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English Words from Latin and Greek Elements Donald M. Ayers
Part I: Word Elements from Latin
Notes, Vocabulary Lists, and Commentary For Mr. Current’s English Class
Ayers, Donald. English Words from Latin and Greek Elements. 2nd ed. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1986. Print.
Table of Contents Preface iii
Introduction (1) 4Part I: Word Elements from Latin 8
Lesson I: The Dictionary (16) 8Lesson II: Definition and Latin Bases (26) 8Lesson III: Assimilation of Prefixes (35) 11Lesson IV: Abbreviations and Acronyms (40) 14Lesson V: Back Formations, Aphersis, and Aphesis (46) 16Lesson VI: Combination of Bases (52) 18Lesson VII: Hybrids (57) 20Lesson VIII: Suffixes (60) 22Lesson IX: Word Analysis: Etymological Definition (65) 24Lesson X: Dissimilation and Other Sound Changes (70) 26Lesson XI: Semantic Change (75) 29Lesson XII: Specialization and Generalization of Meaning (82) 31Lesson XIII: Functional Change (86) 33Lesson XIV: Degeneration and Elevation in Meaning (90) 35Lesson XV: Change from Abstract to Concrete and Visa-Versa (94) 37Lesson XVI: Weakening and Hyperbole (98) 38Lesson XVII: Change of Meaning Due to Changing Concepts (101) 39Lesson XVIII: Euphemism, Taboo Deformation, and Circumlocution (106) 41Lesson XIX: Folk Etymology (112) 42
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PrefaceClasses,
The purpose of this document is to serve as an accompaniment to English Words by Donald M. Ayers. This will include several elements:
• The notes that will create the PowerPoints, • Your vocabulary lists, • Commentary from Mr. Current, • And eventually, the exercise numbers for each lesson.
My plan is to constantly update this document, so do not be surprised when I tell you to download the newest edition. Until then, use this as you need it or want it. I am merely trying to make your life easier.
Happy Studying!
Mr. Current January 2014
EW: Latin iii
Introduction (1) Opening Commercial • Wonder why we will be studying etymology? Watch the following commercial: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXnFdNrAiEk• Bottom line: Language changes. If you understand the rules that govern its change, you will
less surprised when you encounter something “new.”
Introductory Remarks (1) • The English language is best studied in the context of its development; not isolation. • Check out the similarities between the following words:
Chart 1
English German Dutch Danish
mother mutter moeder moder
father vater vader fader
brother bruder broeder broder
Now let’s expand to a few more languages…
Chart 2
Latin Greek Irish Sanskrit Persian
māter mētēr māthair Mātr mādar
pater patēr athair pitr pidar
frāter phrātēr brāthair bhrātr birādar
Parent Languages (2) • The explanation that languages purely borrowed only goes so far. • The most prevalent explanation is the hypothesis that a single parent language, or proto-
language, gave way to our own. • While written records do not exist, this view nonetheless unite many diverse languages. • This language gained descendants as its speakers became geographically isolated.
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The Development of the English Language Roman-Celtic Period, 50 B.C. to A.D. 410 (6) • English began (geographically speaking) on the British Isles • The Romans invaded, bringing Latin with them • Celtic dialects were spoken in rural areas, while Latin was spoken in towns
Words from the Roman-Celtic Period (7) • Place-name suffixes: -cester, -chester (like “Winchester”) meaning “village” (7). • Words from town- and village-life: street from strata (“paved road”), -wich (like “Greenwich”)
from vicus (“village”); cheap from caupo (“tavern-keeper”).
Old English, 450-1066 (7-8) • Around 350, three tribes speaking West Germanic moved into the area • This period was marked by invasions, and they hired other Germans to protect the area • English developed in this new isolation• Literature from this period includes the oral epic, Beowulf
Words of Old English (8-10) • Pronouns from this period: I, we, you, he, it, the, this, that, who, what, mine, your, each, any. • Examples include: good, better, best; evil, worse, worst (Saxon); bid, bade, bidden; sing, sang,
sung (9). • Other examples: love, say, live, have, own, do, be, will, bury, name, reach, long, strong, high,
quick, sun, food, hand, finger, friend, brother, father, mother, stone, earth (9). • We likewise have influences from the Vikings (11th century), the Danes, and the Scandinavians
(9-10).• Prefixes and Suffixes: -y, -en, -ful, -some, -ward, -hood, -dom, -ship, -ness, -th, -er, un-, for-,
be-
Middle English, 1066-1500 (10)
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• The Battle of Hastings in 1066 reduced England and brought an immediate French influence • Linguistic imperialism: the predictable pattern where overlords learn little of native languages,
and bilingual natives assimilate the invading language • English developed many redundancies from French words (synonyms)
Middle English, 1066-1500 (10) • This gives us synonyms from French: hog, swine, pig, farrow, sow, and boar. Also (English vs.
French), hut and cottage, bill and beak, clothe and dress, help and aid, deed and action, folk and people.
• This French influence affected our spelling, and gave us terms for government from Norman French: govern, state, realm, crown, country, nation, power, authority, parliament, people, and the list continues (10).
Middle English, 1066-1500 (11) • Latin likewise invaded the English language, both directly and indirectly • While English began with Latin, French words of Latin origin crept in, making true origins
nearly impossible in many cases • Mixed with printing, spelling at this time was almost phonetic in nature, although we have
dropped sounds since then. (The k and gh of knight were once pronounced!)
Modern English, 1550-Present (11) • Three developments in this period changed our language:
• (1) British colonialism, • (2) the revival of ancient leaning in the Renaissance and Enlightenment, • (3) the industrial and post-industrial revolutions (11).
Modern English, 1550-Present (11) The new “international” nature of English absorbed words from the cultures it affected. Words include:
• divan, khaki (Persia); cot, punch (the drink), ginger, thug, loot (India); kowtow, tea, catsup (China)
• yacht, yawl, schooner, deck, cruise, iceberg, freebooter, easel, etch, landscape (from the Netherlands)
• armada, escaped, embargo, cargo, palaver (Spain)• caucus, moccasin, jerky, chocolate, tomato, wampum, powwow, tomahawk, totem, raccoon,
skunk, coyote, hickory, peyote (Native American)
Mr. Current’s Commentary After this lesson, I better not hear anyone claim that Shakespeare spoke in Old English, for that would have been from 450-1066, nearly five hundred to one thousand years before his time. What I want you to remember is this: English should be studied in the context of its long, rich history. Latin has been a major player of English since it started. By understanding a few, basic rules, etymology encompasses both spelling and vocabulary.
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Language, after all, changes with time. Urban Dictionary demonstrates this every day as new words (mostly slang) are recorded, become the fashion, and quickly fall out of use. Over a time span of hundreds and thousands of years, language itself does the same and carries the basic rules with it. Note the following picture:
Ultimately, this aspect of the course will be as useful as you want. I challenge you to take it seriously, connect it with what you know, and have no fear when encountering “new” words. A knowledge of the past will help guide your knowledge in the future!
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Part I: Word Elements from Latin Lesson I: The Dictionary (16)
While this lesson is interesting, this is not one I foresee teaching in class. However, I may reference it, so be sure to read it on your own.
Lesson II: Definition and Latin Bases (26)Definitions (26-27) • When using a dictionary, the book suggests paraphrasing definitions to enhance your memory. • This includes four helpful rules or reminders
I. A definition should be equivalent to the term to be defined. II. A definition should give the essential characteristics of the term to be defined and not merely make a statement about the term. III. A definition should be simple and clear, and expressed if possible in terms more familiar than the one to be defined. IV. A definition should not be expressed in negative terms where affirmation can be used.
I: Equivalent definitions (26)• Definitions should not be too broad or too narrow (or abstract vs. concrete) • Example: Saw. “A tool” is too broad to be useful while “an instrument with teeth used for
cutting wood” is too narrow, considering some may cut metal. • If the word is a noun, the definition should be a noun. This also applies for verbs and other
parts of speech.
II. Essential Characteristics instead of Statements (26-27)• Example: For democracy, “a type of government which has the interests of its citizens at heart”
is not as useful as “government by the people.” • Statements are typically surface deep
III. Simple and Clear using Familiar Terms (27)• Definitions should be expressed in terms more familiar than what they are defining. • Do not use the term you are defining in the definition! • Think concrete simplicity instead of growing in abstract complexity
IV. Use Affirmative Terms instead of Negative Terms (27)• Refrain from explaining in terms of what something is not • Not helpful examples: Sofa: neither a bed nor a chair (a pencil, after all, is neither bed nor chair!) Protestant: a Christian who is not a Catholic
Latin Bases (27-28) • Many English words are formed through the combination of prefixes (before the base), bases
or stems, and suffixes (come after the base).
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• Understanding these deep word components and their patterns explains much of our language • Many English words can come from a single base: con-FIRM-at-ion, in-FIRM-ity, in-FIRM-
ary, FIRM-ament, re-af-FIRM-at-ation, af-FIRM-at-ive.
Recognizing prefixes, bases, and suffixes • English Words is consistent notating these three parts: Prefixes: ex- Base: SPIR- Suffix: -ate • The learning curve in the book is sharp: A strong foundation early in the book, heavy on
memorization, will make the latter parts easier.
The Silent “e” (28) • Sometimes bases appear without any other prefixes or suffixes, or with a silent e in English.
Latin Base Meaning English Derivative
FIRM- Firm, strong Firm
VERB- Word, verb Verb
FORT- Strong Fort
*GRAV- Heavy Grave
*FIN- End, limit Fine
Latin to Other to English (28-29) • There are also cases where words pass from Latin to other languages and into English. • Sometimes, Latin bases are extended by Latin routes without any affect on the word.
a-SPIRE-e ex-SPIR-at(e) re-SPIR-at-ion
a-SPIRE-at(e) ex-SPIR-at-ion per-SPIR-e
a-SPIRE-at-ion in-SPIR-e per-SPIR-at(e)
con-SPIRE-e in-SPIR-at(e) per-SPIR-at-ion
con-SPIRE-at(e) in-SPIR-at-ion trans-SPIR-e
con-SPIRE-at-ion re-SPIR-e trans-SPIR-at(e)
ex-SPIR-e re-SPIR-at(e) trans-SPIR-at-tion
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Latin Lesson II Latin Base Meanings English Derivatives
ALIEN- of another alien, alienation
ART- art, skill art, artifact
FIN- end, limit final, definite
FIRM- firm, strong firmament, confirm
FORT- strong fort, forte, comfort
GRAND- great grand, grandeur
GRAV-, [GREIV-] heavy grave, grievance
LINE-, [LIGN-] line line, align
NIHIL- nothing annihilate, nihilism
NUL(L)- nothing null, annul
PART- part part, depart
VERB- word, verb verb, adverb, verbatim, proverb
VEST- garment vest, vestment
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Lesson III: Assimilation of Prefixes (35)When studying prefixes (35) • Latin bases are often studied with prefixes (elements in front of the base which modify their
meanings)• Many prefixes were originally Latin prepositions or adverbs. • Some words will contain multiple prefixes, such as dis-af-fected, non-con-ductor, and re-pro-
duction. • Example: the base DUCT- (to lead) ab- (from) + DUCT- = abduct con- (with) +DUCT- = conduct de- (off) + DUCT- = deduct
Prefixes: Two Special Reminders (35-36) 1. When prefixes are used before certain consonants, they undergo phonetic or sound changes. Retroactive assimilation: determined by linguistic properties 2. Occasionally the base itself exhibits slight changes when prefixes are added. General rule: a to e, e to i Because these changes are difficult to categorize, they will be marked in parenthesis
1. Retroactive Assimilation (35) • Assimilation: when the second sound affects the sound before it• Retroactive assimilation: when the sound change moves backwards • Example: the usage of the prefix “in-” for “not” “Inglorious” works because it is easy to say “Inpossible” (rather than “impossible”) is harder to say, so the prefix is changed
1. Retroactive Assimilation (36) • A knowledge or awareness of these patterns will improve your spelling • Many spelling difficulties arise from double consonants • Assimilation examples: ag-gression, as-sist, col-lide, co-cur
Words formed through assimilation (36) • aggravate: ad- (to) + GRAV- (heavy) + -ate • assimilation: ad- (to) + SIMIL- (like) + -ation• collect: con- (together) + LECT- (to gather) • differ: dis- (apart) + FER- (to bring)
Words formed through assimilation (36) • effect: ex- (from) + FECT- (to make) • illegal: in- (not) + LEG- (law) + al • offer: ob- (toward) + FER- (to bring) • succumb: sub- (under) + CUMB- (to lie)
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2. Base Changes (36-37) • The general rule of base changes is a to e, and e to i. SACR- (holy): sacred, sacrament, but also conSECRate, deSECRate APT- (to fit): apt, aptitude, but also inEPT FAC-, FACT-* (to make) factory, manufacture, but also afFECT, deFECT, and efFICient SED- (to sit): sedentary, but also preSIDe
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Latin Lesson III Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples
ab-, a-, abs- *This prefix never assimilates
away, from abduct, abnormal, avert, abstract
ad-, ac-, etc.** to, toward adopt, admire, access, aggression, attract, allocate, ascend
ambi- both, around ambidextrous
ante- Not like the Greek for “against”
before, in front of anteroom, antecedent
circum- around circumference, circumscribe
con-, com-, co- with, together, very connect, conduct, compose, compress, collect, correspond, co-operate
contra-, contro-, counter- against contradict, controversy, counteract
de- down, off, thoroughly descend, dejected
dis-, di-, dif- apart, in different directions, not
dispute, disable, divert, divorce, differ
CED-, CESS- to go, yield concede, precede, excess, procession
DUC-, DUCT- to lead induce, transducer, conduct, reduction
JUDIC- judgment judicial, adjudicate
JUR-, JUST- right, law; take an oath, form an opinion
jury, conjure, just, justify
LEV- light (in weight); to lift levity, elevate
LOQU-, LOCUT- to speak colloquial, eloquent, elocution, interlocutor
LUD-, LUS- to play, mock interlude, delude, illusion
PREC- to request, beg; prayer imprecate, precarious
TRUD-, TRUS- to push, thrust protrude, intrusion, unobtrusive
VEN-, VENT-, [VENU-] to come intervene, invention, avenue, venue**Occasionally this prefix appears simply as a-, usually before -sc-, -sp-, and -st-. When in doubt, assume the prefix a- is a form of ab-, “away.”
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Lesson IV: Abbreviations and Acronyms (40)Abbreviations and Acronyms (40-41) • The heavy use of acronyms is a recent historical development • Dictionaries only contain a fraction of the most useful and popular • There is a fine line between abbreviations and acronyms in speech Acronym: word formed through the initial letters of other words
Acronyms in Speech (41) • Acronyms assume the grammar of standardized words because they can be used like words • This affects pluralization in organizations because only singular organizations exist Wrongful pluralizations: NATOs, MADs, SHAPEs, M*A*S*Hes • However, certain acronyms can be inflected as other parts of speech WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant): WASPs, WASPish, WASPily, WASPishness
A Note on Prefixes (42) • The prefixes in lessons III, IV, and IV are “living” English prefixes, and are constantly formed
to create new words as necessary • Any prefix may be used to create hundreds of words. Examples: ex-, non-, super-, intra-• Distinction between prefixes and bases are often lost today
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Latin Lesson IV Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples
*ex-, e-, ef-, etc. out, from, completely expel, exasperate, eloquent, evade, efficient
extra-, extro- outside, beyond extraordinary, extrovert
*in-, im-, etc., ig- before n not ineffective, imminent, immoral, impartial, illegal, irresponsible, ignoble, ignore
*in-, im-, etc., [en-], [em-] in, into, against inject, impose, impel, illuminate, irrigate, endure, embrace
infra- below, beneath infrared
inter- between, among interrupt, intercept
intra-, intro- within intramural, intravenous, introduce
*non- not nonresident
*ob- toward, against, face-to-face, completely
obstruct, obstacle, occur, offer, oppress
per- through, wrongly, completely
permeate, persecute, perfect, perjury
CRUC- cross crucify, crux
GREG- flock, herd congregate, segregate
HAB-, AB-, (HIB-) to have, hold as customary
habit, dishabille, able, inability, inhibit
PED- foot pedal, impediment, pedestrian
PUNG-, PUNCT- to prick; point puncture, punctual
SACR-, (SECR-) sacred sacrament, desecrate
SANCT- holy sanctify, sanctimonious
SENT-, SENS- to feel, think sentiment, consent, sensation
TURB- to disturb perturb, turbulence
VERT-, VERS- to turn revert, aversion
VI(A)- way, road via, previous
*Contains additional information in the book.
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Lesson V: Back Formations, Aphersis, and Aphesis (46) Typical Word Formation (46-47) • Words are typically formed through the continual addition of prefixes • Example: the Latin verb calare (the bases CAL- and CIL-, meaning “to call”) Conciliate: “to unite, to connect” (to “summon” + “together”); English, conciliate, conciliator Reconciliare: re- (“again”) to form reconcile With “ir-” (“not”) and a few suffixes, irreconcilability
Back Formation (47) • The repeated addition of prefixes and suffixes to bases is the most common way to form words • Back formation, or the reverse process, creates words through clipping suffixes While the word retains its meaning, it changes part of speech • Examples include: formate (from formation), respirate (from respiration), escalate (from
escalator), typewrite (from typewriter)
Apheresis (47) • Apheresis: the removal of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word Examples: account to count, esquire to squire, most when it means almost Recent examples: before to ‘fore, because to ‘cause, mushrooms to shrooms, taxicab to cab, telephone to phone Nicknames: Alexander to Zander, Elizabeth to Beth, Alexandra to Sandra
Exercise IV (51) By changing the prefix, form the antonym of each of the following words. Example: exhale—inhale.
assent supersonic
preludedepreciateassociate
ante-bellumconvergepersuadediscordinflate
Exercise IV Answers
assent—dissentsupersonic—subsonic
prelude—postludedepreciate—appreciateassociate—dissociate
ante-bellum—post-bellumconverge—divergepersuade—dissuade
discord—concord (or accord)inflate—deflate
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Latin Lesson V Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples
post- after, behind postpone, postscript
pre- before, in front of prevent, predict
pro- forward, in front of, for promote, produce
re-, red- (before vowels) back, again renew, recede, recall, redemption
retro- backward, behind retroactive
se-, sed- (before vowels) aside, away secede, segregate, sedition
sub-, sus-, suc-, etc. under, up from under, secretly
submerge, submarine, suspend, sustain, succumb, suffer, support
super-, [sur-] above, over superhuman, superfluous, surreal, surcease
trans-, tran-, tra- across, through transfer, transparent, transcend, transcribe, traverse, travesty
ultra- beyond, exceedingly ultraviolet, ultramodern
CLUD-, CLUS-, [CLOS-] to shut exclude, include, disclose
CUR(R)-, CURS-, [COURS-], [COR(S)-]
to run, go recur, current, excursion, concourse, succor
GRAD-, GRESS- to step, go gradual (literally, by steps), progress, aggression
PEND-, PENS- to hang, weigh, pay descendent, suspend, dispose, expense
PLE-, PLET-, PLEN- to fill; full implement, complete, deplete, plenary
SPEC-, (SPIC-), SPECT- to look specimen, conspicuous, inspect, respect
UND-, [OUND-] wave abundant, undulate, abound, redound
VID-, VIS-, [VIEW-] to see evident, provide, visual, provision, review
VOC-, VOK- voice; to call vocal, invoke, invocation, provoke, revoke
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Lesson VI: Combination of Bases (52)Blame the Romans (52) • English continues the Roman tradition of stringing bases together • Words were often connected in Latin with an “i” omnipotent: OMN- (all) + i + POT- (power) + -net multilateral: MULT- (many) + i + LATER- (side) + -al crucifer: CRUC- (cross) + i + FER- (to carry) floriculture: FLOR- (flower) + i + CULT- (to till) + -ure
Other Common Examples (52) • “i” was not the only vowel used to connect bases beneficial: BENE- (good) + FIC- (to make) + -ial aquifer: AQU- (water) + i + FER- (to carry) quadruped: QUARDR- (four) + u + PED- (foot) terraqueous: TERR- (land) + AQU- (water) + -eous sacrament: SACR- (sacred) + a + -ment sacrifice: SACR- (sacred) + i + FIC- (to make) sacrosanct: SACR- (sacred) + o + SANCT- (holy)
When there are no letters (52-53) • When consonants blend easily, no connecting vowels are necessary facsimile: FAC- (to make) + SIMIL- (similar) nomenclature: NOMEN- (name) + CLAT- (to call) + -ure• In English, /ks/ and /nk/ are common consonant clusters.
Roman Numerals (55) • To use Roman Numerals, learn the basic symbols (I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 10, C = 100, D =
500, M = 1000) and the two rules: • Rule 1: When smaller numbers fallow larger numbers, they are added (VII = 12, XV = 15, LV
= 55) • Rule 2: When smaller numerals are sandwiched, they are subtracted (IX = 9, XIX = 19)
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Latin Lesson VI Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples
SEMI- half, partly semiannual
UN- one uniform, unanimous
PRIM- first primary, primitive
DU- two duet, dual
BI-, BIN- (before vowels) two; twice bicycle, binoculars
TRI- three tricycle, triangle
QUADR(U)- four quadrangle, quadruple
QUART- fourth quarter
QUINT- fifth quintuplet, quintet
SEXT- six; sixth sextet
SEPT(EM)- seven septet, September*
OCT- eight octet
OCTAV- eighth octave
DECI(M)- tenth decimeter, decimal
CENT- hundred century, centennial
MILL- thousand millimeter, mill
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Lesson VII: Hybrids (57) Hybrids (57) Not all word base combinations come from the same language. battle-ax: battle (Latin) + ax (English) crestfallen: crest (Latin) + fallen (English) contraband: contra- (Latin) + band (Germanic) genocide: GEN- (Geek) + CID- (Latin for “kill”)
The Promiscuity of “Type” (57) The word “type” has been combined with many other languages. typecast: type + cast (Scandinavian) typeface: type + face (Latin) typewrite(r): type + write(r) (English)
Words into English (57-58) When words are borrowed into English, we naturally add English prefixes. In the following examples, all the prefixes are English. by-pass: by- + pass (Latin) off-ramp: off- ramp (French) foreclose: fore- + close (Latin) ungracious: un- + gracious (Latin)
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Latin Lesson VII Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples
ANIM- mind, feeling, life animal, animated
ANN(U)-, (ENNI-) year annals, annual, perennial
BENE-, BON- well, good benefactor, benefit, benign, bonus
CANT-, (CENT-), [CHANT-] to sing canorous, incantation, incentive, enchant
CUR- cure, care sinecure, secure
EQU-, (IQU-) equal, even equal, equidistant, iniquity
FER- to bear, carry refer, transfer, conference
LAT- to bear, carry elate, relate, translation
MAGN- great magnitude, magnify
MAL(E)- bad maladjusted, malicious, malignant
MULT- many multitude, multiply
OPTIM- best optimum
PLIC-, PLEX-, [PLY-] to fold, tangle, interweave
complicate, implicate, implicit, complex, imply, multiply
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Lesson VIII: Suffixes (60) Suffix Introduction (60) • Suffixes are word elements attached to the end of a base. kindness: kind + -ness (quality of) careless: care + -less (without) boyish: boy +-ish (like)• English words of Latin origin have been formed by the addition of suffixes. final: FIN- (end) + -al (pertaining to) numerous: NUMER- (number) + -ous (full of) popular: POPUL- (people) + -ar (pertaining to)
Direct Suffix Translation (61) • Direct translations of suffixes are impossible. • The meanings “full of” and “pertaining to” are merely practical efforts at paraphrasing. • Example: The Latin numerosus became the English numerous. NUMBER- (number) and -osus
becoming -ous.
Suffixes and Bases (61) • Like prefixes, some suffixes can also change the meaning of a base, but the basic function of a
suffix is to form a different part of speech. • We will study three types of suffixes: adjective-forming, noun-forming, and verb-forming. Note: Adjective-forming suffixes can be used as nouns. Example: English good is an adjective, but in “The good die young,” it is used to mean “good people”
Multiple Suffixes (61) • More than one suffix can be used to create a word classical: CLASS- (class) + -ic (belonging to) + -al (pertaining to) equality: EQU- (equal) + -al (pertaining to) + -ity (state of) populace: POPUL- (people) + -ar (pertaining to) + -ity
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Latin Lesson VIII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-al (-ail, -eal) pertaining to, like, belonging to
vocal, verbal, equal
-ane, -(e)an, -ian, [-ian] same veteran, mundane, mountain
-ar same popular, regular, familiar
-ose, (-iose) full of grandiose, comatose
-ous (-ious, -eous) full of, having the character of, like
famous, populous, various
AQU(A)- water aquatic, aqueduct
CORPOR-, CORP(US)- body incorporate, corpuscle, corpse
OMN- all omnipresent, omnivorous
REG-, (RIG-), RECT- right, straight, to rule regular, incorrigible, rectify
SIMIL-, SIMUL- like, similar simulate, simile
TEMPER-, TEMPOR- time, due season; to set bounds
temperate, temperature, temporary
TEN-, (TIN-), TENT-, [TAIN-] to hold tenant, continue, content, contain
TEND-, TENT-, TENS- to stretch, strive tendon, tense, tent, distend, pretense
TENU- stretched, thin tenuous, attenuate
See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson IX: Word Analysis: Etymological Definition (65) Word Analysis: Introduction (65) • Now that we have analyzed bases, prefixes and suffixes, we should be able to break new words
into their component parts. • This technique will be useful for words of Latin and Greek origin. • Recognizing different word parts will make understanding new words easier.
Word Analysis: A Word of Caution (65) • Using roots alone is not infallible, or incapable of making mistakes • Two main areas of difficulty arise: 1.) When different (Latin) bases spelled the same way, 2.) When etymological meanings differ from contemporary meanings
Same Bases, Different Spellings (65-66) • An extreme case: Transparent, parent, and preparation contain three different bases, each
spelled alike but with different meanings. PAR-: “to appear,” “to give birth,” “to make ready” • Also, some words may contain familiar bases, but not be of Latin origin Artichoke is not ART-, but of Arabic origin
Etymological Meaning (66) • Etymological Meaning: the combined meaning of a words’ base, prefix, and suffix • Contemporary meanings (usages) do not always match the etymological meaning • This creates certain difficulties in analyzing new or unfamiliar words
Etymological Meaning: Examples (66) • “Precarious” literally means “pertaining to prayer” (PREC-, “prayer”), but means out of human
control • “Transgressor” literally means “one who steps across,” but means “sinner” • “Decimate” literally means “to destroy a tenth of,” but means to destroy a large part of a group
Remedying the Problem (66) • Be conscious that etymological definitions are not perfect • Word meanings change through time, just like words themselves • Always check a dictionary if you are not sure
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Latin Lesson IX BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-(u)lent, -(o)lent full of, disposed to fraudulent, violent
-ic, -tic pertaining to, like civic, classic, rustic
-ary pertaining to, connected with, having the character of
literary, military, temporary
-ile, -ill pertaining to, like, belonging to, having the character of
juvenile, hostile, civil
DOM(IN)- house, master dome, predominant
FLAG(R)-, FLAM(M)-
to burn; flame flagrant, conflagrant, inflammation
FLAT- to blow inflate, flatulent, conflation
*GEN-, GENER- race, kind, origin general, genus, generous
LATER- side equilateral, laterally
LUC-, LUMIN- to shine; light lucid, illuminate
PAR- to ready, bring forth, provide prepare, separate
SEN- old senate, senior
SERV- to serve, save servant, service, preserve, conservation
*Contains additional information in the book. See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson X: Dissimilation and Other Sound Changes (70) Assimilation vs. Dissimulation (70) • In Chapter III, we covered assimilation, or how sounds mirrored neighboring sounds• A reverse process, called dissimilation, occurred during Roman times • Dissimulation: a process “by which two identical sounds are made unlike, or two similar
sounds are made to diverge.” • Common sounds to be dissimilated: r-r or l-l
Examples of Dissimilation (70) • The Latin stem PEREGRIN- (per “through” + ager “the field”) dissimilated the “r” in French
for “pilgrim” (one who wanders) In English, this became peregrine, peregrine falcon, and peregrinate • The Latin turtur converted to turtle in English; the French marbre became the English marble,
and bramble from brimbrum.
More Examples (71) • The suffixes -al and -ar (Lesson VIII) are the same. Words include: popular, regular, familiar;
verbal (like regal, royal, natural, parental) • Dissimilated vowels: ii to ie. The Latin piitas (derived from pius, pii) turned to pietas, which
became the English piety and pious.
Other Sound Changes (71) • dt or tt before a vowel to ss or s: VID- + -tum = vidtum > visum — producing VIS-, VIS- MITT + -tum = muttum > missum — producing MITT-, MISS- VERT- + -tum = verttum > versum — producing VERT-, VERS- SENT- + -tum = senttum > sensum — producing SENT-, SENS- CLUD- + -tum = cludtum > clusum — producing CLUD-, CLUS- LUD- + -tum = ludtum > lusum — producing LUD-, LUS-
Other Sound Changes (71) • rrt went to rs: VERR- “to drag” + -tum = verrtum > versum — VERR-, VERS- CURR- + -tum = currtum > cursum — CURR-, CURS- • before s or t, b went to p and g went to c SCRIB- + -tum = scribtum > scriptum — SCRIB-, SCRIPT- REG- + -tum = regtum > rectum — REG-, RECT- FRANG- + -tum = frangtum > fractum — FRANG-, FRACT-
Reasons for Sound Changes (71-72) • These sound changes were not random or thought out, but natural functions of how we talk • Example: It is easier to pronounce two voiceless consonants together, like the -pt- in SCRIPT-
and the -ct- in RECT- than to pronounce voiced and unvoiced consonants (-bt- and -gt-).
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• It is easier to say /bodl/ for “bottle” than /botl/ because the voiced l makes us want to use the voiced d in front rather than the voiceless t.
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Latin Lesson X BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-ine pertaining to, like, of feminine, canine
-ate, -it(e) possessing, being accurate, adequate, favorite, explicit
-ant, -net, (-ient) equal to English “ing” urgent (or “pressing”), apparent (or “appearing”), vigilant (or “watching”)
CUMB-, CUB- to lie down succumb, incubator
FEDER- league, treaty confederate
FID- faith confident
FIDEL- faithful infidelity
HER-, HES- to stick adhere, adhesive
ORD(IN)- to put in order, arrange order, ordinary
POT-, POSS- to be able, have power potent, possible
SAL-, (SIL-), SALT-, SULT- to leap salient, resilient, saltatorial, insult
SED-, (SID-), SESS- to sit, settle sediment, insidious, session
TERR- land, earth terrestrial, territory
See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XI: Semantic Change (75) Introduction (75) • The vocabulary of a language describes the things and activities which the speakers of the
language consider important. • The relationships between values and language is important. • While analysis of these relationships is for linguists, they are useful for non-linguists as well.
Similitude (76) • Similitude: words which due duty in several territories, or grown in their application Horse has become sawhorse and pummel horse The eye of a needle is based on the shape of a human eye, not necessary the “eye’s” function Head and foot are based on location of top and bottom
Similitude Subcategories (76-77) • Emotional: Bite from the literal, to “this bites” • Operational: Writing as scratching, to writing as writing letter-symbols • Symbolic: The words “bulldozer” or “wrecking ball”
Metaphorical (77-78) • When used metaphorically, words are used in new territory • This territory can change over time, giving rise to “dead” metaphors, or words whose meanings
are lost to time • Example: “Rehearse” meant to “re-hearse,” or “to harrow again.” Whereas it meant to repeat an operation for success, the word meaning has been forgotten, and the metaphor has died.
Modulation and Radiation (78-79) • Modulation: when the change of meaning occurs without the involvement of territories other
than the native of the word Example: Liquids and liquor. The former has always retained its broad, general meaning (generalization), while the latter has been narrowed to one type of liquid (specialization). • Radiation: when a very broad meaning fans out, or radiates into specific meanings which keep
the same basic meaning of the word Example: action, and prime and primary
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Latin Lesson XI BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-able, -bile able to be, able to, tending to portable, adaptable, flexible
-ile able to be, able to, tending to agile, volatile, reptile
-acious tending to, inclined to audacious, tenacious
CRED- to believe, trust credential, creditor, discredit
DOC-, DOCT- to teach document, doctor, indoctrinate
FA(B)-, FAT-, FESS-, FAM-
to speak, reveal affable, infant, preface, confess, fame, fabulous
FALL-, FALS-, [FAIL-], [FAULT-]
to deceive fallacy, false, failure, default
MOD- measure modicum, modest, modern, modify
MUT- to change mutant, mutation
TANG-, (TING-), TACT- to touch tangent, contingent, contact, intact
TRACT- to drag tractor, traction, detract
See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XII: Specialization and Generalization of Meaning (82) Specialization (82) • Specialization: where the word meaning shifts from the general to the specific
• “Undertaker” meant “one who undertakes to do something,” but means “one who undertakes the special task of preparing bodies for burial”
• “Disease” went from “discomfort” to “illness” • “Deer” in Shakespeare’s time meant any animal, but now means one type
Generalization (83) • Generalization: When the opposite occurs and word meanings broaden • “Decimate” literally means the destruction of 1/10th of a military unit, but now refers to large
destruction • “Vaccine” comes from the Latin vacca (“cow”) because said vaccination came from cowpox
Clear as Mud (83) • Not all changes are easy; some are very complex in nature!
• Expedite (ex-, “from” + PED- “foot”) means “to free one caught by the foot” but refers to the removal of any sort of difficulty
• Divest (di-, “apart” + VEST- “garment”) does not purely mean taking off clothing • Excruciate (CRUC-, “cross”) no longer refers to crucifixion, but any pain
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Latin Lesson XII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-itious tending to, characterized by fictitious, expeditious
-id tending to, inclined to frigid, rapid, humid
-ulous tending to, inclined to garrulous, tremulous
AC(U)-, ACR-, ACET- sharp, bitter acid, acute, acetic acid
CAD-, (CID-), CAS- to fall, befall cadence, accident, incident, casual, occasion
CAP-, (CIP-), CAPT-, (CEPT-), [CEIV-]
to take, seize incapacitate, recipient, capture, except, reception, receive
FAC-, (FIC-), FACT-, (FECT-)
to do, make faculty, efficient, manufacture, effective
FLOR- flower florist, floral, Florida (through Spanish)
FLU-, FLUX-, FLUV-, FLOUR(O)-
to flow; a flow fluid, flux, effluvia, fluoroscope
FOLI-, [FOIL-] leaf folio, defoliant, tinfoil
NOC-, NOX-, NIC-, NEC-
to harm, kill innocent, obnoxious, pernicious, internecine
NOV- new novel, novice, innovative
See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XIII: Functional Change (86) Functional Change (86) • Functional change: the process when words change part of speech without the addition of
suffixes • Adjectives become nouns, nouns become verbs, and so on• This is very common, and frequently happens when Latin becomes English
Example (87) There are numerous examples, so here are a few: • Words used as nouns: reptile, agent, inhabitant • Colors used as nouns: red (communist), pink (communist sympathizer), whites (of a person’s
eyes), the blues, greens (golf course) • Nouns as verbs: “to book a criminal,” “to knife a person,” “to iron a shirt” • Literally thousands of words have undergone this process
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Latin Lesson XIII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-ive tending to, inclined to active, attractive, effective
-uous tending to, inclined to continuous, conspicuous
-ory tending to, serving for introductory, compulsory, contradictory
CERN-, CRET-, CERT- to separate, distinguish discernment, secrete, excrete, ascertain
DUR- hard; to last duration, endurable
FUND-, FUS-, [FOUND-]
to pour, melt refund, fusion, confusion, foundry
NASC-, NAT- to be born nascent, native, prenatal, nature, natural
PEL(L)-, PULS- to drive, push propel, compelling, impulsive, repulsive
PON-, POSIT-, [POUND-], [POSE-]
to place; put component, deposit, position, compound, compose, oppose
TORT- to twist torture, distort
See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XIV: Degeneration and Elevation in Meaning (90) Degeneration (90) Degeneration: semantics change where words change from a good or neutral meaning to a objectionable, low or unpleasant meaning • Villain: from “farm laborer” (from a villa or countryside) to the present meaning • Vulgar: from “pertaining to the common people” to the present meaning • Hussy: originally a contraction of “housewife” • Homely: “home-like” in Britain to “plain or ugly” in the United States
Elevation (91) Elevation: when words comes to mean something better than it originally did. Note: This happens less often than degeneration • Fame: from any report (good or bad) to good report • Lord: a contraction for “loaf” and “guard” or “bread keeper” • Constable: a “chief groom of the stable” to the highest military officer in France, and back
down • Chancellor: originally an usher in the court of law
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Latin Lesson XIV BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-ity, (-ety -ty) quality of, state of gravity, sanity, society, novelty
-(i)tude quality of, state of longitude, multitude, magnitude
-acy quality of or state of having accuracy, inadequacy, confederacy
AM- to love amorous, amatory
DE-, DIV- god deify, divine
[JOURN-] day journal
OR- to speak formally, plead oracle, oration, peroration
PROB-, [PROV-] good; to test probe, probity, approve
RAP-, RAPT-, (REPT-) to seize rapid, rape, rapture
STRING-, STRICT-, [STRAIN-]
to draw, tight stringent, strict, restrict, restrain
VER- TRUE veritable, aver, very
See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XV: Change from Abstract to Concrete and Visa-Versa (94) Latin Lesson XV
BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-(i)mony quality of, state of testimony, matrimony
-acity quality of being inclined to audacity, capacity, rapacity
-y quality of, state of, act of, result of
custody, perjury, controversy
-ate office of, holders of the office of senate, magistrate, electorate
CID-, CIS- to kill, cut insecticide, fratricide, incision, precise
MATR-, MATERN- mother matron, maternity
PART-, PATERN- father patrimony, paternity
PATRI- fatherland, country repatriate
SEQU-, SECUT- to follow sequence, consequence, prosecute, consecutive
SOL- alone solitude, desolation
VIV- to live vivid, revive
See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XVI: Weakening and Hyperbole (98) Latin Lesson XVI BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-ion act of, state of, result of completion, prevention, production
-ment result of, means of, act of, state of excitement, ligament, monument, regiment
-men result of, means of, act of, state of specimen
CRE-, CRESC-, CRET-
to grow crescent, excrescence, concrete
I-, IT- to go transient, ambient, initial, transition
JUG-, JUNCT-, [JOIN-], [JOINT-]
a yoke; to join jugular, junction, join, rejoined, conjointly
LEG-, (LIG-), LECT-
to choose, pick out, read legible, legend, eligible, elect, selective
MON- to warn, advise admonish, monument, monitor, premonition
SOLV-, SOLUT- to free, loosen solve, absolve, solution, absolute
See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XVII: Change of Meaning Due to Changing Concepts (101) This section is under construction.
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Latin Lesson XVII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-(i)clue little molecule, muscle (but muscular), particle (but particular)
-el little novel, morsel, panel
-il little pupil, codicil
-ole, -ule little vacuole, aureole, capsule, globule, scruple (but scrupulous), circle (but circular)
FERV- to boil, bubble fervent, fervidity
FRANG-, (FRING-), FRACT-
to break frangible, fraction
GRAN- grain granary, granite, granola
MINOR-, MINUS-, MINUT-
small, smaller minority, minute, diminutive
PATI-, PASS- to endure, suffer patient, passive, passion
QUIR-, QUISIT-, QUEST-
to ask, seek inquire, inquisition, question, inquest
SEC-, SEG-, SECT- to cut secant, segment, bisect, section
See the book for additional diminutive suffix-forming explanations.
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Lesson XVIII: Euphemism, Taboo Deformation, and Circumlocution (106) Latin Lesson XVIII
BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-acne, -ancy; -ence, -ency
quality of ___ing, state of ___ing
vigilance, hesitancy, influence, fluency
-or state of, result of ardor, furor, error
-ary (-arium) place for library, granary, aquarium
-ory (-odium) place for dormitory, lavatory, auditorium
AG-, (IG-), ACT- to do, drive agent, agile, inactive, transact
CLAM-, [CLAIM-] to cry out exclamation, proclamation, declaim, proclaim
COG- to think, reflect, consider cogent, cogitation
DIC-, DICT- to say dictation, contradiction, edict
GER-, GEST- to carry, produce exaggerate, congestion, digest
MIT(T)-, MIS(S)- to send, let go admit, transmitter, missile, transmission
SCI- to know science, conscientious
SON- sound supersonic, resonance, sonata
VAL-, [VAIL-] to be strong, worthy value, equivalent, valid, avail, prevail
See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.
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Lesson XIX: Folk Etymology (112) Latin Lesson XIX
BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples
-ure act of, result of fracture, puncture, rupture
-(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of violence, fraudulence
-or one who does, that which does actor, aggressor, tractor, motor
-aud(um), -(i)end(um)
that which must be ___-ed *agendum, memorandum
ERR- to wander error, erratic
JAC-, JECT- to throw ejaculate, inject, project, reject
NOMEN-, NOMIN- name, noun nomenclature, nominate, pronominal
SCRIB-, SCRIPT- to write describe, inscribe, scribble, conscription, subscription
ST(A)-, STIT-, SIST- to stand stance, circumstance, station, insist
VOLV-, VOLUT- to roll resolve, involve, evolution, revolution
See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.
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