. In the Wheelchair Rugby community, body

functions and lifestyle are similar. They had personally identified with their disability status and

accepted their disability and its lifestyle. The second theme was that “don’t tell us we can’t”.

Medical specialists surrounding the participants focused more on the negative side of acquiring

quadriplegia, thus the participants reported that they were often told by medical personnel that

they can’t do specific things. The participants, however, disagreed with such a negative attitude

toward their functional level. They increased their performance of ADL’s through Wheelchair

Rugby training and through peer modeling and support from the Wheelchair Rugby community.

The third theme was “the power of Wheelchair Rugby community”. Being with the group, the

participants felt more confident because they did not feel as if they were a minority. Furthermore,

the participants believed that they were more likely to try to socialize. The emotional bond

among teammates boosted their self-confidence.

Synthesis of literature

The current study investigated the relationship between life satisfaction and

subcomponents of self-concept. Based on the theoretical relevance, self-esteem was identified as

an indicator of Emotional Self-Concept, athletic identity was identified as an indicator of

Physical Self-Concept, and group identification was assumed to be an indicator of Social Self-

Concept.

Past research suggested that the predictors of life satisfaction were leisure satisfaction,

self-esteem, and health satisfaction (Coyle et al., 1994). Studies have suggested that there are

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potential connections between self-esteem and athletic identity (Tasiemski & Brewer, 2011), and

between self-esteem and group identification (Bat-Chava, 1994).

Cross-cultural difference between individualism and collectivism was discussed

(Laungani, 2007). The individualism values of self-responsibility and identity is developed

through self-choice in life, whereas the collectivism values of group responsibility and group

identity are ascribed by the role in the group. Such cultural differences may influence the

perception of self as an individual and as a member of a group. Athletic identity, therefore,

would be prominent in Americans and group identification would be prominent in Japanese.

Past research indicated that the sports participation of individuals with SCI is closely

related to their athletic identity (Tasiemski et al., 2004). Another study reported that individuals

with SCI who participated in their favorite sports achieved higher life satisfaction than people

who cannot participate in their favorite sports (Tasiemski & Brewer, 2011). Wheelchair Rugby

players were reported to have higher self-efficacy regarding wheelchair transfer than the non-

sports participants (Adnan, McKenzin, & Miyahara 2001). Additionally, surrounding role

models in a Wheelchair Rugby team were found to be of empowerment (Goodwin et al., 2009).

Considering such effects, it can be surmised that Wheelchair Rugby participation improves self-

esteem.

Hypotheses

H1-a: Wheelchair Rugby involvement improves life satisfaction.

H1-b: Wheelchair Rugby involvement improves self-esteem.

H1-c: Wheelchair Rugby involvement improves athletic identity.

H2-a: American athletes score higher on athletic identity than Japanese.

H2-b: Japanese athletes score higher on group identification than Americans.

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CHAPTER III

METHODS

Population and Sample

The target population of this study was Wheelchair Rugby players in US and Japan.

Approximately 500 players were registered with the United States Quad Rugby Association

(USQRA) and approximately 80 were registered with the Japan Wheelchair Rugby Federation

(JWRF). Typically, the participants of Wheelchair Rugby have motor dysfunction in four limbs

such as quadriplegia, four-limb amputation, or cerebral palsy. There is greater number of male

players than female players.

With the support of USQRA and JWRF, the target population was accessible. Team

representatives were provided with study information by association presidents/directors. Team

representatives then invited team members to participate in the on-line data collection process.

As a result, 58 participants from the U.S. and 17 participants from Japan participated in the study.

The age of American respondents ranged from 19 to 61, and the average age was 34.79 (SD =

10.39) with 51males (87.93 %) and five females (8.62 %) in the sample. The remaining two

respondents (3.44 %) did not disclose their sex. The age of the Japanese respondents ranged from

20 to 46, and the average age was 33.47 (SD = 7.49). All respondents were males.

Instrumentation

The survey consisted of a cover letter, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg,

1979), Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS; Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993),

Group Identification Scale (GIS; Henry, Arrow, & Carini, 1999), the Satisfaction with Life Scale

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(SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985), questions about health satisfaction and

financial satisfaction, and a retrospective version of aforementioned measurement scales (except

GIS). Retrospective questions were used to provide the participants’ perspectives on their self-

esteem, athletic identity, and life satisfaction levels prior to involvement in Wheelchair Rugby.

Self-Esteem

The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale was used to measure global self-esteem (Rosenberg,

1979). The scale consists of five questions about positive feelings of self and five questions of

negative feelings. A Likert scale of 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree) is used for each

question. Sample questions include “I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane

with others” and “I feel that I have a number of good qualities.”

RSES has been used for many studies and high reliability and validity are reported. Test-

retest reliability of two studies were .82 (Fleming & Courtney, 1984) and .85 (Silber & Tippett,

1965), Cronbach’s alpha of two studies were .77 (Dobson, Goudy, Keith, & Powers, 1979)

and .88 (Fleming & Courtney, 1984), and the correlation with Lerner Self-Esteem Scale was .72

(Savin-Williams & Jaquish, 1981).

Athletic Identity

Athletic Identity was measured with the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale: A 10-item

scale of measure of the extent and exclusiveness of athletic identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, &

Linder, 1993). A study of its factor structure indicated that it had four sub-factors including

social identity, self-identity, negative affectivity, and exclusivity (Martin, Eklund, & Adams-

Mushett, 1997). A Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) is used for each

question. Sample questions include “I consider myself an athlete” and “I have many goals related

to sport”.

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Brewer, Van Raalte, and Linder (1993) reported Cronbach’s alpha (.93) and test-retest

reliability (.83). The correlation with the homogeneous sports identity scales ranged .51 to .61,

indicating the sufficient criterion-related validity (Brewer et al., 1993).

Group Identification

Group Identification Scale: A 12-item scale about group identification. The word “group”

was changed to “team” in order to match the participants’ context. According to the authors, it

has three subscales: affective, behavioral, and cognitive (Henry, Arrow, & Carini, 1999). A

Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) is used for each question. Sample

questions include “I would prefer to be in a different team” and “In this team, members don’t

have to rely on one another”.

Cronbach’s alpha of each subscale ranged from .76 to .89. The correlation with

intragroup group identification scale (Hinkle, Taylor, Fox-Cardamone, & Crook, 1989) ranged

from .83 to .85, expressing the high extent of criterion-related validity (Henry et al., 1999).

Life Satisfaction

Satisfaction with Life Scale: A 5 item measure of global life satisfaction. A Likert scale

of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) is used for each of the following questions (Diener

et al., 1985).

• In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

• The conditions of my life are excellent.

• I am satisfied with life.

• So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

• If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.

18

Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) reported that the Cronbach’s alpha was .87

and test-retest reliability was .82. The validity scores of correlation with eight existing subjective

well-being scales ranged from .50 to .75, indicating the sufficient validity.

Other Satisfaction Questions

Health satisfaction and financial satisfaction questions were adopted from a previous

study on life satisfaction (Coyle et al., 1994). These questions included “I am satisfied with my

health condition” for health satisfaction and “I am satisfied with my financial condition” for

financial satisfaction. Each was rated on a 1 to 7 Likert scale with “Strongly Disagree” indicating

1 and “Strongly Agree” indicating 7.

Retrospective Instruments

Retrospective versions of RSES, AIMS, and SWLS were administered in order to

examine the condition of athletes before they began their involvement in Wheelchair Rugby. The

wordings of the questions were changed to past tense. For example, “I feel that I'm a person of

worth” was changed to “I felt that I was a person of worth”, allowing the respondent to provide

information on how they remember their condition to be prior to rugby involvement.

Retrospective version of GIS was not created because individuals have no team to belong to

before becoming involved in Wheelchair Rugby. The purpose of the retrospective instruments is

to allow the researcher to examine the perceived benefits of rugby involvement. Retrospective

pretest method has been recommended by Pratt, McGuigan, and Katzev (2000). Advantage of

this approach is the free of response shift bias (e.g., participants utilize different standard for

evaluation when answering to the self-report questions between pre-test and post-test. In detail,

see Howard & Dailey, 1979). Participants can assess the items with the same standard,.

Limitations of this approach includes that the uncertainty of accuracy because its reliance on

19

participants’ memory, and that it is vulnerable to the individuals who would like to promote the

program.

Translation Method

All of the utilized instruments were originally developed in English. Although RSES and

SLWS had official Japanese versions (Kadono, 1994; Mimura & Griffins, 2007), AIMS and GIS

needed to be translated into Japanese. The “Back Translation” method (Brislin, 1970) was used

to assure the accuracy of translation. The procedure involved a translation of original English

questions into Japanese by the researcher and another international student who were both

Japanese native speakers with advanced English proficiency. The researcher was a full-time

graduate student and another international student had a Bachelor of Arts in English Literature

and was a part-time student enrolled in a general education class at a university in Midwest area.

The translated versions were compared to verify accuracy and integrated into one version.

Subsequently, the translated questions were translated back into English by an English native

speaker with advanced Japanese proficiency. The translator was an individual who was

employed at a Japanese company working as a manager, and performed all the work tasks in

Japanese. The translated questions were compared to the original questions to verify accuracy. A

few translated questions that did not correspond with original questions were revised through

consultation with the English translator. The final Japanese version was inspected by the JWRF

president and a Japanese Wheelchair Rugby player to check for inappropriate expression.

Procedures

After receiving permission from the University Institutional Review Board, a

questionnaire delivery website was set up through GoogleTM Inc.’s survey delivery program. The

researcher then asked the JWRF president to distribute the invitation to participate and

20

questionnaire website link to the Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players. The JWRF president

obliged distributing the survey invitation letter to team representatives. The team representatives

were responsible for distributing this information to players. Players then completed and

submitted the questionnaire on-line. The researcher waited for 4 weeks and sent a reminder email

to the JWRF president.

The researcher also requested the USQRA commissioner to distribute the questionnaire

to the US Wheelchair Rugby players. The commissioner posted the invitation to participate and

the associated questionnaire internet link on the USQRA website and Facebook (a social network

website) page. The researcher waited for 4 weeks for response, then sent individual invitations

by email to team representatives.

The electronic survey was utilized to allow participants to confidentially access and

complete questions at their convenience. The top of the website contained a written consent form

that explained the purpose of the study and possible risks. There was also a notice that

participation in this study was voluntary and they could skip and/or stop answering questions

whenever they felt uncomfortable. The electronic format also allowed for a standardized process

of collecting data from individuals who were residing on opposite side of the world.

Research Design and Data analysis

This study utilized a static group pretest posttest design with the pretest coming from

retrospective recall. The predictor variables (independent variables) were self-esteem, athletic

identity, group identification, health satisfaction, and financial satisfaction. The outcome variable

(dependent variable) was life satisfaction.

Series of independent samples t-tests were performed to examine the effect of Wheelchair

Rugby on life satisfaction, self-esteem, and athletic identity, scores between the current and the

21

past (retrospective) were compared. In addition, t-tests were performed to investigate the

cultural-difference between American samples and Japanese samples on each variable.

Stepwise multiple regression analyses were performed to investigate the relationship

among the aforementioned measurement scales. Life satisfaction was first assigned as an

outcome variable, and secondly self-esteem was assigned as an outcome variable with combined

sample of Americans and Japanese.

Internal Validity

Subject Characteristics. This study did not conduct pretest survey because of the

difficulties of capture the subjects, instead retrospective questions were asked. Therefore, the

responses rely on participants’ memory. The responses from some individuals who had not

remembered the past very well may not be accurate. In addition, the sampling technique may

have led to a distortion of the study sample. Because the survey was computer based, it may have

biased the nature of respondents toward those who are computer literate or who have computer

and internet access.

Mortality. Losing participants between pretest and posttest was minimal because both

current and retrospective questions were in one questionnaire. However, mortality in the form of

non-respondents from the actual target population was very high. There was heavy dependence

on the team and association representatives to ensure distribution of the invitation. The

researcher was unable to monitor recruitment and it is impossible to tell how many members of

the population actually received the invitation. The response rate relative to the overall

population size was very low (11.4% for Americans; 21.3% for Japanese); however, it could be

that many of the members of the associations were not active with a team at the time of the study.

22

For the American sample, they may not have actively monitored Facebook or the Association

web site.

Location. The testing environment was somewhat controlled in this study. Electronic

survey allowed participants to use the individuals’ computer that should be in comfortable place,

but it is not clear if any participants were free from uncomfortable temperature or noisy

environment for example by breakdown of air conditioning and/or house renovation.

Instrumentation. It was well controlled by electronic survey because researcher used or

modified based on standardized instrument for most of the questions in the survey, and

researcher followed well established translation procedure in order to ensure the accuracy of the

translation.

Maturation. Maturation in this study is relevant in regard to the comparison

retrospective pretests to their corresponding “post-test”. Because no control group exists in this

study, it is possible that any of the observed differences could have been due to other factors

associated with the natural “coping” mechanisms that occur over time.

Subject Attitudes. The electronic survey may have influenced subject attitudes. The

researcher, therefore, could not control the attention and effort given to accurately completing

the survey. Attitudes may have also biased the profile of respondents, as those with a passion for

promoting the sport may have been more likely to respond. Those who were less engaged or less

impacted by the sport may have been less likely to respond.

23

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Respondent Profile

A total of 58 American responses and a total of 17 Japanese responses were collected.

The profile of American and Japanese samples is presented in table 1. The nature of disabilities

among Americans included 44 participants with SCI (75.86 %), one amputee (1.72 %), four with

cerebral palsy (6.89 %), and six reporting other disabilities (10.34 %) such as Neurological

conditions, Progressive muscular disease, HSAN type II, Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), Brain

tumor, and Arthrogryposis. The remaining three respondents (5.17 %) did not disclose the nature

of disabilities. The marital status of participants of Americans included 38 singles (65.51 %), 13

married (22.41 %), and six divorced (10.34 %). The one remaining respondent (1.72 %) did not

disclose marital status. The income levels were 25 at “$20,000 or less” (43.10 %), 13 at “$20,000

to $40,000” (22.41 %), six at “$40,000 to $60,000” (10.35 %), six at “$60,000 to $80,000”

(10.35 %), and seven at “$80,000 or more” (12.07 %). The one remaining respondent (1.72 %)

did not disclose his/her income level.

For Americans, the mean of the length involvement in Wheelchair Rugby was 6 years

and 7.58 months (SD = 4 years and 7.62 months). And the average length of the involvement of

the current team was 3 years and 11.71 months (SD = 3 years and 9.94 months). A total of 41

respondents (70.69 %) participated only in Wheelchair Rugby and 15 participated (25.86 %) in

the other sports such as handcycling, tennis, handball, chess, wheelchair track/road racing,

basketball, snow skiing, water skiing, and equestrian. The remaining two respondents (3.45 %)

did not disclose if they participated in other structured sports activities.

24

The nature of disabilities among Japanese included 16 participants with SCI (94.12 %),

and the one remaining respondent (5.88 %) did not disclose nature of disabilities. The marital

status included nine singles (52.94 %), four married (23.53 %), and one divorced (5.88 %). The

two remaining respondents (11.76 %) did not disclose marital status. The income levels were

eight at “$20,000 or less” (47.05 %), three at “$20,000 to $40,000” (17.64 %), two at “$40,000

to $60,000” (11.76 %), two at “$60,000 to $80,000” (11.76 %), and no one had income over

$80,000. The two remaining respondents (11.76 %) did not disclose his income level.

The mean of the length of respondents’ involvement in Wheelchair Rugby was 6 years

and 7.88 months (SD = 4 years and 1.04 months). The average length of the involvement with

the current team was 4 years and 8.75 months (SD = 2 years and 6.61 months). A total of 10

respondents (58.82 %) participated only in Wheelchair Rugby and five participated (29.41 %) in

the other sports such as twin basketball (basketball modified for individuals with quadriplegia

that is popular in Japan; see Suyama et al., 1998). The remaining two respondents (11.76 %) did

not disclose if they participated in other structured sports activities.

25

Table 1

Respondent profile (nus = 58, njpn =17)

Country

US Japan

Nature of disability: SCI Amputee CP Other

44 1 4 6

17 0 0 0

Marital Status: Single Married Divorced

38 13 6

9 4 1

Income: less than $20,000 $20,000 to $40,000 $40,000 to $60,000 $60,000 to $80,000 $80,000 or more

25 13 6 6 7

8 3 2 2 0

Other sports: Yes No

15 41

5 10

Involvement of WR 6 yrs 7.6mo (4 yrs 7.6 mo)

6 yrs 7.9 mo (4 yrs 1.0 mo)

Involvement in current team 3 yrs 11.7 mo (3 yrs 9.9 mo)

4 yrs 8.8 mo (2 yrs 6.6 mo)

26

Cross cultural difference and Impact of Wheelchair Rugby Involvement

An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine the hypothesis that there are

cultural differences in athletic identity and team identification between Americans and Japanese.

The researcher compared each scale variables of US and Japanese samples. The results are

presented in table 2. There were significant differences in scores of current life satisfaction (MD

= 6.19, t = 3.363, p < .01), current health satisfaction (MD = 1.78, t = 4.039, p < .01), current

self-esteem (MD = 8.22, t = 5.595, p < .01), and past self-esteem (MD = 5.64, t = 2.774, p < .05),

but not for athletic identity (current: MD = -1.91, t = -.750, p > .05; past: MD = 1.24, t = .268, p

> .05) and team identification (MD = 2.99, t = 1.262, p > .05). The hypothesis was not supported

by the results. These results suggested that cultural differences exist in regard to the extent of

current life satisfaction, current health satisfaction, and current and retrospective self-esteem, but

no differences existed regarding athletic identity and team identification. American Wheelchair

Rugby players perceived satisfaction with their life and their health more positively than

Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players, although they had similar retrospective perceptions on these

variables. Additionally, American Wheelchair Rugby players had higher self-esteem than

Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players in both current and retrospective aspects.

27

Table 2

Scale means for American and Japanese (nus = 58, njpn =17)

Country

US Japan t df

Current Life Satisfaction 26.84 (5.98)

20.65 (6.86)

3.363** 23.75

Current financial satisfaction 4.55 (1.67)

3.94 (1.34)

1.554 31.84

Current health satisfaction 5.19 (1.64)

3.41 (1.58)

4.039** 26.87

Current self-esteem 25.47 (5.05)

17.25 (5.23)

5.595** 23.45

Current athletic identity 44.65 (10.34)

46.56 (8.61)

-.750 23.37

Team identification 66.52 (11.70)

63.53 (6.61)

1.268 41.46

Past life satisfaction 19.02 (9.10)

17.21 (5.99)

.891 30.54

Past financial satisfaction 3.59 (2.18)

3.00 (1.52)

1.179 28.08

Past health satisfaction 3.89 (2.28)

4.14 (1.66)

-.465 26.76

Past self-esteem 19.50 (8.77)

13.86 (6.16)

2.774* 28.33

Past athletic identity 33.70 (15.16)

32.46 (14.88)

.268 18.62

Note. Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below means. * p < .05. ** p < .01.

28

In order to examine the hypothesis that Wheelchair Rugby involvement would lead to

improvement in life satisfaction, self-esteem, and athletic identity scores between current and

past, a paired samples t-test was conducted (retrospective pretest vs post-test). The results for the

overall sample are shown in table 3. There were significant improvements in life satisfaction

(MD = 6.68, t = 7.234, p < .01) and self-esteem (MD = 5.43, t = 5.893, p < .01). There was no

significant change in athletic identity (MD = 11.74, t = 5.509, p > .05). The hypothesis was only

partially supported. These results suggest that Wheelchair Rugby participation improved life

satisfaction and self-esteem.

29

Table 3

Scale means for current and past (n = 75)

Chronology

Current Past t df

Life Satisfaction 25.43 (6.77)

18.75 (6.57)

7.234** 66

Self-esteem 23.73 (5.98)

18.30 (8.50)

5.893** 65

Athletic identity 45.12 (10.10)

33.38 (15.10)

5.509 64

Note. Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below means. ** p < .01.

30

To examine if the observed differences held true for both American and Japanese players,

difference scores calculated from the retrospective pre-test and the post-test were examined

separately for each sub sample (see Table 4). The results indicated that Americans players

demonstrated significantly larger gains compared to Japanese players in life satisfaction (MD =

4.66, t = 2.794, p < .01) and self-esteem (MD = 3.69, t = 2.191, p < .05); however, gains in

athletic identity were not significantly different across the two groups (MD = -6.15, t = -1.121, p

> .05). The null hypothesis was rejected. The US Wheelchair Rugby players gain more life

satisfaction and self-esteem, on average, than that of Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players as a

result of participating in Wheelchair Rugby.

31

Table 4

Means of difference between current and past scores (hypothesized gain) in US and Japanese

samples (nus = 58, njpn =17)

Country

US Japan t df

Life Satisfaction 7.66 (7.90)

3.00 (4.74)

2.794** 34.45

Self-Esteem 6.15 (7.88)

2.46 (4.65)

2.191* 31.32

Athletic Identity 10.60 (17.67)

16.75 (14.43)

-1.121 63

Note. Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below means. * p < .05. ** p < .01.

32

Since there were cultural differences in gain scores between US and Japanese samples,

the impact of Wheelchair Rugby was reexamined separately for each group. A paired sample t-

test was conducted to examine the difference in variables between the current and retrospective

scores. The results are shown on table 5 and table 6. The results of US samples found significant

difference in life satisfaction (MD = 7.66, t = 7.059, p < .01), self-esteem (MD = 6.15, t = 5.679,

p < .01), and athletic identity (MD = 10.60, t = 4.369, p < .01). These results support the original

hypothesis that Wheelchair Rugby involvement impact on life satisfaction, self-esteem, and

athletic identity. The results of Japanese samples found significant difference in life satisfaction

(MD = 3.00, t = 2.368, p < .05) and athletic identity (MD = 16.75, t = 4.021, p < .01). Self-

esteem was not significantly different (MD = 2.46, t = 1,910, p > .05). The original hypothesis

was only partially supported. These result suggested that both US and Japanese Wheelchair

Rugby players increased their life satisfaction and athletic identity; however, US Wheelchair

Rugby players increased self-esteem, but Japanese Wheelchair Rugby player did not.

33

Table 5

T-test result for comparison between current and past in US samples (n = 58)

Chronology

Current Past t df

Life Satisfaction 26.81 (6.07)

19.15 (9.14)

7.059** 52

Self-esteem 25.45 (4.99)

19.30 (8.73)

5.679** 52

Athletic identity 44.30 (10.37)

33.70 (15.16)

4.369** 52

Note. Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below means. ** p < .01. Table 6

T-test result for comparison between current and past in Japanese samples (n = 17)

Chronology

Current Current t df

Life Satisfaction 20.21 (6.95)

17.21 (5.99)

2.368* 13

Self-esteem 16.69 (4.34)

14.23 (6.25)

1.910 12

Athletic identity 48.75 (8.23)

32.00 (15.44)

4.021** 11

Note. Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below means. * p < .05. **p < .01.

34

Relationship between life satisfaction and other variables

A stepwise regression analysis was employed to examine what variables were significant

predictors of life satisfaction. The predictor variables selected were country, athletic identity,

team identification, health satisfaction, financial satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Table 7 shows the univariate correlation between variables. A moderate negative

correlation was found between life satisfaction and country (r = -.445, p < .01). And positive

correlations were found between Life satisfaction and team identification (r = .326, p < .01),

health satisfaction (r = .800, p < .01), financial satisfaction (r = .684, p < .01), and self-esteem (r

= .747, p < .01). There was not a significant relationship between life satisfaction and athletic

identity (r = .010, p > .05).

35

Table 7

Summary of correlation analysis for life satisfaction and other variables (n = 75)

Variables LS C AI TI HS FS SE

Life Satisfaction (LS) 1

Country (C) -.445** 1

Athletic Identity (AI) .010 .049 1

Team Identification (TI) .326** -.130 .156 1

Health Satisfaction (HS) .800** -.451** .276* .225* 1

Financial Satisfaction (FS) .684** -.195 -.004 .291* .476** 1

Self-Esteem (SE) .747** -.569** -.152 .334** .563** .469** 1

Note. *p <.05. **p < .01.

36

Table 8 displays each step taken in the stepwise regression. At step1, health satisfaction

was added to the regression equation and significantly related to life satisfaction, R2 = .640, F (1,

61) = 108.64, p < .01. At step 2, self-esteem was added to the regression equation and

significantly improved the prediction, R2 = .769, F (2, 60) = 99.77, p < .01. At step 3, financial

satisfaction was added to the regression equation and was significantly improved the prediction,

R2 = .834, F (3, 59) = 98.897, p < .01. Consequently, three predictor variables including health

satisfaction, self-esteem, and financial satisfaction were applied in the regression equation;

whereas country, athletic identity, and team identification were excluded in this model. Self-

esteem was one of the major predictors of life satisfaction and athletic identity and team

identification were not. The adjusted R2 value of .826 indicates that more than 80% of the

variance in life satisfaction was predicted by health satisfaction, self-esteem, and financial

satisfaction.

37

Table 8

Stepwise Regression of relevant variables on life satisfaction with American and Japanese

samples (n = 75)

Variable Β SE(B) β R2 ΔR2 Step 1 .640 Health Satisfaction 3.05 .29 .80**

Step 2 .769 .129 Health Satisfaction 2.12 .29 .56** Self-Esteem .48 .08 .43**

Step3 .834 .065 Health Satisfaction 1.76 .26 .46** Self-Esteem .38 .07 .35** Financial Satisfaction 1.26 .26 .30** Note. **p < .01

38

Based on the above regression analysis, it appears that self-esteem significantly impacts

life satisfaction. These results pose the question, “if self-esteem impact life satisfaction, what

impacts self-esteem?”

To answer this question, another stepwise regression analysis was conducted to examine

what variables were significant predictor of self-esteem. Self-esteem was assigned as an outcome

variable and country, health satisfaction, financial satisfaction, athletic identity, and team identity

were assigned as predictor variables. Table 9 displays each step taken in the stepwise regression.

At step1, country was added to the regression equation and was significantly related to self-

esteem, R2 = .326, F (1, 62) = 29.99, p < .01. At step 2, financial satisfaction was added to the

equation of regression prediction and was significantly improved the prediction, R2 = .459, F (2,

61) = 25.92, p < .01. At step 3, health satisfaction was added to the regression prediction and was

significantly improved the prediction, R2 = .494, F (3, 60) = 19.50, p < .01. At step 4, athletic

identity was added to the regression prediction and was significantly improved the prediction, R2

= .538, F (4, 59) = 17.16, p < .01. At step 5, team identification was added to the regression

prediction and significantly improved the prediction, R2 = .569, F (5, 58) = 15.34, p < .01. All

variables were included in the prediction equation. The athletic identity and team identification

were two of the major predictors of self-esteem, even after accounting for cultural differences

and satisfaction with health and finances. The adjusted R2 value of .532 indicates that more than

50% of the variance in self-esteem was predicted by country, financial satisfaction, health

satisfaction, athletic identity, and team identification.

39

Table 9

Stepwise Regression of relevant variables on self-esteem with American and Japanese samples

(n =75)

Variable Β SE(B) β R2 ΔR2

Step 1 .326 Country -8.78 1.60 -.571**

Step 2 .459 .133 Country -7.65 1.48 -.498** Financial Satisfaction 1.41 .36 .372**

Step3 .494 .035 Country -6.39 1.57 -.416** Financial Satisfaction 1.07 .39 .282** Health Satisfaction .78 .39 .228*

Step 4 .538 .044 Country -5.64 1.55 -.368** Financial Satisfaction .97 .38 .243* Health Satisfaction 1.13 .40 .330** Athletic Identity -.14 .06 -.226*

Step 5 .569 .031 Country -5.46 1.51 -.355** Financial Satisfaction .74 .38 .195 Health Satisfaction 1.10 .39 .322** Athletic Identity -.16 .06 -.254** Team Identification .11 .05 .189* Note. *p <.05. **p < .01.

40

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

Answers to the research questions

The analyses of the current study answered the research questions and evaluated the

hypotheses which were established in Chapter I and Chapter II.

RQ1: How does Wheelchair Rugby involvement impact life satisfaction and self-

concept? The hypotheses were that Wheelchair Rugby involvement improves life satisfaction,

self-esteem, and athletic identity (as in H1-a, H1-b, and H1-c). The results from the combined

sample of Americans and Japanese indicated support for H1-a and H1-b. H1-c was rejected,

although it demonstrated significant improvement when Americans and Japanese were analyzed

separately.

RQ2: Do American and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players differ in regard to the

impact that participation has on life satisfaction and self-concept? The findings include the

differences in mean scores of life satisfaction and self-esteem between American and Japanese

Wheelchair Rugby players. The extent of gained scores as a result of Wheelchair Rugby

involvement (i.e., current score minus retrospective score) were greater in American Wheelchair

Rugby players in life satisfaction and self-esteem. In addition, American Wheelchair Rugby

players indicated improvement in life satisfaction, self-esteem, and athletic identity, while

Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players indicated improvement in only life satisfaction and athletic

identity. The hypotheses were that American players score athletic identity higher than Japanese

players (H2-a) and Japanese players score team identification higher than Americans (H2-b).

41

Contrary to the expectation, the mean comparison with t-test indicated that there was no

difference between Americans and Japanese

RQ3: To what extent is life satisfaction of Wheelchair Rugby players explained by

various dimensions of self-concept? The results indicated that self-esteem was a significant

predictor of life satisfaction, but athletic identity and team identification were not. Athletic

identity and team identification, however, were significant predictors of self-esteem.

Effect of Wheelchair Rugby on Life Satisfaction, Self-Esteem, and Athletic Identity

Litchke et al. (2012) had interviews with six Wheelchair Rugby players with variety

length of their playing careers. The study revealed the benefits of Wheelchair Rugby including

improvement in psychological well-being and athletic identity. This empirical research supported

the phenomenon from a quantitative perspective.

Life satisfaction. The effect on life satisfaction was consistent with the hypothesis that

the team sports involvement improve life satisfaction (Kennedy, Taylor, & Hindson, 2006;

Tasiemski, & Brewer, 2011). The results also supported the theory of Goodwin et al. (2009) that

Wheelchair Rugby players can accept their disability. The instrument of the current study, SWLS

(Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985), consists of questions about the perception of one’s

current situation. The instrument well detected the change in Wheelchair Rugby players’

perception that “it’s OK to be quad”.

Self-esteem. Results of this study also demonstrated a significant improvement in self-

esteem of American participants. Individuals with quadriplegia often encounter the negative

comment that they cannot do certain things in daily life by medical professionals (Goodwin et al.,

2009). For some individuals, the environment surrounding negative messages induces

psychological distress. According to Goodwin et al., Wheelchair Rugby empowered the

42

participants in a way that they are able to do something. Another previous study reported that

Wheelchair Rugby involvement improved their self-efficacy on Wheelchair Rugby skills and

transfer skills (Adnan, McKenzin, & Miyahara, 2001). Combined with the acceptance of his/her

disability, such self-efficacy improvement may have contributed to the improvement of self-

esteem. The current study provided extended outcome as self-esteem improvement.

Athletic Identity. Results indicated statistically significant improvement in athletic

identity when Americans and Japanese samples were examined separately, but not when it was

combined. The non-significant result may be because of the small sample size and the large

standard deviation. Given the significant result is true, it is consistent of finding of Tasiemski,

Kennedy, Gardner, and Blaikley (2004) that sports participation is positively related to athletic

identity. The AIMS (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993) consisted of questions that measure

the extent of identity as an athlete and its exclusiveness. The nature of this sport is aggressive

and competitive. The interview participants of Goodwin et al. (2009) stated “Participation in

competitive rugby required commitment, goal setting, travel, independence, and identification

with the sport” (p. 109). Surrounding one’s self with such an environment and people, therefore,

may contribute to the impact on athletic identity. Tasiemski and Brewer (2011) argued that the

individuals who participated in their favorite sports achieved higher athletic identity. The current

study did not measure if the survey participants perceived Wheelchair Rugby as their favorite

sports. Further investigation would be needed to discuss the relationship between them.

Cross-Cultural Difference in the Effect of Wheelchair Rugby

Life satisfaction. There were differences in mean scores of life satisfaction and self-

esteem between US and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players. A previous study (Kang, Shaver,

Sue, Min, & Jing, 2003) reported that Americans scored higher on the SWLS than Koreans and

43

Chinese (who were represented collectivist countries). In addition, although using different life

satisfaction indicators, Ide and Fugl-Meyer (2001) also reported the Swedes (who were

represented the individualist countries) with SCI were more satisfied with several aspects of life

than Japanese with SCI. Our results supported such differences in response to life satisfaction

between individualists and collectivists. Why this phenomenon happened may be related to

Spencer-Rogers, Peng, Wang, and Hou’s (2004) East-West differences in how much positive and

negative emotions coexist in an individual. Western individuals eschew attitudinal ambivalence

toward themselves, whereas Eastern individuals tolerate the coexistence of positive and negative

attitudes toward oneself. As such, Westerners tend to score higher on life satisfaction than

Easterners.

The results of current study also confirmed the hypothesized gain scores (Current score

minus retrospective score) in life satisfaction. It is known that life satisfaction is predicted by

emotions in individualist countries, but both emotions and cultural norm have an impact in

collectivist countries (Suh, Diener, Oishi, & Triandis, 1998). Wheelchair Ruby involvement

undoubtedly impacts on emotional aspect (e.g., see Goodwin et al. 2009; Lichke et al., 2012), but

it may not be strongly related to Japanese cultural norms. It may explain why life satisfaction of

Americans increased more than that of the Japanese sample.

Self-Esteem. According to Tafarodi, Shaughnessy, Yamaguchi, and Murakoshi (2011),

the value that Japanese culture places on status and age is greater than that of Western culture.

Such awareness results in strict behavioral norms among Japanese people. In Japanese culture,

making oneself look fragile or modest is regarded as polite and socially appropriate behavior.

Considering that the survey invitations were distributed by team managers or coaches, who are

typically regarded as having superior status compared to players, participants may have felt such

44

pressure. Schmitt and Allik’s (2005) study of self-esteem scores from 53 countries reported that

Japanese, on average, scored the lowest in the list of countries with mean of 25.50 (compare with

our Mjp = 17.25), and Americans scored sixth highest with mean of 32.21 (our Mus = 25.47). The

posttest data of both Americans and Japanese from the current study were lower than the level of

Schmitt and Allik’s data which derived from general population. Craig, Hancock, and Chang

(1994) also reported lower level of self-esteem of individuals with SCI than individuals without

disability. The stigma of disability may take a part, but it is not clear why this happens.

In the Japanese sample, self-esteem did not demonstrate significant improvement. One

possible explanation to this phenomenon would be self-sacrificing behavior of Japanese

(Yamaguchi, 1994). Self-sacrificing is to give up themselves in order to achieve collective goals

(e.g., winning as a team), and such behavior is common in Japanese athletes (Cave, 2004; Kelly,

2007). In such case, an individual does not feel valued through team activities. Another

possibility may be the perception of stigma. The non-significant result of Japanese may be

caused by the stronger perception of stigma than the Americans. In addition, it might be a

sampling error since the sample size of Japanese players was small.

Athletic identity and group identification. There were no differences in those two

variables between American and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players. This phenomenon cannot

be explained by the individualism versus collectivism difference. Athletic identity is an indicator

of the extent of belief in the athlete role and its exclusiveness. It is theoretically possible that an

individual believes in collective responsibilities and strongly believes in his/her athlete role.

Houston, Marris, Moore, Brummett, and Kametani (2005) reported that the American college

students and Japanese college students were at the same level of contentiousness. Such similar

level of competitiveness may be the manifestation of non-significant result of athletic identity.

45

Cross-cultural difference in group identification may be related to the kind of organization the

individual belongs to. A study that compared group identification between British and Japanese

employees (Abrams, Ando, & Hinkle, 1998) concluded that the strength of group identification

depends on what organization the individual belongs to. British who were employees of a

commercial organization scored significantly higher in group identification than Japanese. In

contrast, British who were university employees scored significantly lower than Japanese, while

the Japanese were consistently at the same level of group identification. Future research should

be done to clarify the behavior of group identification.

Associates of Life Satisfaction and Self-Esteem

The bivariate correlation between life satisfaction and athletic identity was not

statistically significant, and close to zero (r = .010, n.s.). This non-significant result pose a

question for interpretation of the Tasiemski and Brewer’s (2011) result that indicated a very

weak positive correlation between life satisfaction and athletic identity (r = .15, p < .005).

The results of univariate correlation analyses indicated non-significant relationship

between self-esteem and athletic identity and a significant relationship with team identification.

These findings supported the result of Van deVliet, Van Biesen, and Vanlandewijck’s (2008)

study claiming no significant relationship between self-esteem and athletic identity, and the

result of Bat-Chava’s (1994) study claiming positive relationship between self-esteem and group

identification. The current study provided evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and

group identification is applied in Wheelchair Rugby players.

Predictors of Life Satisfaction

The results of stepwise regression analyses indicated that health satisfaction, self-esteem,

and financial satisfaction were significant predictors of life satisfaction. This result was partially

46

consistent with Coyle, Lesnik-Emas, and Kinney’s (1994) findings, which reported leisure

satisfaction, self-esteem, and health satisfaction predicted life satisfaction. The financial

satisfaction finding disagreed with the previous report. The research participants of the study of

Coyle, Lesnik-Emas, and Kinney were the general population with SCI, whereas the current

study participants were solely athletes with SCI. The results of current study suggested that self-

esteem and health satisfaction are still significant predictor of life satisfaction for athletes with

SCI.

Predictors of Self-Esteem

Stepwise regression analysis with the American and Japanese combined sample indicated

that country, health satisfaction, financial satisfaction, athletic identity, and team identification

were all significant predictors of self-esteem. The country was the most significant predictor of

self-esteem. This suggests that the cultural difference may exist in self-esteem, however, further

investigation could not undergo because of the small sample size of both Americans and

Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players. The significant results of athletic identity and team

identification suggest that those variables still play roles even if health and finance conditions are

compromised. Individuals with SCI can still improve their self-esteem by enhancement of their

athletic identity and team identification.

Limitations

The administration of the survey was a major limitation. The survey was administered

with the electronic form. There was no supervision in administration. Therefore, it may include

divergence from honest scores and it may not reflect the overall target population. Furthermore,

pretest was substituted with retrospective questions and may not have reflected their true scores.

Still, the respondent’s current perceptions of change from pre to post have value.

47

Recommendations

Future research recommendations. In the game of wheelchair rugby, a player typically

is assigned one of the two roles: offensive or defensive. The offensive players are called high

pointers because they typically are classified in a higher point category within the player

classification system (i.e., lower levels of impairment), and defensive players are called low

pointers (i.e., higher levels of impairment). Whether the different roles that high and low pointers

play within the game of rugby influence the effect of participation on psychological adjustment

is still unclear. It is recommended that future research focus on how different levels of

classification impact the overall outcomes of wheelchair rugby participation.

Japanese Wheelchair Rugby players did not improve self-esteem. It is, however, difficult

to confirm that this result reflects a characteristic of Japanese players since the sample size of

this study was quite small for inferential statistics (n = 17). Further research should be done with

sufficient sample size.

There were no significant differences in athletic identity and group identification between

Americans and Japanese players. In this study, only the total scores were used, but both

instruments have subscales. The differences between subscales should be done in the future

study. In addition, this study only employed Americans and Japanese for representation of

individualism and collectivism, but future research could include participants from other

countries.

Practical implications. Wheelchair Rugby had a positive effect on life satisfaction. This

is evidence of the benefit of continuing involvement in Wheelchair Rugby. Coaches are

recommended to encourage continued participation in circumstances where athletes may feel

compelled to withdraw from Wheelchair Rugby before they have thoroughly explored the sport.

48

There is increasing number of international coaches in Wheelchair Rugby. Coaches who

work with Japanese Wheelchair Rugby athletes should notice the difference that the Japanese

players have regarding low self-esteem, the relationship it has with cultural norms, and how it

may or may not be impacted by Wheelchair Rugby involvement.

Recreation therapists should notice the model surrounding life satisfaction. It suggests

that even though health satisfaction and financial satisfaction of an individual are compromised,

life satisfaction can be improved by self-esteem.

Conclusion

The current study successfully demonstrated the efficacy of Wheelchair Rugby in

improving life satisfaction and athletic identity in both American and Japanese Wheelchair

Rugby players. The cross-cultural differences were found in life satisfaction and self-esteem,

which was explained by individualism vs. collectivism differences. There were no differences in

athletic identity and group identification; therefore, the individualism versus collectivism theory

was failed to explain this phenomenon. Life satisfaction was predicted by self-esteem in both

cultures. The self-esteem predictors were disagreed between cultures. Although ambiguity still

remains, the current study highlighted Wheelchair Rugby certainly impacted participants’ life.

Rehabilitation process and daily life tend to be highly individualized, therefore such team

experience may be valuable and make the participants became satisfied with their life.

49

APPENDIX A

ENGLISH VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between identity, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among American and Japanese Wheelchair Rugby Players. You are invited to participate in this study because you are a Wheelchair Rugby Player and 18 years of age or older. This study is being conducted by Shinichi Nagata, a graduate student in the Department of Health and Human Services at Northwest Missouri State University. As a participant, you will be asked to complete a voluntary survey regarding your sport related identity, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. This process will take approximately 10-15 minutes. You have the right to decline participation without penalty and can discontinue your participation at any time. If you start the survey and then decide to withdraw before completion, your responses will not be used in the study. Information gathered from this study may be published at a later time, but no individuals will be publicity identified in the process. Responses to the survey are to be anonymous, so please do not put your name on any of the documents. There are no known physical or psychological risks associated with participation in this study. The study is not designed to benefit you personally, but the information gained from the study will contribute to our knowledge about the benefits of wheelchair rugby participation. You will not be compensated for participating in this research. If you have questions about the nature or outcome of this study, you may contact Shinichi Nagata at email (s515674@mail. nwmissouri.edu) or telephone at 660-853-2114. This study has been approved by the Northwest Missouri State University IRB committee (proposal #1213-04-04). Questions regarding your rights as a participant in this study can be submitted to the committee Chairperson Dr. Rebecca Hendrix at email (IRBNWMS@nwmissouri.edu) or telephone at 660-562-1564. You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate in this research study. Your response to this survey certifies that you have decided to participate having read and understood the information presented. If you so desire you will be given a copy of this consent form to keep.

50

The Satisfaction with Life Scale Directions: Below are seven statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The conditions of my life are excellent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I am satisfied with life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I am satisfied with my health condition. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I am satisfied with my financial condition. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Directions: Below are ten statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1-4 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4

I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 1 2 3 4 I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 1 2 3 4 I am able to do things as well as most other people. 1 2 3 4 I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 1 2 3 4 I take a positive attitude toward myself. 1 2 3 4 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 1 2 3 4 I wish I could have more respect for myself. 1 2 3 4 I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4 At times I think I am no good at all. 1 2 3 4

51

Athletic Identity Measurement Scale Directions: Below are ten statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your responding.

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions I consider myself an athlete. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I have many goals related to sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Most of my friends are athletes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sport is the most important part of my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I need to participate in sport to feel good about myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Other people see me mainly as an athlete. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sport is the only important thing in my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not compete in sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Team Identification Scale

Directions: Think about your Wheelchair Rugby team you belong to (if you belong to multiple teams, think about the team you think is most important). Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions I am satisfied with this team experience. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would prefer to be in a different team. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In this team, members don’t have to rely on one another. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I think of this team as part of who I am. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Members of this team like one another. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All members need to contribute to achieve the team’s goals. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I see myself as quite different from other members of the team. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I enjoy interacting with the members of this team. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 This team accomplishes things that no single member could achieve. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

52

I don’t think of this team as part of who I am. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I don’t like many of the other people in this team. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In this team, members do not need to cooperate to complete group tasks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I see myself as quite similar to other members of the team. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Demographic Information

Directions: Please provide a response for each of the following questions:

1. What is your age?

2. What is your sex? Male / Female

3. What is your nature of disability? Spinal Cord Injury / Amputee / Cerebral Palsy / Other (please provide detail: )

4. After the injury or acquiring your disability and before you start involving Wheelchair

Rugby, you were physically active. Using 1-5 scale below to indicate your agreement. 1 ---------------------- 2 ---------------------- 3 --------------------- 4 --------------------- 5

Strongly disagree slightly disagree neither agree or disagree slightly agree Strongly agree

5. How long have you played Wheelchair Rugby competitively? Years months

6. How long have you played with your current team? Years months

7. Currently, do you belong to another team including other sports? Yes / No If Yes, please provide detail:

8. Currently your level of competition is very high. Using 1-5 scale below to indicate your

agreement. 1 ---------------------- 2 ---------------------- 3 --------------------- 4 --------------------- 5

Strongly disagree slightly disagree neither agree or disagree slightly agree Strongly agree

9. What is your marital status? Single / Married / Separated / Divorced / Widowed

10. How much is your income? $20,000 or less / $20,000 - $40,000 / $40,000 - $60,000 / $80,000 or more

53

Retrospective part of the Satisfaction with Life Scale Directions: Think back to BEFORE you were involved in Wheelchair Rugby. How would you have responded to the following statements at that time in your life? Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions In most ways my life was close to my ideal. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The conditions of my life were excellent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I was satisfied with life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 So far I had gotten the important things I wanted in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 If I could have lived my life over, I would have changed almost nothing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I was satisfied with my health condition. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I was satisfied with my financial condition. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Retrospective part of Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Directions: Think back to BEFORE you were involved in Wheelchair Rugby. How would you have responded to the following statements at that time in your life? Using the 1-4 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4

Questions I felt that I was a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 1 2 3 4 I felt that I had a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4 All in all, I was inclined to feel that I was a failure. 1 2 3 4 I was able to do things as well as most other people. 1 2 3 4 I felt I did not have much to be proud of. 1 2 3 4 I took a positive attitude toward myself. 1 2 3 4 On the whole, I was satisfied with myself. 1 2 3 4 I wished I could have more respect for myself. 1 2 3 4 I certainly felt useless at times. 1 2 3 4 At times I thought I was no good at all. 1 2 3 4

54

Retrospective part of Athletic Identity Measurement Scale

Directions: Think back to BEFORE you were involved in Wheelchair Rugby. How would you have responded to the following statements at that time in your life? Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.

Strongly Disagree Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Agree or Disagree

Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Questions I considered myself an athlete. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I had many goals related to sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Most of my friends were athletes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sport was the most important part of my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I spent more time thinking about sport than anything else. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I needed to participate in sport to feel good about myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Other people saw me mainly as an athlete. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I felt bad about myself when I did poorly in sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sport was the only important thing in my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would have been very depressed if I were injured and could not compete in sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Thank you for your help!

55

APPENDIX B

JAPANESE VERSION QUESTIONNAIRE

アンケート調査ご協力のお願い インフォームドコンセント 「説明と同意」

こんにちは、以前ウィルチェアーラグビー日本選手権大会や、日本代表の海外遠征などでお世

話になりました、永田真一と申します。現在私は、米国のノースウェストミズーリ州立大学の

大学院でレクリエーションセラピーについて学んでおります。ウィルチェアーラグビーに関す

る研究に貢献したく、今回のアンケート調査にいたりました。 この研究の目的は、ウィルチェアーラグビー選手における、アイデンティティと人生に対する

満足度、そして自尊感情の関係を明らかにすることです。18 歳以上のウィルチェアーラグビー

選手を対象に調査のご協力をお願いさせていただいております。 この調査では、スポーツ関連のアイデンティティ、自尊感情、人生に対する満足度について質

問させていただいております、お手数ではございますが、全ての質問にご解答をお願いいたし

ます。15 分程度アンケートのご回答にいただければと思います。しかしながら、アンケート回

答を拒否することによるによる罰則や不利益はございません。 この研究で集められた情報に基づいて、後日研究結果が出版される可能性がありますが、個人

を特定されるような情報は一切公表されません。このアンケートへの参加は匿名でお願いいた

します。そのためアンケート回答用紙へのお名前のご記入はお避けください。 このアンケート調査参加による身体的や心理的なリスクはありません。この研究はご参加いた

だく個人へ利益があるように構成されてはおりませんが、この調査でご回答いただいた情報に

より、ウィルチェアーラグビー参加の利点が明らかにされ、ウィルチェアーラグビーのさらな

る発展へ貢献されることが予測されます。 ご参加いただく中で、この研究の内容や、結果に関するご質問などございましたら、永田真一

までご連絡いただければと思います。E メール(s515674@mail. nwmissouri.edu)などでご連絡いた

だけましたら、迅速にご回答差し上げるようにいたします。

この研究は、ノースウェストミズーリ州立大学の研究倫理審査委員会（審査番号 #1214-04-04）の審査、承認をうけたものです。この調査にご参加いただく上での権利など、倫理的なことに

ついてのご質問については研究倫理審査委員会の委員長である Rebecca Hendrix 博士に連絡する

ことができます。日本語が理解でき、Rebecca Hendrix 博士にお取次ぎできる Terry Long博士へ

E メール(tlong@nwmissouri.edu)でご連絡くださいますようお願い申し上げます。 このアンケート調査への参加は任意です。このアンケート調査へのご回答は、上記でご説明さ

せていただいた内容をご理解いただいた上でご回答いただいたと理解させていただきます。も

し必要でしたら、このコンセントフォームをお手元に保存いただいても結構です。

56

人生に対する満足尺度 説明：下記に７つの文章があります。下の四角の中に示されている１から７の指標に

基づいて、あなたがそれぞれの文章にどの程度同意するか該当する数字に○をつけて

ください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

少し

同意

できない

どちら

でもない

少し

同意

できる

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

項目

大体において、私の人生は理想に近い。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私の人生は、すばらしい状態である。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、私の人生に満足している。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はこれまでの人生の中で、こうしたいと思った重要な

ことはなしとげてきた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

人生をもう１度やりなおせたとしても、変えたいことは

ほとんどない １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、自分の健康状態に満足している。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、自分の経済状態に満足している。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

ローゼンバーグ自尊感情尺度 説明：下記の文章に対して、下の四角の中に示されている１から４の指標に基づき、

あなたがそれぞれの文章にどの程度同意するか該当する数字に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４

項目

自分は少なくとも他の人と同じくらい価値のある人間だと感じている。 １ ２ ３ ４

私にはけっこう長所があると感じている。 １ ２ ３ ４

時々、自分はまったくダメだと思うことがある。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、他の大半の人と同じくらいに物事がこなせる。 １ ２ ３ ４

私には誇れるものが大してないと感じる。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、自分のことを前向きに考えている。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、自分自身にだいたい満足している。 １ ２ ３ ４

自分のことをもう少し尊敬できたらいいと思う。 １ ２ ３ ４

時々、自分は役に立たないと強く感じることがある。 １ ２ ３ ４

よく、私は落ちこぼれだと思ってしまう。 １ ２ ３ ４

57

スポーツマン的アイデンティティ尺度 説明：下記の文章に対して、下の四角の中に示されている１から７の指標に基づき、

あなたがそれぞれの文章にどの程度同意するか該当する数字に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

少し

同意

できない

どちら

でもない

少し

同意

できる

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

項目

私は自分自身のことをアスリートだと思っている。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私には競技に関するたくさんの目標がある。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私の友人はほとんどがアスリートだ。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

競技は私の人生の中で最も重要な部分を占めている。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は他の何よりも競技に関することを考えている時間が

長い。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は自分らしくあるために競技に参加することが必要

だ。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

他の人々は私のことを主にアスリートだと見てくれてい

る。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は競技でうまくいかないと気分が悪い。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

競技こそが私の人生の中で唯一の大事なものだ。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私がけがをして競技に参加できなくなったとしたら、ひ

どく気分が落ち込むだろう。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

集団同一視尺度

説明：あなたが現在所属しているウィルチェアーラグビーのチームについて想像して

ください（もし複数のチームに所属している場合、あなたの一番大事だと考えるチーム

について想像してください）。下記の文章に対して、下の四角の中に示されている１

から７の指標に基づき、あなたがそれぞれの文章にどの程度同意するか該当する数字

に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

少し

同意

できない

どちら

でもない

少し

同意

できる

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

項目

私は、このチームでの経験に満足している。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はできることなら他のチームにいたい。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

58

このチームでは、メンバーたちがお互いに当てにしなく

ても良い。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はこのチームが私という人間の一部であると思う。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

このチームのメンバーは仲良くやっている。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

全てのメンバーはこのチームの目標を達成するために貢

献する必要がある。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はこのチームの他のメンバーとかなり違うと思う。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

このチームの他のメンバーとの交流は楽しい。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

このチームはメンバー各々では成し遂げられなかったこ

とを達成する。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

このチームは私という人間の一部であるとは思えない。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はこのチーム内に合わない人がたくさんいる。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

このチームでは、メンバーたちがこのチームの課題の完

遂のために協力し合う必要はない。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はこのチームの他のメンバーとかなり似ていると思

う。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

基本情報シート

説明：以下の質問にご回答をお願いいたします。

1. 年齢

2. 性別 男性 / 女性

3. 障害種別 脊椎・頚椎損傷 / 切断 / 脳性まひ / その他 (ご記入ください： )

4. 障害を持つようになってから、ウィルチェアーラグビーを始めるまで、身体的に

活動的であった。 1 ---------------------- 2 --------------------- 3 --------------------- 4 --------------------- 5

全く同意できない 同意できない どちらでもない 同意できる 強く同意できる

5. ウィルチェアーラグビーを始めてどれくらいの期間プレーされていますか？

年 ヶ月

6. 現在ご所属されているチームでどれくらいの期間プレーされていますか？ 年 ヶ月

59

7. 現在、かけもちで所属されているチームはありますか? はい / いいえ

（はい、の場合詳細をご記入ください：

8. 現在の自分の競技レベルはとても高いと感じている。

1 --------------------- 2 --------------------- 3 --------------------- 4 --------------------- 5 全く同意できない 同意できない どちらでもない 同意できる 強く同意できる

9. 婚姻状況 未婚 / 既婚 / 別居 / 離婚 / 配偶者と死別

10. おおよその収入状況 200 万円以下 / 200 万円～400 万円 / 400 万円～600 万円

/ 800 万円以上

ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前の人生に対する満足尺度 説明：ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前のことについて想像してください。そのこ

ろだったら下記の文章に対してどの程度同意したでしょうか。下の四角の中に示されて

いる１から７の指標に基づいて、該当する数字に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

少し

同意

できない

どちら

でもない

少し

同意

できる

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

項目

大体において、私の人生は理想に近かった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私の人生は、すばらしい状態であった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、私の人生に満足していた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はそれまでの人生の中で、こうしたいと思っていた重

要なことはなしとげてきた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

その当時、人生をもう１度やりなおせたとしても、変え

たいことはほとんどなかった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、当時の自分の健康状態に満足していた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は、当時の自分の経済状態に満足していた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

60

ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前の自尊感情尺度 説明：ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前のことについて想像してください。そのこ

ろだったら下記の文章に対してどの程度同意したでしょうか。下の四角の中に示されて

いる１から４の指標に基づいて、該当する数字に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４

項目

自分は少なくとも他の人と同じくらい価値のある人間だと感じていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

私にはけっこう長所があると感じていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

時々、自分はまったくダメだと思うことがあった。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、他の大半の人と同じくらいに物事がこなせた。 １ ２ ３ ４

私には誇れるものが大してないと感じていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、自分のことを前向きに考えていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

私は、自分自身にだいたい満足していた。 １ ２ ３ ４

自分のことをもう少し尊敬できたらいいと思っていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

時々、自分は役に立たないと強く感じることがあった。 １ ２ ３ ４

よく、私は落ちこぼれだと思ってしまっていた。 １ ２ ３ ４

ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前のスポーツマン的アイデンティティ尺度 説明：ウィルチェアーラグビーに出会う前のことについて想像してください。そのこ

ろだったら下記の文章に対してどの程度同意したでしょうか。下の四角の中に示されて

いる１から７の指標に基づいて、該当する数字に○をつけてください。

まったく

同意

できない

同意

できない

少し

同意

できない

どちら

でもない

少し

同意

できる

同意

できる

強く

同意

できる

１ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

項目

私は自分自身のことをアスリートだと思っていた。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私にはスポーツに関するたくさんの目標があった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私の友人はほとんどがアスリートであった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

スポーツは私の人生の中で最も重要な部分を占めてい

た。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

61

私は他の何よりもスポーツに関することを考えている時

間が長かった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私は自分らしくあるためにスポーツに参加することが必

要だった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

他の人々は私のことを主にアスリートだと見てくれてい

た。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私はスポーツでうまくいかないと気分が悪かった。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

スポーツこそが私の人生の中で唯一の大事なものだっ

た。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

私がその当時、けがをしてスポーツで競技できなくなっ

たとしたら、ひどく気分が落ち込んだだろう。 １ ２ ３ ４ ５ ６ ７

ご協力ありがとうございました

62

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