Topic 1 - Foundations of Environmental Systems and

Societies

________________________'s Workbook1

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TOPIC 1.1 – ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS Name:

Significant ideas: Historical events, amongst other influences, affect the development of environmental value

systems (EVSs) and environmental movements. There is a wide spectrum of EVs, each with its own premise and implications

Objective StatementCovered

the notes

Revised in class

I’m confident

Knowledge and

Understanding

Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developmentsAn EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contextsAn EVS may be considered a system in the sense that it may be influenced by education, experience, culture and media (inputs) and it involves a set of interrelated premises, values and arguments that can generate consistent decisions and evaluations (outputs)An ecocentric worldview integrates social, spiritual and environmental dimensions into a holistic ideal. It puts ecology and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies. An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes biorights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-restraint in human behavior.An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This might be through the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legalization. Debate would be encouraged to reach a consensual, pragmatic approach to solving environmental problems.A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems. This is a consequence of a largely optimistic view that humans can play in improving a lot of humanity. Scientific research is encouraged to inform policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated or changed to solve resource depletion. A pro-growth agenda is deemed necessary for society’s improvement.There are extremes at other ends of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists-ecoentric to cornucopian-technocentric) but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly into any classification

Applications and Skills

Discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic valueEvaluate the implications of two contrasting EVSs in the context of a given environmental issueJustify, using examples and evidence, how historical influences have shaped the development of the modern environmental movementDiscuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value

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INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY – How green are you?

1. A student (person) next to you leaves the tap running while cleaning their teeth. Do you:a. Ignore it. If they want to waste water, that's their business.b. Say something like, "You forgot to turn the tap off".c. Gently lean over and turn the tap off.d. Tell him/her it's wrong to waste water and give them some reasons why.

2. You are passing by an empty (class)room/office and notice that all the fans and lights have been left on. Do you:

a. Keep walking by and forget about it.b. Tell somebody later "You know I saw all the lights and fans left on in one of the (class)rooms/offices.

Those students/people in are so wasteful!c. Go in and turn them off.d. Go in, turn off the lights and fans and write on the board something like, "Please turn off the lights

and fans when you leave this room. You are wasting electricity!"

3. You are walking with a friend and he/she casually throws a chocolate wrapper on the ground. Do you:a. Throw you wrapper on the ground as well.b. Pretend not to notice.c. Pick it up and give it to them saying something like, "You dropped this".d. Tell them off and give them a talk about how wrong it is to throw garbage around.

4. You see a documentary showing the cruel and unhygienic conditions in factory meat/chicken farms. Do you:

a. Rush to the nearest McDonalds.b. Think "How terrible and sad" and carry on eating meat.c. Make enquiries to make sure that the meat/chicken you eat has been humanely raised and killed.d. Become a vegetarian and tell your friends why.

5. You see someone on the street abusing an animal. Do you:a. Look the other way.b. Go up to them and ask them what they are doing and why.c. Go and look for a policeman.d. Go up to them and physically restrain them from committing any further abuse.

6. You hear that many cosmetics and toiletries are tested on animals causing them extreme pain and suffering. Do you:

a. Think, "Oh well, their only animals and I can't make any difference".b. Find out if your preferred brands test on animals but then if they do keep on using them because they

are the ones you like.c. Find out if your preferred brands test on animals and if they do change to brands that do not test on

animals.d. Find out all the brands that test on animals and those that do not, make a list of them and tell your

friends what you found out.

7. When you go shopping do you:a. Expect all your purchases to be loosely packed in many plastic bags so they are easy to carry and then

throw the plastic bags away when you get home.

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b. Take your purchases home in plastic bags but reuse the plastic bags for future shopping and for other things.

c. Take your own cloth shopping bag with you and tell the shops you don't need plastic bags because you have your own.

d. Always use your own shopping bags and write letters to shops and local politicians asking that plastic bags be banned because they are causing so much environmental damage.

8. You notice that your friends often take more food than they can eat and just dump it out afterwards. Do you:

a. Also often take too much food and do the same since everybody else does.b. Sometimes take too much food but feel guilty when you dump itc. Only take as much food as you can eat and hope your friends will learn from your example.d. Tell your friends that it is wasteful to dump food and that they should think of all the people who do

not have enough to eat.

9. Your parents go everywhere by car even if it is only for a short distance and are also talking about getting a new, bigger car. Do you:

a. Agree with their decisions and suggest that they buy a second car as well.b. Agree with their decision but suggest they buy a smaller car or hybrid car that does not use much

petrol.c. Tell them that you would rather walk, bicycle or take public transportation and invite them to join

you.d. Go around to your neighbours and get them to sign up for a car-pooling scheme.

10. You discover that one of your favourite musicians or movie stars actively supports an environmental or animal rights NGO group. Do you:

a. Think, "So what?"b. Think, "That's great! Good for them!"c. Write them a fan letter telling them how much you admire them.d. Find out more about the NGO, join the group and tell all your friends about what they are trying to do

and that your favourite musician/movie star is a supporter.

11. We all know that paper is made from trees. When you use paper, do you:a. Just use and throw away as much paper as you want since paper is cheap.b. Try to save paper, but continue to use and throw away a lot of it.c. Always write on both sides of the paper and save your scrap paper for taking notes.d. Same as c. but you only buy recycled paper or paper made from alternative sources, (e.g. sugar cane),

and encourage your family to do the same.

12. Large hotels and tourist resorts have a huge environmental impact and usually ignore the needs of local people. They require unlimited water and energy for bathrooms, swimming pools, golf courses, A/C, lighting and TV, and create large amounts of sewage along with food and paper waste. When you and your family travel, do you:

a. Stay at these fancy places since if you can pay for it you deserve all the luxuries you can get, no matter what the environmental and social costs.

b. Stay at these fancy places, because they are comfortable, but try to save energy and water, and to create as little waste as you can while there.

c. Stay at small, locally owned hotels and guesthouses without A/C and eat at local restaurants.d. Stay at simple eco-lodges or camp in natural places and get around by walking or bicycling trying to talk

and learn from the local people whenever you can.5

13. Your favourite piece of clothing has become a little old and now has a small hole in it. Do you:a. Throw it away and buy a new one from a popular brand shop.b. Get a new one but reuse the old one by making it into a rag.c. Get a new one and give the old one to somebody who needs it after stitching the hole.d. Stitch the hole putting some new design on it and keep wearing it.

14. You need to buy soap and washing powder for your school trip. How do you decide which one to buy?a. Buy the ones that you see on television that have a nice smell and colour.b. Buy a soap that looks natural so that it is softer for your skin but still buy a well-known washing

powder.c. Read the label and buy a natural soap made without chemicals. Try to get a washing powder that does

not contain phosphate so it doesn't pollute the water so much.d. Read the label and buy a soap that is both chemical-free and animal test-free. Get a washing powder

that is only made of pure soap so that it doesn't pollute the surroundings at all.

15. What is most important to you when you buy something?a. Cost b. Quality c. Effect on the environment. d. Effect on the environment and the working conditions of makers/growers.

Now, take YOUR 'Eco-Temperature'Add up your score giving yourself the following points according to how you answered each question:

a. 1 pointb. 0 pointsc. 1 pointd. 2 points

Total Score: 0 points > 2 points: COLD. What comes around goes around. Your cold and uncaring attitude will get us

all in hot water!

3 points > 4 points: MILD. Staying silent when you see some harmful action is the same as agreeing with it. And just thinking about something but not doing anything doesn't help anyone. Go on . . . Push yourself!!

5 points > 10 points: WARMING UP. But unless awareness is put into action, nothing will change! You're on your way!!

11 points > 20 points: PRETTY HOT! You already know that change starts with the individual and are willing to 'walk your talk'. Next step is to spread the word and get others on board!

20 points > 30 points: TOTALLY HOT! You are way ahead of the pack and are not afraid to be different and voice your opinion. You are the change we are all waiting for! Lead on, Eco- Warrior!

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Knowledge and Understanding

Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments

Application and Skills Justify, using examples and evidence, how historical influences have shaped the development of the modern environmental movement

PAIRS ACTIVITY – Environmental movement timeline1. Complete the information boxes on the following pages, adding the date and details for each

major event. Use the internet and textbook to help you.

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Define an ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEM (EVS) in the space below using your OWN WORDS.

An EVS may be considered a system in the sense that it may be influenced by education, experience, culture and media (inputs) and it involves a set of interrelated premises, values and arguments that can generate consistent decisions and evaluations (outputs)

Complete the diagram below to show how an EVS may be considered a system.

An ecocentric worldview integrates social, spiritual and environmental dimensions into a holistic ideal. It puts ecology and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies. An ecocentric viewpoint prioritizes biorights, emphasizes the importance of education and encourages self-restraint in human behavior.

An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the global system. This might be through the use of taxes, environmental regulation and legalization. Debate would be encouraged to reach a consensual, pragmatic approach to solving environmental problems.

A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems. This is a consequence of a largely optimistic view that humans can play in improving a lot of humanity. Scientific research is encouraged to inform policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated or changed to solve resource depletion. A pro-growth agenda is deemed necessary for society’s improvement.

There are extremes at other ends of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists-ecoentric to cornucopian-technocentric) but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly into any classification

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Inputs Processes Outputs

An EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contexts

Group Activity• Discuss to what extent you agree or disagree with the following statements• How would you define your environmental perspective?

Strongly agree

agree Don’t know

disagree Strongly disagree

Humans are a part of nature

Humans are to blame for all the world’s environmental problems.

We depend on the environment for our resources (water, food, fuel)

Nomadic and Indigenous people live in balance with their environment.

Traditional farming methods do not damage the environment.

Nature will make good any damage that humans do to the Earth.

Humans have every right to use all the resources on planet Earth.

Technology will solve our energy crisis.

We have passed the tipping point on climate change & we can’t stop it.

Animals and plants have as much right to live on Earth as humans.

Species have always become extinct on Earth, so it does not matter that humans are causing extinction.

Looking at a beautiful view is not as important as economic progress.

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There are extremes at other ends of this spectrum (for example, deep ecologists-ecoentric to cornucopian-technocentric) but in practice, EVSs vary greatly depending on cultures and time periods, and they rarely fit simply or perfectly into any classification

INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY:Consider each of the statements below. Which of the four viewpoints (deep ecologist, soft technologist, environmental manager and cornucopian) do you think each represents:

a) “The exponential increase in man’s technological inventiveness is even out-stripping his population growth. We need not fear”

b) “Animals and plants have rights too!”

c) “In the real world of work and business, there will always be winners and losers, and to be a winner, you have to be ruthless with people and your surroundings”

d) “If we were to return to living off the land on small-holdings, the world would be a better place”

e) “The future of our species is dependent upon us really involving people in decision making and working in small communities to improve our quality of life”

f) “More money and more wealth are a fundamental human desire, which can not be denied.”

g) “Environmental pressure groups have for some years been promoting various apocalyptic visions of doom. When one doesn’t come to pass, they come up with a new one. We are best off ignoring them and getting on with our daily lives”

h) “Nature knows best. This has always been true. It’s just that our species seems to have forgotten this basic point”

i) “What are we, if not our environment?”

j) “Think globally, act locally!”

k) “Campaigning to save cute furry animals is a luxury that can be followed only be those who haven’t got to worry about where their next meal is coming from”

l) “It is the quality of life rather than the quantity or indeed the standard of living which we must protect”

m) “Planet Earth currently has a nasty illness, caused by the rapid spread, just about all over her body, of a nasty little parasite called Homo sapiens”

n) “If you look at the good environmental protection measures that our government has put into place in the last five years and the improvements made in the monitoring of the environment, you can see real progress”

o) “The environmental problems of the past can be solved and in many cases have been solved. Just look at the way the local river has been cleaned up”

p) “Continued economic growth is a necessity for all countries and it need not be at the expense of the environment. Good environmental protection measures are not at odds with a booming economy”

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q) “Do you really think that owning another T.V. will make you happier? It is about time that we reassessed what makes us happy as humans. A sense of belonging in a real community, a sense of self-worth and hence a recognition of the worth of all others, are more important to us as individuals than wealth and yet more consumer goods”

r) “Necessity is the mother of invention. The human race has always found a way to overcome obstacles in the past and there is no reason to believe it won’t continue to do so in the future”

s) “Strong control of the economy by central government will ensure economic growth and, at the same time, proper enforcement of planning laws will protect our environment”

t) “Wait until the boffins finally crack cold fusion. The world will never be the same again!”

Evaluate the implications of two contrasting EVSs in the context of a given environmental issue

Value System Description (views on the environment) Example Similarities Differences

Capitalism

Communism

Value System Description (views on the environment) Similarities Differences

Native Americans

European pioneers

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Value System Description (views on the environment) Similarities Differences

Judeo-christianity

Buddhism

REVIEW ACTIVITYComplete the table below to show the main points of the three different environmental philosophies

Environmental Value System Ecocentric Anthropocentric Technocentric

Environmental Management

Strategies

Environmental Philosophies

Labels andcharacteristics

Social movements and Politics

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My Environmental Value System Write a paragraph on your own personal views on environmental systems. Reflect upon where you stand on the continuum of environmental philosophies with regard to specific issues arising throughout the syllabus.

population control resource exploitation sustainable development any other ideas you feel important

Review this paragraph periodically to see if your values have changed.

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TOPIC 1.2 –SYSTEMS AND MODELS Name:

Significant ideas: A systems approach can help in the study of complex environmental issues

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The use of systems and models simplifies interactions but may provide a more holistic view without reducing issues to single processes

Objective StatementCovered the notes

Revised in class

I’m confident

Knowledge and

Understanding

A systems approach is a way of visualizing a complex set of interactions which may be ecological or socialThese interactions produce the emergent properties of a systemThe concept of a system can be applied at a range of scalesA system is compromised of storages and flowsThe flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matterThe flows are processes that may either be transfers (a change in location) or transformations (a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in energy)

In system diagrams, storages are usually represented as rectangular boxes and flows as arrows, with the direction of each arrow indicating the direction of each flow. An open system exchanges both energy and matter across its boundary while a closed system exchanges only energy across its boundaryAn isolated system is a hypothetical concept in which neither energy nor matter is exchanged across the boundaryEcosystems are open systems, closed systems only exist experimentally, although the global geochemical cycles approximate to closed systemsA model is a simplified version of reality and can be used to understand how a system works and predict how it will respond to changeA model inevitably involves some approximation and therefore loss of accuracy

Applications and Skills

Construct a system diagram or model from a given set of informationEvaluate the use of models as a tool in a given situation, for example, climate change predictions

A system is compromised of storages and flowsThe flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter

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Define a system in the space below:

Draw a diagram in the space below to show how a tree can be considered as a system

A systems approach is a way of visualizing a complex set of interactions which may be ecological or social

Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0h5CS-w778 and summarise the Gaia hypothesis in your own words.

These interactions produce the emergent properties of a systemThe concept of a system can be applied at a range of scales

Complete the table below using THREE examples of systems

Example of a system Behaviour of parts taken separately

Behaviour of parts as a whole system

Bicycle Wheel spin in circlesPedals move up and down

Bicycle moves forward

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The flows are processes that may either be transfers (a change in location) or transformations (a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in energy)

Differentiate between transfer and transformation

__________________ = when a flow of energy or matter does not involve a change of form or state. There is normally a change of location.

__________________ = when a flow of energy or matter involves a change of state

Look at the processes below. Copy each one into the correct column of the following table, depending on whether they are a transfer or a transformation.

Transfers Transformations

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The movement of material through living organisms (carnivores eating other animals)

The movement of material in a non-living process (water being carried by a stream)

The movement of energy (ocean currents transferring heat)

Matter to matter (soluble glucose converted to insoluble starch in plants)

Energy to energy (Light converted to heat by radiating surfaces)

Matter to energy (burning fossil fuels)

Energy to matter (photosynthesis)

In system diagrams, storages are usually represented as rectangular boxes and flows as arrows, with the direction of each arrow indicating the direction of each flow.

Complete the sentences below and annotate the diagrams to show the storages and flows

Both energy and matter _____________ (inputs and outputs) through ecosystems but are also _____________ (stock) within the ecosystem

Energy _____________ from one compartment to another but when one organism eats another the energy is in the form of _____________ chemical energy: flesh

_____________ flows through a system in the form of ___________________ bonds within _____________ compounds

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_____________ cycles around the system as _____________

An open system exchanges both energy and matter across its boundary while a closed system exchanges only energy across its boundaryAn isolated system is a hypothetical concept in which neither energy nor matter is exchanged across the boundaryEcosystems are open systems, closed systems only exist experimentally, although the global geochemical cycles approximate to closed systems

Annotate the diagrams below to differentiate between the three different types of system

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A model is a simplified version of reality and can be used to understand how a system works and predict how it will respond to change

A model inevitably involves some approximation and therefore loss of accuracy

Define a model

List some examples of models

Evaluate the use of models as a tool in a given situation, for example, climate change predictions Copy the statements into a table that compares the advantages and disadvantages of modelling.

allow scientists to predict/simplify complex systems

different models can show different effects with the same data

rely on the expertise of the people making them

inputs can be changed and outputs examined without having to wait for real events

any model is only as good as the data that goes into it – and it’s not always reliable

different people may interpret them in different ways

results can be shared with scientists and public

vested interests may hijack the information and use it to a political advantage

Advantages Disadvantages

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Evaluating the Use of Models as ToolsBelow are 4 different climate model simulations. You should be able to discuss the strengths and weakness of each of these models. Which model do you believe is the best for understanding climate change? Justify your reasoning!

Concord Consortium Climate Modelhttp://concord.org/stem-resources/what-future-earths-climate

Window's to the Universe Climate Modelhttp://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/cli_model.html

Koshland Science Museum Climate Modelhttps://www.koshland-science-museum.org/explore-the-science/earth-lab/modeling

UCAR Climate Modelhttp://scied.ucar.edu/simple-climate-model

I believe ________________________________ is the best model to use to understand climate change

because _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Construct a system diagram or model from a given set of information

Draw a systems diagram showing the inputs, outputs and storages for a leaf.

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TOPIC 1.3 –ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIUM Name:

Significant ideas: The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy in a system and the ability to do work Systems can exist in alternative stable states or as equilibria between which there are tipping

points Destabilizing positive feedback mechanisms will drive systems towards these tipping points,

whereas stabilizing negative feedback mechanisms will resist such changes

Objective StatementCovered

the notes

Revised in class

I’m confident

Knowledge and

Understanding

The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of the conservation of energy, which states that energy in an isolated system can be transformed but not created nor destroyedThe principle of conservation of energy can be modeled by the energy transformations along food chains and energy production systemsThe second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work. The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain and energy generation systemsAs an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium or in one developing over time (for example, succession) and maintained by stabilizing feedback loops.Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the output of the process inhibits or reverses the operation of the same process in such a way as to reduce change – it counteracts deviationPositive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system toward a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adoptedThe resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping

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points and maintain stabilityDiversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect their speed of response to change (time lags)Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversityThe delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to the complexity of modeling systems

Applications and Skills

Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systemsDiscuss the resilience in a variety of systemsEvaluate the possible consequences of tipping points

The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of the conservation of energy, which states that energy in an isolated system can be transformed but not created nor destroyedThe principle of conservation of energy can be modeled by the energy transformations along food chains and energy production systems

Define and explain the first law of thermodynamics by referring to the diagrams below:

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The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work. The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain and energy generation systems

Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gS_C7dM25pc

Complete the sentences below and annotate the diagram to illustrate the Second Law of Thermodynamics:

The ________________ of an isolated system not in ________________ will tend to ________________ over time

Energy conversions are never ________________ and the ________________ conversions in a system, the ________________ the total ________________.

Can be thought of as _____________________________________________________________________

Or the ________________ out of ________________!

Define entropy:

Describe the relationship between entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics:

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Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems

Why do food chain usually only have four or five links?

As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium or in one developing over time (for example, succession) and maintained by stabilizing feedback loops.

Annotate the graphs below to show the four different type of equilibria

Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the output of the process inhibits or reverses the operation of the same process in such a way as to reduce change – it counteracts deviationPositive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system toward a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted

Here are a number of examples of how both positive and negative feedback mechanisms might operate in the physical environment. No one can be sure which of these effects is likely to be most influential, and consequently we cannot know whether or not the Earth will manage to regulate its temperature, despite human interference with many natural processes. 1. Label each example as either positive or negative feedback.

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If Then Positive or Negative?

As carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rise the temperature of the Earth rises.

As the Earth warms the rate of photosynthesis in plants increases, more carbon dioxide is therefore removed from the atmosphere by plants, reducing the greenhouse effect and reducing global temperatures.

As the Earth warms: Ice cover melts, exposing soil or water. Albedo decreases (albedo is fraction of light that is reflected by a body or surface). More energy is absorbed by Earth’s surface. Global Temperature rises. More ice melts.

As the Earth warms, upper layers of permafrost melt, producing waterlogged soil above frozen ground.

Methane gas is released in an anoxic environment. The greenhouse effect is enhanced. Earth warms, melting more permafrost.

As Earth warms, increased evaporation produces more clouds.

Clouds increase albedo, reflecting more light away from Earth. Temperature falls. Rates of evaporation fall.

As Earth warms, organic matter in soil is decomposed faster:

More carbon dioxide is released. Enhanced greenhouse effect occurs. Earth warms further. Rates of decomposition increase.

As Earth warms, evaporation increases: Snowfall at high latitudes increases.

Icecaps enlarge. More energy is reflected by increased albedo of ice cover. Earth cools. Rates of evaporation fall.

As Earth warms, polar icecaps melt releasing large numbers of icebergs into oceans.

Warm ocean currents such as Gulf Stream are disrupted by additional freshwater input into ocean. Reduced transfer of energy to poles reduces temperature at high latitudes. Ice sheets reform and icebergs retreat. Warm currents are re-established.

Negative feedback can be defined as feedback that counteracts any change away from equilibrium, contributing to stability. Negative feedback is a method of control that regulates itself. An ecosystem, for example, normally exists in a stable equilibrium, either a steady-state equilibrium or one developing over time (e.g. succession) because it is maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops. Negative feedback mechanisms are stabilizing forces within ecosystems as they can counteract deviation

Draw and example of a negative feedback loop into the space below:

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Positive feedback occurs when a change in the state of a system leads to additional and increased change. Thus, an increase in the size of one or more of the system’s outputs feeds back into the system and results in self-sustained change that alters the state of a system away from its original equilibrium towards instability

Draw and example of a positive feedback loop into the space below:

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Predator-prey interactions and negative feedback

The Hudson Bay Trading Company in Northern Canada kept very careful records of pelts (skins) brought in and sold by hunters over almost a century. This is a classic set of data and shows this relationship because the hare is the only prey of the lynx and the lynx its only predator. Usually things are more complicated. We have to assume that the numbers of animals trapped were small compared to the total populations and that the numbers trapped were roughly

proportional to total population numbers. Also assumed is the prey always has enough food so it does not starve. Given that, the cycles are remarkably constant with the lynx populations always smaller than and lagging behind the hare ones.1. On average, what was the cycle length of the lynx population?

2. On average, what was the cycle length of the hare population?

3. Why do lynx numbers lag behind hare numbers?

4. Why are lynx numbers smaller than hare numbers?

5. Things are never as straightforward in ecology as we expect though. In regions where lynx died out, hare populations still continued to fluctuate. Why do you think this was?

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Name:

The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain stabilityDiversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect their speed of response to change (time lags)Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversityThe delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to the complexity of modeling systemsDiscuss the resilience in a variety of systems

Complete the reading on tipping points and resilienceThe resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid tipping points, and maintain stability through steady-state equilibrium. Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect the speed of response to change. Large storages, or high diversity, will mean that a system is less likely to reach a tipping point and move to a new equilibrium.

Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversity. Tropical rainforests, for example, have high diversity (i.e. a large number and proportions of species present) but catastrophic disturbance through logging (i.e. rapid removal of tree biomass storages) or fires can lower its resilience and can mean it takes a long time to recover. Natural grasslands, in contrast, have low diversity but are very resilient, because a lot of nutrients are stored below ground in root systems, so after fire they can recover quickly

Complex ecosystems such as rainforests have complex food webs which allow animals and plants many ways to respond to disturbance of the ecosystem and thus maintain stability. They also contain long-lived species and dormant seeds and seedlings that promote steady-state equilibrium. Rainforests have thin, low-nutrient soils, however, and although storage of biomass in trees is high, nutrient storage in soils is low. Nutrients are locked-up in decomposing plant matter on the surface and in rapidly growing plants within the forest, so when the forest is disturbed, nutrients are quickly lost (e.g. leaf layer and topsoil can be washed away). Ecosystems with higher resilience have nutrient-rich soils which can promote new growth.

A tipping point is a critical threshold when even a small change can have dramatic effects and cause a disproportionately large response in the overall system. Positive feedback loops are destabilizing and tend to amplify changes and drive the system towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted Most projected tipping points are linked to climate change, and represent points beyond which irreversible change or damage occurs. Increases in CO2 levels above a certain value (450 ppm) would lead to increased global mean temperature, causing melting of the ice sheets and permafrost. Reaching such a tipping would, for example, cause long-term damage to societies, the melting of Himalayan mountain glaciers, and a lack of freshwater in many Asian societies.

If external conditions in the environment, such as nutrient input or temperature, change gradually, then ecosystem state may respond gradually, in which case there are no tipping points involved (shown in graph a). In other cases, there may be little response below a certain threshold, but fast changes in the system can occur once the threshold is reached even though a small change in

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environmental conditions has occurred – in such cases, a tipping point has been reached (shown in graph b).

The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid tipping points, and maintain stability through steady-state equilibrium. Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect the speed of response to change. Large storages, or high diversity, will mean that a system is less likely to reach a tipping point and move to a new equilibrium.

Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversity. Tropical rainforests, for example, have high diversity (i.e. a large number and proportions of species present) but catastrophic disturbance through logging (i.e. rapid removal of tree biomass storages) or fires can lower its resilience and can mean it takes a long time to recover. Natural grasslands, in contrast, have low diversity but are very resilient, because a lot of nutrients are stored below ground in root systems, so after fi re they can recover quickly (case study

Models are used to predict tipping points and, as you have already seen, such models have strengths and limitations. The delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to the difficulty of modelling systems. Other problems with predicting tipping points include:

There is no globally-accepted definition of what is meant by the term tipping point i.e. how different do two system states need to be to say that a tipping point has been reached?

Not all properties of a system will change abruptly at one time, and so it may be difficult to say when a tipping point has been reached.

The exact size of the impacts resulting from tipping points have not been fully identified for all systems.

It may be dicult to determine the causes of a tipping point – whether it has been reached because of the inherent nature of the system or external factors such as human activity, for example.

It is difficult to determine the conditions under which ecosystems experience tipping points, because of their complexity.

Not all systems that could be affected by tipping points have been examined or possibly even identified.

No one may know the exact tipping point until long after it has happened.

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The costs of tipping points, both from environmental and economic perspectives, could be severe, so accurate predictions are critical. Models that predict tipping points are, therefore, essential and have alerted scientists to potential large events. Continued monitoring, research, and modelling is required to improve predictions.

Evaluate the possible consequences of tipping points

Go to http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/education/feedback-diagrams-for-teachers/index.html

1. Scroll down and read the background2. Select one of the links for teaching materials for the most instructive cases listed3. Click on ‘View full Story’ and read the article4. Use the information in the article to complete the graphic organizer below to help you

organize the main ideas in the article (use bullet points – no more than 3-4 per box)

Who was involved?

What happened?

When did it happen?

Where did it happen?

Why did it happen?

How did it happen?

How was the problem solved?

What does the future hold?

5. Download the teaching materials for that case

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6. Summarise the negative and positive tipping points for your case into the table below:

Negative Tipping Points Summative tipping points

7. Copy, paste and complete the feedback loop diagram to show how the ‘vicious’ circle was transformed into a ‘virtuous’ circle for your case study

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TOPIC 1.4 –SUSTAINABILITY Name:

Significant ideas: All systems can be viewed through the lens of sustainability Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs Environmental indicators and ecological footprints can be used to assess sustainability Environmental Impacts Assessments (EIAs) play an important role in sustainable development

Objective StatementCovered

the notes

Revised in class

I’m confident

Knowledge and

Understanding

Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and useNatural capital is a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income of goods or servicesNatural income is the yield obtained from natural resourcesEcosystems may provide life-supporting services such as water replenishment, flood and erosion protection, and goods such as timber, fisheries and agricultural crops Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used quantitatively as environmental indicators of sustainability. These factors can be applied on a range of scales from global to local, The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment gave a scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the world’s ecosystems and the services they provide using environmental indicators, as well as the scientific basis for action to conserve and use them sustainably.Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental , social and economic impacts of a project, predicting and evaluating possible impacts and suggesting mitigation strategies for the project. They are usually followed by an audit and continued

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monitoring. Each country or region has different guidance on the use of EIAs.

EIAs provide decision makers with information in order to consider the environmental impact of a project. There is not necessarily a requirement to implement an EIA’s proposals and many socio-economic factors may influence the decisions made.Criticisms of EIAs include the lack of standard practice or training for practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the lack of inclusion of indirect impactsAn ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given population. Where the EF is greater than the area available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.

Applications and Skills

Explain the relationship between natural capital, natural income and sustainabilityDiscuss the value of ecosystem services to a societyDiscuss how environmental indicators can be used to evaluate the progress of a project to increase sustainability e.g. Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentEvaluate the use of EIAsExplain the relationship between ecological footprint (EF) and sustainability

Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use

Define sustainability:

Draw a Venn diagram for sustainability in the space below:

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Define sustainable development

Living sustainably – individual activity

1. Make a list of 5 things you do that have a negative impact on the environment in the table below.

2. For each thing you do, write down what the impact on the environment is and what you could do to reduce the impact on the environment (make it more sustainable).

For example:• I throw out all of my rubbish instead of recycling.• The negative impact on the environment is that a lot of landfill is created. To reduce this

impact I could start to recycle.

Extension: Think about how easy or difficult it would be to make each of the 5 actions you discussed above more sustainable. Give each a difficulty rating out of 10 and give a reason why. For example:

I would give recycling more a difficulty rating of 4/10. It is not difficult to sort out therecycling but it would take extra time and effort.

Activity Impact Reduce impact by.. Difficulty /10

Natural capital is a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable natural income

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of goods or servicesNatural income is the yield obtained from natural resources

Ecosystems may provide life-supporting services such as water replenishment, flood and erosion protection, and goods such as timber, fisheries and agricultural crops

Discuss the value of ecosystem services to a society41

Natural capital

Natural income

Natural capital – pricing the priceless - individual activity

1. Summarize the article here into four key points2. Think of two questions you would like to ask the author

Key points

Questions

Discuss the value of ecosystem services to a society

System Environmental value Economic value

Your school

Your home

Manitoba

A local park or protected area

The Amazon rainforest

The Sahara Desert

Lake Superior

San Francisco

Tundra in Siberia

Antarctica

Great Barrier Reef

Shanghai

Questions

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1. What criteria did you use to judge the environmental value of the system?

2. What criteria did you use to judge the economic value of the system?

3. What are the difficulties of assessing different types of environments and what characteristics need to be taken into account?

4. Do you think that environments can have their own intrinsic value?

Factors such as biodiversity, pollution, population or climate may be used quantitatively as environmental indicators of sustainability. These factors can be applied on a range of scales from global to local. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment gave a scientific appraisal of the condition and trends in the world’s ecosystems and the services they provide using environmental indicators, as well as the scientific basis for action to conserve and use them sustainably.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) is a United Nations project designed to assess the consequences of ecosystem changes for human well-being. The objective of the multiyear exercise was to both assess the consequences of ecosystem changes for human well-being, and to establish a scientific basis for action to conserve the sustainable use of ecosystems and their contribution to human well-being.Five Main Assessments:

• Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber and fuel. This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth.

• The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed to substantial net gains in human well-being and economic development, but these gains have been achieved at growing costs in the form of the degradation of many ecosystem services, increased risks of nonlinear changes, and the exacerbation of poverty for some groups of people.

• These problems, unless addressed, will substantially diminish the benefits that future generations obtain from ecosystems.

• The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly worse during the first half of this century and is a barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

• The challenge of reversing the degradation of ecosystem while meeting increasing demands for services can be partially met under some scenarios considered by the MA, but will involve significant changes in policies, institutions and practices that are not currently under way. Many options exist to conserve or enhance specific ecosystem services in ways that reduce negative trade-offs or that provide positive synergies with other ecosystem services.

Discuss how environmental indicators can be used to evaluate the progress of a project to increase

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sustainability e.g. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

1. Have a look at some of the key facts reported from the MEA.2. Imagine you were the Minister for Environment and Urban Planning in Manitoba3. What changes could you make on a national level to help Manitoba achieve its vision whilst

taking the findings of the MEA into account? Note: our 5 priorities are:

a) Good for our Economy – Good for our Environment b) Changing our Ways for a Changing Climate c) Safeguarding our Water, Air and Land d) Nurturing our Living World e) Simple PERSONAL Choices – Big Result

4. List five changes you decide upon as a group into the table below

• 60% of the world’s ecosystems have been degraded• About 25% of the Earth’s land surface has been cultivated• We use 40-50% of all available surface freshwater and water withdrawals from underground

sources have doubled over the past 40 years• Over 25% of the fish stocks are overharvested• Since 1980, about 35% of the mangroves have been destroyed• About 20% of the corals have been lost in 20 years and another 20% degraded• Nutrient pollution has led to eutrophication of the waters and dead coastal zones• Species extinction rates are now 100-1000 times above the background rate• We have had more effect on the ecosystems of the Earth in the last 50 years than ever before

Changes

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) incorporate baseline studies before a development project is undertaken. They assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project, predicting and evaluating possible impacts and suggesting mitigation strategies for the project. They are usually followed by an audit and continued monitoring. Each country or region has different guidance on the use of EIAs.

EIAs provide decision makers with information in order to consider the environmental impact of a 45

Environmental Impact

Assessment

project. There is not necessarily a requirement to implement an EIA’s proposals and many socio-economic factors may influence the decisions made.

Environmental Impact Assessment – group task

Stage Description of stage Example from Jalisco Dam Project case study

ScreeningScopingBaseline studyMeasuring impactEvaluation of impactMitigation stage

Criticisms of EIAs include the lack of standard practice or training for practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the lack of inclusion of indirect impacts

EIAs are a model of the system under study and allow us to predict the effects of the proposed change. A model is only as good as its parameters and asking the right questions are crucial. A change of land use will always have an effect but whether this is a net positive or negative one depends on the criteria used to measure it.

Simplistically, if a factory blocks your view of the mountains that may be a loss to you but it may bring employment to the area, produce goods that would otherwise be imported and reduce the country’s ecological footprint.

Cost-benefit analysis measures impacts of a development or change of land use translated into monetary values. In theory, this puts all costs into the same units of measure, money, so they can be assessed. Of course, how the assessment is made is critical to the values assigned and there are several ways to do this. For example, it may be based on the cost of restoring the environment to it’s previous state (e.g. after an open cast mine operation) or ask people of which several options they would select or be prepared to pay for.

Strategic environmental assessment tries to measure the social and environmental costs of a development but this can be subjective or a not very accurate prediction.

Does the outcome of an EIA also depend on the environmental worldview of those planning the assessment? Discuss your answer in the space below.

Evaluate the use of EIAs

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Imagine a development or change of land use in an area around MMC

1. Decide within your group what this change or development could be and record it in the space below

2. What factors do you think will change the most (e.g. number of jobs provided, net profit, land degradation, habitat loss, pollution)?

3. How would you value these? Is there another way of measuring them apart from financial?

4. How would you weight up the evidence to make a decision on whether the project should proceed or proceed in a modified state?

An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given population. Where the EF is greater than the area available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.

Complete the paragraph below using the terms in the word bank:

The ………………. ……………….of a population is the area of land required to provide all the population’s

resources and assimilate all its wastes.

It is a model that can provide a ……………….estimate of human ………………. ………………..

– However, it refers to the area required to ……………….support a ……………….population

rather than the population of that given area.

They can be calculated for individuals, ……………….and countries.

Word bank

carrying capacity communities quantitative Ecological Footprintgiven sustainably

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Explain the relationship between ecological footprint (EF) and sustainability

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What is your calculated ecological footprint?

List five changes in the table below that could help make your life more sustainable

What I’m doing now How could I change to lead a more sustainable lifestyle?

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