EuthanasiaEuthanasia

bioethicsbioethics

in philosophy, a branch of ethics in philosophy, a branch of ethics concerned with issues surrounding concerned with issues surrounding health care and the biological health care and the biological sciencessciences..

IncludeInclude: : AbortionAbortion

euthanasiaeuthanasia

in vitro fertilizationin vitro fertilization

organ transplantsorgan transplants

genetic engineering(gene therapy)genetic engineering(gene therapy)

historical backgroundhistorical background

--from the Greek from the Greek eueu = good + = good + thanatosthanatos = death = death

--the ancient Greeks and Romans the ancient Greeks and Romans did not believe that life did not believe that life needed to be preserved at any needed to be preserved at any costcost..

--in the case of the Stoics and in the case of the Stoics and EpicureansEpicureans where a person no where a person no longer cared for his lifelonger cared for his life. .

The legalityThe legality

--It It has been, for the most part, a has been, for the most part, a phenomenon of the second half of the phenomenon of the second half of the twentieth century and the beginning of twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty first centurythe twenty first century

--In the 1990s, the first legislative In the 1990s, the first legislative approval for voluntary euthanasia was approval for voluntary euthanasia was achieved with the passage of a bill in achieved with the passage of a bill in the parliament of Australia's Northern the parliament of Australia's Northern Territory to enable physicians to Territory to enable physicians to practise voluntary euthanasiapractise voluntary euthanasia

In November 2000, The In November 2000, The NetherlandsNetherlands passed legislation to legalize the passed legislation to legalize the practice of voluntary euthanasia. The practice of voluntary euthanasia. The legislation passed through all the legislation passed through all the parliamentary stages early in 2001 parliamentary stages early in 2001 and so became law. The and so became law. The BelgianBelgian parliament passed similar legislation parliament passed similar legislation in May 2002in May 2002..

Classification of euthanasiaClassification of euthanasia

voluntaryvoluntary / in / involuntaryvoluntary

activeactive / / PassivePassive

Reasons given for Reasons given for voluntary euthanasiavoluntary euthanasia

11..ChoiceChoice: Proponents of VE emphasize that : Proponents of VE emphasize that choice is a fundamental principle for choice is a fundamental principle for liberal democracies and free market liberal democracies and free market systemssystems

22..Quality of LifeQuality of Life: The pain and suffering a : The pain and suffering a person feels during a disease, even with person feels during a disease, even with pain relievers, can be incomprehensible to pain relievers, can be incomprehensible to a person who has not gone through it. a person who has not gone through it. Even without considering the physical Even without considering the physical pain, it is often difficult for patients to pain, it is often difficult for patients to overcome the emotional pain of losing overcome the emotional pain of losing their independencetheir independence..

33..Economic costs and human resourcesEconomic costs and human resources: Today in : Today in many countries there is a shortage of hospital many countries there is a shortage of hospital space. The energy of doctors and hospital beds space. The energy of doctors and hospital beds could be used for people whose lives could be could be used for people whose lives could be saved instead of continuing the life of those who saved instead of continuing the life of those who want to die which increases the general quality of want to die which increases the general quality of care and shortens hospital waiting lists. It is a care and shortens hospital waiting lists. It is a burden to keep people alive past the point they burden to keep people alive past the point they can contribute to society, especially if the can contribute to society, especially if the resources used could be spent on a curable resources used could be spent on a curable ailmentailment..

Five Individually Five Individually Necessary Conditions for Necessary Conditions for Candidacy for Voluntary Candidacy for Voluntary

EuthanasiaEuthanasia Advocates of voluntary euthanasia Advocates of voluntary euthanasia contend that if a personcontend that if a person iis suffering from a terminal illnesss suffering from a terminal illness

iis unlikely to benefit from the discovery of a s unlikely to benefit from the discovery of a cure for that illness during what remains cure for that illness during what remains of her life expectancyof her life expectancy iis, as a direct result of the illness, either s, as a direct result of the illness, either suffering intolerable pain, or only has suffering intolerable pain, or only has available a life that is unacceptably available a life that is unacceptably burdensomeburdensome

hhas an enduring, voluntary and competent wish as an enduring, voluntary and competent wish to die (or has, prior to losing the competence to die (or has, prior to losing the competence to do so, expressed a wish to die in the event to do so, expressed a wish to die in the event that conditions (a)-(c) are satisfiedthat conditions (a)-(c) are satisfied))

iis unable without assistance to commit suicides unable without assistance to commit suicide

then there should be legal and medical then there should be legal and medical provision to enable her to be allowed provision to enable her to be allowed to die or assisted to dieto die or assisted to die..

Five Objections to the Five Objections to the Moral Permissibility of Moral Permissibility of Voluntary EuthanasiaVoluntary Euthanasia

Objection 1Objection 1It is often said that it is not It is often said that it is not necessary nowadays for anyone to die necessary nowadays for anyone to die while suffering from intolerable or while suffering from intolerable or overwhelming pain. We are getting overwhelming pain. We are getting better at providing effective better at providing effective palliative care, and hospice care is palliative care, and hospice care is more widely available. Given these more widely available. Given these considerations, some have urged that considerations, some have urged that voluntary euthanasia is unnecessaryvoluntary euthanasia is unnecessary..

There are several flaws in this counter-There are several flaws in this counter-argumentargument: : 11stst neither is a panaceaneither is a panacea 22ndnd small proportion of the terminally ill and small proportion of the terminally ill and then usually only in the very last stages then usually only in the very last stages of the illnessof the illness 33rdrd For those who prefer to die on their own For those who prefer to die on their own terms and in their own time, neither terms and in their own time, neither option may be attractiveoption may be attractive 44thth For some, what is intolerable is their For some, what is intolerable is their dependence on others or on machinery; dependence on others or on machinery; for these patients, the availability of for these patients, the availability of effective pain control will be quite effective pain control will be quite irrelevantirrelevant

Objection 2Objection 2

we can never have sufficient evidence we can never have sufficient evidence to be justified in believing that a to be justified in believing that a dying person's request to be helped dying person's request to be helped to die is to die is competentcompetent, , enduringenduring and and genuinely voluntarygenuinely voluntary

- -cooling off periodcooling off period

Objection 3Objection 3doctrine of double effectdoctrine of double effect

it is permissible to act in ways which it is foreseen will it is permissible to act in ways which it is foreseen will have bad consequences, provided only thathave bad consequences, provided only that 11stst occurs as a side effect (or, indirectly) to the occurs as a side effect (or, indirectly) to the achievement of the act that is directly aimed at thisachievement of the act that is directly aimed at this 22ndnd the act directly aimed at is itself morally good or, at the act directly aimed at is itself morally good or, at least, morally neutralleast, morally neutral 33rdrd the good effect is not achieved by way of the bad, the good effect is not achieved by way of the bad, that is, the bad must not be a means to the goodthat is, the bad must not be a means to the good 44thth the bad consequences must not be so serious as to the bad consequences must not be so serious as to outweigh the good effectoutweigh the good effect

According to the doctrine of double effect, it According to the doctrine of double effect, it is, for example, permissible to alleviate is, for example, permissible to alleviate pain by administering drugs such as pain by administering drugs such as morphine, knowing that doing so will morphine, knowing that doing so will shorten life, but impermissible to give an shorten life, but impermissible to give an overdose or injection with the direct overdose or injection with the direct intention of terminating a patient's life intention of terminating a patient's life (whether at her request or not). This is not (whether at her request or not). This is not the appropriate forum to give full the appropriate forum to give full consideration to this doctrine. However, consideration to this doctrine. However, there is one vital criticism to be made of there is one vital criticism to be made of the doctrine concerning its relevance to the doctrine concerning its relevance to the issue of voluntary euthanasiathe issue of voluntary euthanasia..

Objection 4Objection 4

--The distinction is very unclearThe distinction is very unclear

Difference between active and passive Difference between active and passive voluntary euthanasia is generally a voluntary euthanasia is generally a matter of pragmatics rather than matter of pragmatics rather than anything of deeper importanceanything of deeper importance. .

the distinction between killing and the distinction between killing and letting die is unclearletting die is unclear

Objection 5Objection 5

slippery slopeslippery slope

Whereas it was once the common Whereas it was once the common refrain that that was precisely what refrain that that was precisely what happened in Hitler's Germany, in happened in Hitler's Germany, in recent decades the tendency has recent decades the tendency has been to claim that experience in The been to claim that experience in The Netherlands has confirmed the Netherlands has confirmed the reality of the slippery slopereality of the slippery slope. .

--Robert Young, Voluntary Euthanasia, Robert Young, Voluntary Euthanasia, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , , First published Thu Apr 18, 1996; First published Thu Apr 18, 1996; substantive revision Wed Aug 27, substantive revision Wed Aug 27, 20082008..

--The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth EditionEdition..

--Henry SHenry S. . Richardson. Moral Reasoning, Richardson. Moral Reasoning, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, First published Mon Sep 15, 2003; First published Mon Sep 15, 2003; substantive revision Sat Aug 4, 2007substantive revision Sat Aug 4, 2007. .

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