EVIDENCEEVIDENCE

Definition????Definition????

Support for a claim that is discovered Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority from experience or outside authority (page 112)(page 112)

A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by and UNLESS it is supported by evidenceevidence

What qualifies as “evidence” (and is What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed tospheres being appealed to

Claim – Claim – statement advanced to gain the adherence of othersstatement advanced to gain the adherence of others

Grounds – Grounds – conditions, events, that provide foundation for conditions, events, that provide foundation for your claimyour claim

Warrant –Warrant – general statements to justify the grounds general statements to justify the grounds

Backing – Backing – specific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etcspecific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etc

Qualifier –Qualifier – the force of the argument (your acceptable level of the force of the argument (your acceptable level of uncertainty)uncertainty)

Rebuttal - Rebuttal - answer to anticipated questions by answer to anticipated questions by opposition/decision makersopposition/decision makers

ToulminToulmin

Types of EvidenceTypes of EvidenceAll evidence is “sphere dependent”All evidence is “sphere dependent”

ExamplesExamplesStatisticsStatisticsTestimonyTestimony

Definition: an illustration which can be Definition: an illustration which can be generalized to the claim being madegeneralized to the claim being made

Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are appealing toappealing to

Examples appeal to valuesExamples appeal to values

Hypothetical Examples??? Hypothetical Examples???

ExamplesExamples

StatisticsStatistics

Quantifiable dataQuantifiable dataMean , Median, ModeMean , Median, Mode

Statistical Trends/TendenciesStatistical Trends/Tendencies Credibility of Sources Credibility of Sources (global climate (global climate

change)change)

TestimonyTestimony(someone other than the person making the argument)(someone other than the person making the argument)

Testimony of FACTTestimony of FACT

Testimony of OPINIONTestimony of OPINION (expert opinion –can be countered by (expert opinion –can be countered by

other “experts” – becomes an issue of other “experts” – becomes an issue of credibilitycredibility

Where to LookWhere to Look

Internet Search Internet Search (look for authoritative (look for authoritative sources)sources)

Government DocumentsGovernment Documents Statistical Abstract of the United Statistical Abstract of the United

StatesStates Organizational PublicationsOrganizational Publications Periodical PublicationsPeriodical Publications

• Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Wall Street Journal etc.Wall Street Journal etc.

TESTS OF EVIDENCETESTS OF EVIDENCE

Credibility – source qualificationsCredibility – source qualifications Accuracy/ReliabilityAccuracy/Reliability Originality of Observation Originality of Observation

(avoid second-hand evidence)(avoid second-hand evidence)

RecencyRecency Bias Bias (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden

agenda)agenda)

Consistency or Contradiction with Consistency or Contradiction with established info/dataestablished info/data

StatisticsStatistics

Source bias Source bias (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the DOJ?)DOJ?)

Statistical Accuracy Statistical Accuracy (statistical exercise)(statistical exercise)

Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!!Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!!

Comparable units Comparable units (US and Canada? Or Iraq and (US and Canada? Or Iraq and Iran?)Iran?)

Record/Save your EvidenceRecord/Save your Evidence

Note cardsNote cards

Data files on flash drives etc (so you Data files on flash drives etc (so you are not printing out lots of pages)are not printing out lots of pages)

Reasoning with the AudienceReasoning with the Audience

Cause and EffectCause and Effect

Generalization Generalization (Inductive Reasoning – (Inductive Reasoning – moving from a specific to the general)moving from a specific to the general)

A Parallel Case A Parallel Case (events are similar)(events are similar)

Comparative Advantage Comparative Advantage

Analogy Analogy (fundamental sameness in different (fundamental sameness in different cases one is “like” another)cases one is “like” another)

Authority Authority – credibility and expertise– credibility and expertise

Appeal based on Dichotomy - Appeal based on Dichotomy - force a force a choice between only 2 choiceschoice between only 2 choices

Fallacies in ArgumentFallacies in Argument Hasty Generalization Hasty Generalization (non representative (non representative

sample – too little info etc)sample – too little info etc)

Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope

Red HerringRed Herring

Non Sequitur Non Sequitur (Irrelevant Argument – does not follow)(Irrelevant Argument – does not follow)

Circular Reasoning Circular Reasoning

Forcing a False DichotomyForcing a False Dichotomy

Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignoratium) no (ad ignoratium) no proof to the contrary existsproof to the contrary exists

Appeal to the People/popularity Appeal to the People/popularity (ad (ad populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or “it is commonly known”“it is commonly known”

Appeal to Emotion Appeal to Emotion (such as emotionally (such as emotionally charged language – pro-murder etc)charged language – pro-murder etc)

Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority

Appeal to TraditionAppeal to Tradition

Appeal to HumorAppeal to Humor

Argumentum Ad Hominem – Argumentum Ad Hominem – attack the attack the person not the argument (verbal aggression)person not the argument (verbal aggression)