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WSN 24 (2015) 18-42 EISSN 2392-2192
Evaluation of Water Quality with World Health Organization and Nigeria Industrial Standards Using
Geographic Information System
S. O. A. Oloyede-Kosoko, Adetimirin Oluwafemi Idowu,
Olaleye Olabisi Ayoni
Department of Geoinformatics, Federal School of Surveying, P.M.B. 1024, Oyo, Oyo State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This research determined the physico-chemical parameters of hand dug wells in Eruwa, South-
western Nigeria in relation to the pollution, potability of groundwater by comparing the chemical and
physical quality with World Health Organization and Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water Quality
permissible limits. Twenty hand dug well were analyzed for their physico-chemical parameter. The
physico-chemical investigation includes turbidity, temperature, pH, colour, electrical conductivity,
calcium, fluoride, phosphate, nitrate, and iron. Averagely results show that the analyses are within the
permissible limit of World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS).
From the analysisof results, observation and comparison with the available standard, it was revealed
that four out the twenty hand dug wells in the research area met the WHO standard and while five met
the NIS standard.
Keywords: GIS; Groundwater; Pollutants; Wells; Spatial Distribution
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a valuable natural resource that is essential to human survival and the
ecosystems health. Water comprises of coastal water bodies and fresh water bodies (lakes,
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-19-
river and groundwater) (Usali and Ismail, 2010). Groundwater resources is one of the most
important resource available to humanity (Christophoridis, C., Bizani, E. and Fytianos, K.
2000), therefore it is more than necessary to provide a tool that can assess its quality over
space. The principal goal of groundwater management in developing countries is to assess and
manage the water resources that are available.
Technically, a Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that includes mapping
software and its application to remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photography,
mathematics, photogrammetry, and geography. The advantages of using GIS over traditional
methods in groundwater monitoring are: effective storage and analysis system for spatial and
temporal database, spatial analysis of depicting the source- pollutant relationship, graphical
presentation, visual impacts and spatial distribution of graphical outputs on water quality
changes, pollution load and relationship with sources and management of river basin by
generating buffer zones on the basis of water quality criteria. GIS can serve as a very useful
tool for not only groundwater modeling but also for analyses of decadal variations in the
groundwater quality, and development of conceptual groundwater model. Various layers of
information such as canal network, recharge zones, subsurface geology and Digital Terrain
Model (DTM) can also be developed. A.N. Arora and R. Goyel (2003).
The specific objectives set for the research work are listed below:
1. To create a geo-database for the entities in the study area
2. Acquisition of geometric data of the hand dug wells, dumpsites and soakawaywith the
use of hand-held GPS (Garmin 12S) and semantic data with personal interview
method;
3. Determine the physiochemical parameters of groundwater in Eruwa and the pollutantof
the environment;
4. Determine the potability by comparing the physicochemical analysis with World
Health organization (WHO) standard and NigerianIndustrial Standard(NIS);
5. Determine the flow direction of hand dug wells in the research area.
1. 1. Conceptual Clarification
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer
when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures
and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table.
Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural
discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is
also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and
operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is
hydrogeology which is also called groundwater hydrology. Typically, groundwater is thought
of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also include soil
moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and
deep geothermal or oil formation water.
Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the
movement of faults. It is likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contain some water, which
may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to
the Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been
influenced by groundwater.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-20-
There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter's
moon Europa. It is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge
to oceans, evaporation and subsurface seepage.
1. 2. Research area
Eruwa town is located between latitudes 7o
31’ and 7
o34
’north of the Equator and
longitudes 3o24' to 3
o27' east of the Greenwich Meridian. Eruwa town is a sparsely populated
African settlement grown over centuries with an estimated population of over 10,000 which
compose of mainly Yoruba, Sagbe, Fulani and Egun. The inhabitants are mainly farmers.
Geologically, the study area lies within the Precambrian basement complex of southwestern
Nigeria and is underlain by rocks of igneous and metamorphic types. However, granite
gneisses predominantly underlie the area and characterized by weathered regolith that varies
in thickness from place to place. The granite gneiss has been crosscut at several places by
quartz veins. The hydrogeologic setting of the study area is typical of what obtains in
basement complex terrain where availability of groundwater is a function of the presence of
thick overburden material as well as availability of joints, fractures and faults within the
untethered fresh bedrock. Due to the geological setting of Eruwa (humid tropical), the rocks
of the study area have been particularly deeply weathered and this serves as porous and
permeable zones for shallow water accumulation. The recharge into this weathered aquiferous
zone is predominantly through infiltration of rain water. Furthermore, the absence of basal
weathered clay (as sealing) within the weathered horizons made this aquiferous weather
regolith to be susceptible to pollution.
Fig. 1. Diagram showing the location of the research area.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-21-
1. 3. Literature review
Groundwater is a medium commonly used for heavy metal pollution assessment.
Pollutants in water include a wide variety of chemicals and pathogens and physical chemistry
or sensory changes. Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can obviously
induce diseases in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water’s physical chemistry
includes acidity, conductivity, temperature, and excessive nutrient loading which is otherwise
known as eutrophication. These alterations among many others bring undesirable changes in
the environment and affects man directly or indirectly (Eniola and Olayemi, 1999). Water
pollution is a serious problem in the global context. It is one of the greatest concerns of the
world today, mainly caused by the improper disposal of untreated wastewaters, direct or
indirect dumping of domestic/municipal, agricultural or industrial wastes to the waterways. It
has been reported that nearly 1.5 billion people around the world have no access to safe
drinking water, and at least 5 million deaths per year are attributed to diseases linked to water
pollution. It has also been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of death and
disease (Pink, 2006) and accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (West,
2006). Diarrhea, a water-borne disease, is the major cause of the death of more than two
million people per year of children under the age of five worldwide. It is a symptom of
infection or result of combination of a variety of enteric pathogens (Anon, 2000).
Fig. 2. Photographs of hand dug wells in some part Africa.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-22-
Groundwater sources should be protected as much as possible from contamination by
harmful pollutants. Completely protecting source water may not be possible because
pollutants from the atmosphere can enter surface water through precipitation and
contaminated groundwater can introduce pollutants through recharge. They can also be
polluted by industrial and municipal discharges as well as alterations to the natural
environment, which may cause runoff of pollutants. Both direct discharges and runoff can
include human and animal wastes.
Proliferation of industries coupled with non-compliance with set rules regarding
disposition of wastes and used chemicals has been a threat to lives in the developing world,
Nigeria inclusive. Potential pollutants include but not limited to inorganic chemicals, organic
chemicals and radionuclides (USEPA, 2005).Pollutants may also include suspended solids,
biodegradable organics, pathogenic organisms and dissolved inorganic and heavy metals. The
major problem in Nigeria had been environmental problem hence the establishment of Federal
Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) in 1988 which later became the Federal Ministry
of Environment.
The responsibility of which is the monitoring and control. Groundwater pollution is
classified into two main categories viz; point source pollution and non-point source pollution.
Non-point source pollution often in the form of runoff comes from diffuse or scattered
sources in the environment, while point source pollution comes from a defined outlet such as
a pipe (USEPA, 2005). Non-point source pollution may be difficult to identify and control
while point source pollution can be identified easily.
Olatunji, Tijani, Abimbola and Oteri (2001) evaluated water resources from the surface
and underground in Oke–AgbeAkoko, southwestern Nigeria. The study revealed that the total
dissolved solid for the surface water samples range from 11.00 – 325.00 mg/l while the
electrical conductivity is from 19.00 – 628.00 uh/cm. the pH ranges from 7.1 – 7.5 which
shows the water to be neutral. The calcium content ranges from 1.0 – 4.30 mg/l while that of
magnesium is from 0.24 – 17.94 mg/l. The sodium and potassium content on the other hand
range from 1.50 – 6.60 mg/l and 1.10 – 32.0 mg/l respectively. Bicarbonate remains as the
dominant anion as shown from its range of value which is 6.10 – 238.0 mg/l followed by
chloride which has 7.10 – 138.20 mg/l.
The constituent of the ground water is markedly different from that of the surface water
with higher value obtained from the chemical constituent. The calcium and magnesium
content ranges from 2.0 – 90.0 mg/l and 1.78 – 58.14 mg/l respectively for the ground water
samples while for surface water samples, calcium and magnesium have their values ranging
between 0.90 mg/l and 17.94 – 93.88 mg/l respectively. Sodium and potassium range from
9.0 – 42.0 mg/l and 2.4 – 43.0 mg/l for the ground water samples and 1.50 – 18.60 and 32.0 –
130.4 mg/l for the surface water samples respectively.
The iron content on the other hand is relatively very low for both sources as seen from
the range of values of 0.1 – 0.32 mg/l and 0.01 – 1.73 mg/l. The relatively higher
concentration of these cations is similarly reflected in the anion content especially bicarbonate
and chloride.
From the chemical analyses, it shows that the samples from the ground water sources
are rich in chemical component compared to those samples from the surface. This may be
attributed to the fact that surface water has a very little time to interact with the bedrock,
unlike percolating groundwater.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
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Fig. 3a. Diagram showing different depth of well & Water table.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-24-
Fig. 3b. Photographs of hand dug wells in some part Asia.
Ntekim and Wandate (2001) in their study of ground water chemistry in Adamawa area
revealed that water quality is dependent on physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of the water samples and of course with reference to their intended use. Drinking water
qualities are assessed based on the presence of objectionable characteristics (tastes, odour,
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
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colour) and chemical parameters with harmful effects while the quality of irrigation water is a
function of the electrical conductivity, percentage concentration of sodium ion, type of plant,
soil and climate (Devis & Dewist, 1966; Johnson, 1975, Close, 1987). Results of the analysis
given showed that the ionic concentrations and parameters of groundwater in the study area
are largely within the WHO recommended standards. Exceptions are few in isolated cases
where parameters are remarkable above the maximum permissible level. Based on the
chemical data and the complete lack of objectionable properties in the examined sampled,
groundwater in the study area is in the average, notable and suitable for drinking and
household uses.
2. METHODOLOGY
The techniques used in carrying out the research are data acquisition, processing and
information presentation. Spatial data display an important role in any Geographic
information system study, the primary source of the data collection was based on field survey
which involved the collection of borehole coordinates using hand held GPS, HI 8633 Hanna
conductivity meter, was used for temperature and electrical conductivity, measuring tape
suspended with an iron rod and interview was conducted to the occupants of the building.
Secondary data were also sourced from previous maps and satellite imagery copy of the
research area
3. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
It is important to understand what Geographic Information System (GIS) is In fact,
geographic information processing has a rich history in a variety of disciplines. In particular,
natural resource specialists and environmental scientists have been actively processing
geographic data and promoting their techniques since the 1960’s. The history of GIS barely
spans four decades now, and it’s a story that springs from many origins, and mingles many
disciplines. Where its future lies is not at all certain. Geographic Information System are
computer based system that are used to capture, store, check, integrate, manipulate, analyze
and display geographic information which can be related to specific location of portion on the
earth surface.
Spatial information covers a larger range of natural resources and infrastructures. A
geographic information supports spatial decision making and is capable of linking description
of location with characteristic of phenomena around there. This technology is capable of
solving most land related problem; Data acquisition for any GIS project can be accomplished
by making use of analog or digital methods. With the availability of GIS technology, which
enable data acquisition, database management and information presentation, it is possible to
capture both Spatial and attribute data of each object in a location, study for the purpose of
processing, analyzing, storing, up-dating, retrieval and presentation of information for
decision-making.
A good geographic information system provides accessibility of data and information
which goes a long way to improve the quality of life and social-economic wellbeing
proficiency of the society in all ramification.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
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The main components of any GIS are: Data acquisition, Data management, Data
manipulation and analysis, Data presentation spatial database is one of the components of a
GIS and is often referred to as the heart of any GIS. In fact, what account for the cost of GIS
is the spatial database.
Figure 4. Geographic information system Processes.
The field of geographic information system has many applications among which are
the finding solutions to real life problems as the one at the hand which is the finding solutions
to the water quality of hand dug wells in the study area. This study wascarried out by bringing
data from array of sources ranging from imageries of the study area to references from
existing map of the area and integrating these with data that were picked using modern
technology of and GPS.
4. ANALYSIS AND PRODUCT GENERATION
This is the use of spatial and non-spatial attribute data in GIS database to answer some
generic questions like querying, buffering, classification and other GIS analysis about the real
world by modeling (Heywood et al, 1998).
The model may reveal new or previously unidentified relationships within and
between datasets, therefore increasing of our understanding of the real world (ESRI, 1990).
The dataset used in this research are shown in the composite map of the research area in
figure5.
4. 1. Criteria for evaluating water quality of hand dug wells
For any hand dug well project, there are certain rules and regulations that must be
followed. In other words, experts have set out a set of criteria that must be followed for depth
of a hand dug wells and the standard forquality for human consumption such include among
others, the followings:
a) A hand dug well depth must range between 5-30 meters
b) Hand dug well must be lined and covered.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-27-
c) The minimum distance (m) of some structure to the hand dug well are also stated
d) For water to be portable there are standards for the physiochemical composition
for the water set by the World Health Organization and Nigerians Industrial
Standards which are stated below in table 1
Table 1. Physiochemical Composition Standard.
S/N PARAMETER WHO
STANDARDS NIS STANDARDS
1. PH 6 to 8.5 6 to 9.2
2. Electrical Conductivity 1 ms\cm 1 ms\cm
3. Temperature (°C) Not mentioned Not mentioned
4. Colour 15 TCU 15 TCU
5. Turbidity 5 NTU 5 NTU
6. Nitrate 50 mg\l 50 mg\l
7. Iron 1.0 mg\l 0.3 mg\l
8. Phosphate 0.3 mg\l 0.3 mg\l
9. Calcium 75 mg\l 75 mg\l
10. Fluoride 1.5 mg\l 1.5 mg\l
Source: WHO in Lenntech (2009) and NSDWQ (2007)
Table 2. Allowable minimum distance to some infrastructures to hand dug well.
Existing structure Minimum distance (m)
Buildings 3
Soakaway 30
Dumpsites and burial
grounds 500
Source: Ministry of Water Resources
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-28-
Fig. 5. Composite Map of the Research Area.
4. 2. Spatial analyses
In order to make a GIS answer the generic question of location, condition, routing and
pattern. There is need for manipulation and analysis of the database. It is the capability of
spatial analytical function that distinguishes Geographical information system from other
information systems, Aronoff (1991).
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-29-
Spatial search
Spatial search was used to access and retrieve information from the database. Queries
specific questions in the form of what is where and so on which provides answers to the
needed information through processing or manipulating spatial data. Spatial search are very
essential when searching for attribute within the neighborhood, which must be defined
systematically. There are two kinds of query that can be carried out in a well-structured
database. Single criteria query is a query when attached only one condition with a criteria and
multiple criteria query is a query with more than condition. In this case, a single and multiple
criteria were performed on the database.
Queries
The most basic of all tools provided in Geographical information system are those
marked with database query. Queries are specific question asked (what is where? and what is
the distribution of a phenomenon over time?) and answers provided through manipulation and
processing of the spatial database. All these are made possible as a result of the link between
the graphic (geometric) data and attribute (semantic) data being acceptable to be
implementing software (ArcGIS 10.1). These queries may be structured using a single
condition or more.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-30-
Fig. 6. Query and Result of hand dug wells that the depth is greater than or equal to 5 m.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-31-
Fig. 7. Query and Result of hand dug wells that the PH is greater than or equal to 6.5 and less than 8.5.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-32-
Fig. 8. Query and Result of hand dug wells that the turbidity is less than or equal to 5 m.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-33-
Fig. 9. Query and Result of hand dug wells that the phosphate is less than or equal to 0.3.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-34-
Fig. 10. Query and Result of hand dug wells that the nitrate is less than or equal to 50 mg/l.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-35-
Fig. 11. Query and Multiple query based on WHO standard.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-36-
Fig. 12. Query and Multiple query based on NIS standard.
Fig. 13. Flow Direction of the Hand Dug Wells Water.
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-37-
4. 3. Graphical analysis of the well
(1) For chemical and physical analysis (fluoride, phosphate, calcium, iron, nitrate, Electrical
conductivity, pH).
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
PO
LY R
D
OK
E-O
LA
AB
OR
ERIN
1
AB
OR
ERIN
2
AB
OR
ERIN
3
ISA
BA
AN
KO
OK
E-ER
UW
A
OK
E-O
BA
NEW
ER
UW
A
GA
A R
D
SAN
NG
O 1
SAN
NG
O 2
BA
REK
E
SAN
NG
O 3
SAN
NG
O4
SAN
NG
O 5
NEW
ER
UW
A 2
HO
SPIT
AL
RD
AP
OD
E
WH
O*
NIS
*
EC(Ms/cm)
pH
0
5
10
pH
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-38-
Nitrate(mg/l)
0
50
100
Nitrate(mg/l)
Ca(mg/l)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Ca(mg/l)
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-39-
Fe(mg/l)
0
0,5
1
1,5
Fe(mg/l)
Phosphate(mg/l)
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
Phosphate(mg/l)
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-40-
5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Table 3. Table showing the results of hand dug wells analysis and comparing them
with WHO and NIS.
Par
amet
er/L
oca
tio
n o
f w
ell
Po
ly r
d
Ok
eola
Ab
ore
rin
1
Ab
ore
rin
2
Ab
ore
rin
3
isab
a
ank
o
Ok
eeru
wa
Ok
eob
a
New
eru
wa
Gaa
rd
San
ngo
1
San
ngo
2
bar
eke
San
ngo
3
San
ngo
4
San
ngo
5
New
eru
wa
2
Ho
spit
al r
d
apo
de
WH
O*
NS
DW
Q*
EC
((M
s/cm
)
0.1
2
0.2
2
0.3
4
0.2
0
0.5
9
0.4
4
0.6
6
0.8
2
0.8
4
0.9
6
0.1
9
0.4
1
0.8
0
0.3
6
0.3
5
0.1
5
0.2
0.1
6
0.6
9
0.3
8
1
1
Tem
p
(0c)
52.5
41.6
52.4
52.6
53.6
53.5
51.7
32.2
33.0
41.2
30.8
39.9
31.7
37.9
34.6
34.5
32.7
35.2
32.4
31.1
_
_
Colo
ur
(TC
U)
383
36
16
125
22
87
39
0
10
11
40
1
15
105
224
34
21
174
36
12
15
15
pH
6.4
3
6.1
6.9
5
6.4
4
6.9
7
6.9
4
7.1
7
7.3
7.0
7
7.2
8
7.6
4
6.5
3
7.1
6
7.1
7
6.6
9
6.6
2
6.9
2
6.8
6
7.1
7
6.8
3
6_8
.5
6_9
.2
Tu
rbid
ity
(NT
U)
74
11
6
22
6
14
7
2
0
0
9
0
5
18
42
6
5
43
4
4
5
5
Nit
rate
(mg
/l)
51.9
2
13.9
8
66
17
58.9
6
14.8
1
26.0
9
3.4
5
82.2
8
45.3
2
3.8
9
68.6
4
1.8
9
60.7
2
4.5
5
18.7
8
28.8
2
0
12.8
7
10.1
1
50
50
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-41-
Ca
(mg
/l)
10.4
24.6
34.4
11.2
48
22.4
34.4
80
80
41.6
24
48.8
80.8
39.2
36.8
24.8
36
34.4
49.6
40
75
75
Fe(
mg
/l)
1.0
9
0.1
9
0.1
2
1.2
6
0.3
1
1.1
8
1.0
8
0.4
0
0.0
9
0.2
3
0.0
9
0.2
7
0.1
3
1.0
6
0.2
2
0.9
8
1.0
9
0.4
4
0
1.0
0.3
Ph
osp
hat
e (
mg
/l)
0.3
4
0.4
5
0.0
1
0.1
1
0.0
6
0.9
9
0.0
6
1.8
7
0.0
2
0.4
5
0.0
5
0
2.1
1
0
0.3
4
1.0
4
0.5
4
1.2
3
1.0
2
0.1
2
0.3
0
0.3
F (
mg
/l)
0.3
9
1.9
8
0.2
8
0.3
5
0.1
1
0.3
4
0.1
2
0.0
3
1.7
8
0.1
6
0.2
2
0.2
5
0.0
9
0.6
6
0.3
4
0.3
0.1
1
0.6
6
0.3
4
0.1
2
1.5
1.5
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONAND RECOMMENDATION
This research work has shown the water quality of hand dug wells and the likely effect
of pollution in the research area (Eruwa). This research is developed as a Spatial Decision
Support System which is an aid to support decision making.
Four (4) wells met the WHO standard and five (5) wells met NIS standard. Results of
the chemical analysis of the hand dug wells reveal that water samples to be enriched in PO32+
and NO3ˉ which is as a result of the sewage and fertilizer runoff since the main occupation
there is farming.The physico-chemical characteristics of the examined hand dug wells are safe
for human consumption and domestic use, except for few locations that require water
treatment.
The following suggestions are hereby recommended for the purpose of decision making
and environmental management viz:
(i) There should be given a setback distance of 30m for soak-ways and 500m distance for
dumpsite from hand dug wells which should be more than sufficient to reduce the rate
of pollution.
(ii) Government should assist the inhabitants of the area by providing good, safe and
potable water that is fit for drinking with WHO maximum permissible level for
drinking water supply because most residents in the study area do not have access to
pipe borne water and they make use of groundwater as an alternative. Improved
groundwater treatment and supply by the government or corporate organization
World Scientific News 24 (2015) 18-42
-42-
(NGO) through the provision of boreholes will lessen water scarcity and reduce
groundwater-related problems.
(iii) Public Health and Environmental Officers should be given a mandate to inspect and
check wells to ensure they are safe for drinking and free from all forms of pollution.
Polluted wells should be sealed.
(iv) The Urban And Regional Planner (Town Planner) should be charged and mandated to
ensure every building approved for construction, adhere to soakaway and dumpsite
standard distances from hand dug wells.
(v) The use of green manure should emphasize over fertilizer since farming is main
occupation in the area
(vi) Government should encourage and finance groundwater research by hydrologist and
hydrogeophysical scientists to detected areas that can easily pollute groundwater.
(vii)Decision makers should apply GIS technology in solving spatial problems.
References
[1] A.N. Arora and R. Goyel (2003). National Conf. on GIS/GPS/RS/Digital
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[2] Anon (2000): Rural water sources under the microscope SA. Water Bulletin 26(3) 18-21
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( Received 08 October 2015; accepted 22 October 2015 )