Exam History

8/9/2019 Exam History

1/30

Exam- History

1. Agro-literate Empire

characteristic agro-literate polity, the ruling class forms a small minority of the

population (they can read and write), rigidly separate from the great majority of direct

agricultural producers, or peasants. ideology exaggerates rather than underplays the

inequality of classes and the degree of separation of the ruling stratum. This can in

turn e su-di!ided into a numer of more speciali"ed layers# warriors, priests,

clerics, administrators, urghers. oth for the ruling stratum as a whole, and for the

!arious su-strata within it, there is great stress on cultural differentiation rather than

on homogeneity. TThe whole system fa!ours hori"ontal lines of cultural clea!age, and

it may in!ent and reinforce them when they are asent. $enetic and cultural

differences are attriuted to what were in fact merely strata differentiated y function,

so as to fortify the differentiation, and endow it with authority and permanence.

%elow the hori"ontally stratified minority at the top, &mall peasant communitiesgenerally li!e inward-turned li!es, tied to the locality y economic need if not y

political prescription. '!en if the population of a gi!en area starts from the same

linguistic ase-line a ind of culture drift soon engenders dialectal and other

differences. o-one, or almost no-one, has an interest in promoting cultural

homogeneity at this social le!el.

ased on religion to estalish a literate elite and a warrior caste

tension with different systems are etween theory and practice

introduction of modern territorial state

2. Universal Religious Empire

The *re-+odern *eriod from the +edie!al 'ra to the enaissance# ominated y

/ni!ersal eligious 'mpires0 The fundamental identity is religion it en!isions

uni!ersal empire through religion. 2t is hierarchical and inary (elie!er !s. on-

elie!er). 'xamples# 3oly oman 'mpire, 4ttoman 'mpire.

The %y"antine 'mpire# 556-1785 9.'. 9onstantine mo!ed the seat of the

oman 'mpirefrom ome in the :est to 9onstantinople in the 'ast in 556

9.'. 2n 515 9.'.

9onstantine signed the edict of +ilan, which pro!ided for religious toleration,

while he mo!ed towards an 4rthodox definition of 9hristianity. /nder

Theodosius 2 (r. 5; 9.'. y $ermanic Tries


2/30


3/30

counterpart to ?ihad B crusades

crusades# 165@ 9.. +uhammed died B +uslims split into two groups

>5@->>1 9.'. =or the &hi0a, only the descendants of the prophet are the

legitimate interpreters and leaders of 2slam who can succeed 2slam.

Ali is for them, the first 2mam0.

&unni# /mmah (collecti!e community of islamic people) interprets the islamic

law along with the caliph (successor of +ohammed). *rophecy era o!er with

+ohammed. 9aliph# political so!ereign of the whole world. 9hosen y the

community of its followers they are the majority.

&hiCa# donCt elie!e in 9aliphs, elie!e that only $od himself can appoint a

leader. direct descendant of the prophet they can decide islamic law for

example succession of 2mans. right of the 2mams of Ahlul-%ayt.) AliD 1st

2mam (cousin E married to +ohammedCs sister) ow D 1@ th(3idden 2man

+ahdi)

B 2mams are the only right full descendants D only rightful political and

religious leader

&pain


4/30

feudal armies B professional troops

aristocratic dominance B democrati"ation of the manpower and weapons of

armies

DG ideas of english and french nationalism came through this war

DG :ar of the oses# resulted out of the 3undred Iears :ar due to financialand social prolems

etween 3ouse of Ior(:hite) and 3ouse of Jancaster (ed)

oth see themsel!es as descendants of 'dward 222

fought for the throne

all male heirs in oth families get illed. 1788-178 then 3enry H22 178-

156< decided that to go into war they must tal to the ing# centrali"ing

so!ereignty

3enry Tudor (+other was related to 3ouse of Jancaster, who won in the end)

new ruling family )

The 3undred Iear0s :ar 155;-1785# this war started as a conflict etween two

lords, the ing of =rance0 and his !assal, y !irtue of lordship o!er territory in

=rance, the ing of 'ngland0. The ing of =rance wanted to tae o!er the

territories of the ing of 'ngland in his ingdom the ing of 'ngland, closely

related to the =rench royal family, claimed the =rench crown itself as a result.

4!er the course of a hundred years, different ings of 'ngland won o!er large

areas of =rance and one (3enry H) was in fact proclaimed the ing of

=rance0. ifferent lords within each ingdom rought down their own ing or

openly colluded with the enemy. %ut, y the end of the war in 1785, the

'nglish had een cleared from the =rench ingdom y 9harles H22K

something lie a centrali"ed ingdom that could e called =rance0, ao!e all

the complicated hierarchies of lordship, had emerged. The defeat in the war

led to the :ar of the oses in 'ngland (1788-178), etween warring

claimants to the 'nglish crown, as a result of which 'ngland also came to e

united as a centrali"ed ingdom y 3enry Tudor (3enry H22) after 178.

". The #atholi$ %ings

Ferdinand/ Fernando II (King of Aragon from 1479-1516) and Ia!ella/Ia!el I("#een of $a%ile from 1474-15&4)

The e-conquest of &pain and the unification of the &panish crowns (17>


5/30

&. 'a$hiavelli and the Se$ulari(ation o) *oliti$s

iccolo +achia!elli# 17>< L 18@;

orn in =loren", was a philosopher, politician, diplomat...

MThe *rinceNB written for new rulers who want to achie!e powers how to manipulate and

eep appearances

B is non theoretical

B attempts to centrali"e rule

B Jegitimacy is ased on action (*rince has power and can gain power). 3e

tals aout church not as an organi"ation that deli!ers the di!ine right to the

rulers ut as an organi"ation that uses strategy to maintain power.

:ritten in 1815 9.'. ut only pulished after +achia!elli0s death in 185@,+achia!elli explicitly argued that the power and sur!i!al of the state wasthe sole

oject of politics. 3e thus put forward a secular conception of politics, as determined

y hori"ontal power relations etween states, rather than !ertical relationships

emanating from $od and mo!ing down through the 9hurch and supposedly therey

down the !arious grades of the aristocracy. The reason of state0 replaced the

hierarchy of estates0 as the ey ruric for understanding political relations.

+achia!elli dreamt of the formation of a centrali"ed ingdom in the 2talian peninsula

lie the =rench, 'nglish and the &panish ingdom. This dream did not materiali"e.

+. The Treaty o) ,odi

&igned in 1787

The non-aggression pact etween +ilano and Henice mediated y =lorence

which came e!entually to extend also to aples and the *apal &tates in the

2talian peninsula

2t ensured that each state in the italian peninsula was united against the larger

empires such as the 3'. aples was eing attled o!er y =rance and &pain#

it emerged the treaty in the face of such powers. There was also fear ecause

9onstantinople fell in 1785 and ecause Henetia and +ilan feared an 4ttoman

in!asion.

2n this treaty, the different parties dealt with each other as so!ereign city-states to

create a alance of power, ased on what came to e called the reason of state0.

&tories of aristocraticOmilitary hierarchy sanctioned y $od and 9hurch played no

role hereKit was the hori"ontal relationship etween the states and their respecti!e

degree of power that determined this agreement, which has led historians to see it as

one of the first example of modern diplomacy0 etween self-consciously so!ereign

states.

. 'artin ,uther and the priesthood o) all /elievers

175-187>


6/30

*rotestant e!olution 181;# started with


7/30

. The Thirty ears !ar

1>1-1>7

trigger were the se!eral wars which came aout through the eformation

=erdinand 22 curtails se!eral pri!ileges of his suject and they turn to help tothe protestants

mainly concentrated in the 3oly oman 'mpire

started with principally only german state and ecame a struggle among

se!eral european powers

ended with the *eace of :estphalia

(1>1-1>7 9.'.)# A series of wars in central 'urope that

culminated the wars of religion in 'urope and consolidated the principle of the

uniform so!ereignty of the state o!er its territory. The state would decide on the

matter of religion, which now came to e deemed a wholly internal affair. Tellingly,the war egan as a religious war etween the *rotestant sujects of the 3oly oman

'mpire in %ohemia (*rague) and the emperor, drawing in other *rotestant powers lie

enmar and &weden. %ut, it ended as a war etween the ingdoms of =rance and

&pain, the =rench ha!ing come to anroll the *rotestant forces, due to fear of the

dominance of 3asurg power and the possiility of uni!ersal monarchy in 'urope.

2n other words, the wars of religion0 started as war o!er the role of religious

institutions in politics and ended as a matter of the alance of power0, the principle

that came to characteri"e interstate relations from 1>7 until the =rench e!olution in

1;< 9.'.

. The 1/solutist State or the dynasti$ /ureau$rati$ state or themodern territorial state5

The ise of the Asolutist &tate0, otherwise referred to as the dynastic

ureaucratic state0 or the modern territorial state0 in the 'arly +odern period

(1866-166 9.'.) The alance of power0 ecomes the pre!alent conception of

inter-state relations.

new type of state that was increasingly characteri"ed y a centrali"ed

ureaucracy that sought to extend the authority of the state uniformly,

throughout its territories. 2n other words, it wored now to o!ercome not only

the independent power of the 9atholic 9hurch, ut also the old aristocratichierarchy

intendants# not of nole class, started with ourgeoisie

B major !oice representing ing and state to rule o!er french territory

pursued policy of mercantilism ( state controlled economy)

replacement of church and aristocracy and attempt of creating a united law for

all territories

%ourgeoisie as middle class professionals

fixed speciali"ation of laour through guilds political so!ereignty to a limited extent to towns


8/30

2. The 6alan$e o) *o7er

doctrine of english foreign politics from the middle age till the end of the

second world war B pre!ention of a dominating power in 'urope

B especially maintaining alance etween =rance and &pain

B threat to national security

e!eryone allies against the igger power so its power is

3. ,ouis 89:

1>75-1;18 9.'

Fing of =rance

id not gi!e up di!ine right to rule

created Hersailles in order to control the aristocracy. %efore ingsD figurines

now centrali"ed ingD important

noility was li!ing in Hersailles with Jouis

B ecame on of the most powerful monarchs and created the system of an

asolute monarchical state

:e are the law we create the law, tried to create a united law

the more intimate the aristocracy was with the ing, the more (symolic)

important they were

still uses his di!ine right of rule in the asolutist state

B asolute power

Jois had a minister called 9olert 1>>8-1>5

9reated a single monopoly- national standard of production as opposed to

specific standards per guild

led the way to the triumph of the so-called asolutist state. Jouis P2H uilt

the great palace of Hersailles in the 1>>60s and mo!ed there in 1>@. Thehighest noility came to reside in Hersailles, where Jouis emroiled them in

meaningless symolic hierarchies ha!ing to do with access to his own person,

while actual power came increasingly to e placed in the hands of ourgeois

intendants0 or ci!il ser!ants, responsile directly to the centrali"ed

ureaucracy, running things from *aris.

4. :ersailles

created y Jouis P2H

center of political power in =rance from 1>@ when Jouis mo!ed to Hersailles symol for asolute monarchy


9/30

oility were oliged to life in Hersailles and e dedicated to Jouis life style

B the closer you were to Jouis, the more relati!e power you hadOthe more

important you were

:omenCs march on Hersailles# forced the royal family to mo!e ac to =rance

in 1;7), Austria (1>>) and =rance (1;6) leading to the

foundation of the $erman 'mpire in 1;1. 2taly was unified through wars against

Austria (186) that created the ingdom of 2taly in 1>1 followed y war against Austria

again, leading to the taeo!er of Henice (1>>) and against =rance, adding the

*apal &tates to the new 2talian nation-state (1;6).

24. 6ismar$? and realpolitik

in $ermanyRealpoli%i' refers to realistic politics in opposition to idealistic

(unrealistic) politics.

era of 1@L1


16/30

the top down to a!oid the possiility of major change from the ottom up. Jiewise

*russiaCs seemingly illogical mo!e of not demanding territory from a defeated Austria,

a mo!e that later led to the uni(cation of #ermany, is an oft-cited example

ofRealpoli%i'

2". The 1ge o) Empire or the imperial nation-state5

The Age of 'mpire the idea that without political control o!er territory, future

economic de!elopment would e doomed in a world of gloal competition and

proliferating protecti!e trade arriers. This dynamic led to increasing tension

etween the $erman 'mpire and %ritain.

The maret was now an increasingly gloal one, meaning ased on gloal

competition. The test of so!ereignty ecame thus the capacity in fact to impose

trade arriers to protect oneself from ruinous gloal competition. +eanwhile, theattempt to car!e out territories one could put ehind one0s own protectionist

arriers led to the onan"a to uild !ast 'uropean empires amongst the 'uropean

nation-states in the last decades efore ::2.

:ea states, lie the 4ttomans and the *ersians, were meanwhile forced y

'uropean powers to agree to essentially open economic orders at the !ery time

they fought hard to moderni"e their militaries and ureaucracies, for which they

orrowed large sums from 'urope.

The test of so!ereignty ecame thus the capacity in fact to impose trade arriers to

protect oneself from ruinous gloal competition.

2&. ,enin on 'onopoly #apitalism 9mperialism as the ,ast Stage o)

#apitalism5

ladimir Jenin exposes all of his well-uilt opinions on modern capitalism in

M2mperialism, the 3ighest &tage of 9apitalismN. 3e descries the capitalism present in

1


17/30

acquire laor in their est interest, manufacturers were also Mscattered and out of

touch with one another, and producing for an unnown maretN (16). This also

implies the creation of a new world maret.

3e also refers to M progress in the sociali"ation of productionN(16), he claims that

there Mno longer RexistsS... competition etween small and large, etween technically

de!eloped and acward enterprisesN (11-1@), and he also points out that in monopoly

capitalism technical ad!ance and inno!ation of the aforementioned also ecomes

sociali"ed. 2n this monopoly the sources of materials also extends from the home

country of the manufacturer, to also the colonies. %ig powers then, possess the

nowledge of the wor force a!ailale as well as the raw materials a!ailale in all

colonies, and they tae ad!antage of it e!en silled laor is monopoli"ed. Jenin also

claims that o!erall the small enterprises must sumit to the monopolies, and that

pri!ate property elongs to the few and that o!erall a new social order was created.

ue to this transformation in the way capitalism wors, Jenin considers this new

pattern of capitalism as a higher stage. =irstly, it allowed for the reco!ery of pri!ate

industries which were on the !erge of anruptcy (@7) secondly there is a huge shiftin the way maret wors, and at the same time trade, and economical growth acquires

a new ind of importance in the world. 2t is a higher stage in which production is

sociali"ed and is mo!ing to a controlled maret.

Jenin points out howe!er, that monopoly capitalism turns into imperialism. 3e

descries it as a stage in which monopolies ha!e set their place in the world maret

and ha!e estalished dominance, and more importantly a stage in which the world is

di!ided among world powers according to Jenin all areas in the world are taen o!er

y the largest capitalists powers (75).

3e elie!es that monopoly capitalism and imperialism go hand in hand ecause

world powers tae ad!antage of their colonies y trading with them or using them forlaor, and he underlines that the Mworld is completely di!ided up, so that in the future

only redi!ision is possileN (@


18/30


19/30

the ussians and =rench had come together in 1


20/30

The first war of common people# all society reaing the will of the other side to

fight# genocidal way of thining (=irst modern genocide in the context of the

empire)

Trench :arfare# li!es essentially stayed the same.

3. The 6olshevi? Revolution

ussia in 1


21/30

the most far-reaching impact of ::2 was the collapse, y its end, of 'urope0s last

three great multi-national empires# the ussian, the 4ttoman and the Austro-

3ungarian. *resident :ilson of the /nited &tates, who in April 1


22/30

The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the

!ictors was a compromise that left none contented# $ermany was

notpaci(edor conciliated, nor permanently weaened.

The prolems that arose from the treaty would lead to the )ocarno

*reaties, which impro!ed relations etween $ermany and the other

'uropean *owers, and the renegotiation of the reparation system resulting in

the +a%es "lan,

34. The Rise o) Aas$ism

Three factors ao!e all allowed for the rise of =ascism in the interwar years# the

weaness of the new (minority ridden) nation-states in 'astern 'urope and e!en

the !ictorious western ones that emerged from the war the failures of the peace

settlement at *aris in 1


23/30

3". 1nti-Semitism versus 1nti-


24/30

legitimacy for rulers, then e!ol!ed into a system of organi"ation of peoples, ut when

it ecame exclusi!e and easily-manipulated y the ruler, it defeated the purpose of the

nation-state the people no longer had the !oice, it was the leaders who set their goals

according to their own agenda.

3+. Totalitarianism

ew form of go!ernment, e!eryody ecomes a population defending laws of the

state, people are merely humans.the state holds total authority o!er the society and

sees to control all aspects of pulic and pri!ate life where!er possile.

3. The >urem/erg ,a7s

1 o!emer 1


25/30

:orld :ar 22 egan with his in!asion of *oland on &ep. 1, 1


26/30

industriali"e $ermany and turn it into an agricultural country. This did not happen,

ut large reparations, half of which would go to the &o!iet /nion, were agreed

upon. oose!elt and 9hurchill pressed &talin also to agree to elections and

democratic go!ernance in the 'astern 'uropean territory that had already come or

was coming under the control of the ed Army in its march to %erlin. &talin

insisted on states that would e friendly to the &o!iet /nion, ut agreed also torepresentati!e go!ernments. &talin would initially allow for the emergence of such

popular front0 type go!ernments in 'astern 'urope, in which all non-=ascist0

political forces might participate. %ut, in the emerging context of the 9old :ar,

direct &o!iet control through local 9ommunist parties was effected y the end of

1


27/30

44. >1T@ and the !arsa7 *a$t

AT4# in 1ationali(ation o) 9ranian @il

in 1


28/30

accords, that concluded this war, no elections too place in Hietnam to decide the

fate of the country after it had pro!isionally een split into a orth Hietnamese

and &outh Hietnamese half. The rulers of &outh Hietnam refused to allow for

elections and the /.&. aced the ne!er popular &outh Hietnamese go!ernment.

=rom 17, using the half faricated accusation of orth Hietnamese aggression

against its forces in the $ulf of Tonin, the /.&. ecame directly in!ol!ed and hadmore than 866,666 troops in Hietnam y 1. 9lose to 86,666 American troops

died in the war and the /& go!ernment threw a larger tonnage of oms on

Hietnam than it had in all of ::22. %ut, y 1


29/30

formally created the 'uropean /nion in @66@, the euro currency was adopted

amongst twel!e of the 'uropean /nion memers and e!entually extended to

se!enteen. The 'astern 'uropean states in the &o!iet %loc were mostly integrated

in the first decade of the twenty first century. 9roatia is the latest memer and

negotiations are ongoing with the other parts of former Iugosla!ia as well as

rather laconically with Turey.

40. The #ivilian State

the 9old :ar dynamic had acted to ring :estern 'uropean states increasingly

together rather than competing militarily and economically, they came to !iew

their welfare as ased on collecti!e mechanisms, aced y the /nited &tates, and

on economic integration, allowing them to trade freely amongst themsel!es and to

compete gloally as one unit. 'conomic welfare came to displace military

competition and supremacy as the fundamental goals of 'uropean states and, as a

result, not only did the imperial nation-state dissol!e. The ci!ilian nation-state0

that emerged emraced a project of e!er greater political as well as economicintegration on the 'uropean continent. The imperial0 equation etween economic

and political security (or economic and political growth), was o!ercome.

2ronically, gi!en :estern 'urope had een welded together in opposition to the

internationalist0 9ommunist order in the 'ast, the dropping away of the imperial

logic and the military imperati!e led to the creation of 'urope as an international

political order of nation-states that emraced a post-national order. 2n 1


30/30

means of thining aout e!eryday social conflicts and realities. This is essentially

what is today also happening with 2slam hence, 2slam is eing re!olutioni"ed

through the role it is playing in the politici"ation of the masses of the people. 2n

1

Documents

Exam History