Ethonobotany of the Incas

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Ethnobotany of the Incas

3 Feb 2012 23:24http://www.springerreference.com/index/chapterdbid/77920

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012


The conquest of America resulted in a considerable enrichment of the number of plants that could be used by Europeans

in medicine and nutrition. Important examples are the potato, maize, beans, cacao, chili pepper, quinine, and so on. All

these plants were widely used by the preColumbian peoples, among which were the Incas. The Incas were only one of

the many highly developed civilizations that developed in the Andes and the Peruvian shore of the Pacific Ocean. Like theAztecs in Mexico, the Incas were a young culture, starting their development in the thirteenth century. When the Spanish

conqueror Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1531, the empire of the Incas was enormous, stretching from what is now Colombia

in the North, to the middle of Chile in the South.

Information about the use of plants in all aspects of daily life by the Incas (i.e., Inca ethnobotany) comes mainly from the

Spanish chroniclers who accompanied or followed the Spanish conquerors. Unfortunately their information is far more

limited than of the chroniclers of the Aztec region. As a consequence we know less about Inca ethnobotany than about

Aztec ethnobotany. The chronicler Cobo gave the most extensive description of Inca plants. Some indigenous

chroniclers, such as Poma de Ayala, gave some original applications of plants by the Incas. A very late work by Losa

contains material that was mostly derived from ancient sources (including Cobo), and thus provides information about the

use of plants that is probably of preColumbian origin. Besides the information written down by the chroniclers, an

increasing quantity of information comes from archeological findings.

Although the amount of information about the use of plants by the Incas is limited, the amount is far too large to cover in ashort paper. Therefore only a restricted number of items of Inca ethnobotany will be dealt with. These items come from

the use of plants in medicine, and in connection with their role in magic and religion. There is excellent additional

information about Inca ethnobotany. These include the works of Yacovleff and Herrera, Towles, Alarco de Zadra, Bastien,

Brack Egg, Valdizan, and Maldonado. Unfortunately some of these works are not easily accessible. A very good website

about the potential economic applications of Inca food plants is .http://www.nap.edu/books/030904264X/html/

Medicinal Plants

The Inca HerbalistPhysician: Hampicamayok

In his description of the Inca physician, Cobo ( : 256) underlines the importance of the knowledge of medicinal plants1964

for this profession.

Their physicians were in general old people and highly experienced They had little knowledge about

the nature of the diseases and about their specific names [They knew] many herbs to cure them. They

had more knowledge about wounds and sores and the particular herbs to cure them. They never used

complex drugs, they cured with simple herbs, and between them there were many great herbalists from

whom we learned the virtues of many plants which we now use in our cures. With these simple drugs they

also used to make fomentations and perfumes, which they applied in fever and other ailments

Other chroniclers such as Garcilaso confirm the importance of knowing plants among the Inca physicians. Though

Garcilaso is sometimes contradictory in his descriptions of the medical abilities of the Incas he praises the .herbalists

There were "great herbalists who were very famous in the days of the Incas. These herbalists learned the virtues of many

herbs and taught them by tradition to their sons; they were regarded as physicians" (Garcilaso : 121).1966

The most for this type of physician was the , literally "official in charge of medicines" (Pomacommon name hampicamayoc

de Ayala ; Gonalez Holguin ; Morua : 113). Calancha states that the (h)anpicamayos, who were called1980 1952 1946

in some coastal regions, were physicians with good (Calancha : 1248).oquetlupuc reputations 1974

Besides Cobo some other chroniclers made statements which give an idea of the knowledge about medicines of the

indigenous herbalists. Without referring directly to the herbalist, Blas Valera stresses the large number of medicinal plants

of the Incas. He says that if they were all known there would be no need to bring herbs from Spain or elsewhere, but that

the Spanish doctors set so little store by them that even those which were known to be used by the Indians have in the


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main been forgotten (Valera : 132). It is not quite clear if the Kallawayas, the traveling herbalists of the Andean1992

regions in Bolivia and Peru, knew the hampicamayok. About these Kallawayas (or Callawayas or Callahuayas) a large

amount of information is available concerning their role in of the last few centuries (Bastien ).folk medicine 1987

Plants Used in Medicine

In contemporary Peruvian folk medicine a very large number of medicinal plants are used, but the chroniclers described

only a relatively small number of them, only a few hundred. That does not mean that the Incas did not use them. It is morean indication that the chroniclers for the Inca region were far less competent than those of the Aztecs. Cobo has

especially described many Inca plants. Among these were a few that were more important in Inca medicine than others.

Maize or ( ) was not only an important diet staple but was also an important medicine, as was the slightlysara Zea mais

called that was prepared from maize (Fig. 1). According to several chroniclers the consumptionalcoholic beverage chicha

of maize and chicha was the reason that they saw very few kidney and bladder complaints among the Incas (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Maize or was an important food plant. According to the chroniclers, the consumption of maize products was the reason forsara

a low incidence of gout among the Incas. This and the other botanical pictures are from .Khlers MedizinalPflanzen


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Fig. 2 Ploughing by special implements as preparation for sowing maize was ceremonially initiated by the Inca ruler and his family,

recognizable by the large earrings.

In the work of most chroniclers only a few plants are mentioned. It seems likely that those few plants mentioned

repeatedly by different authors were of special importance and widely used. If this reasoning is correct then (molle

) was one of the most used medicinal plants ( ). Contreras ySchinus molle http://www.herreros.com.ar/melanco/elferink.htmValverde (Contreras y Valverde : 11, 12) states that the Indians considered the molle as a universal medicine1965

against all their ailments. The differential use of molle is a good example to show that Inca physicians were quite aware

that the eventual medicinal effect was dependent on preparation and means of application. The tree exudates a resin that

was taken as a purgative and against ; the resin in wine was against dropsy (Lizarraga : 81;melancholy 1968 Relaciones

1965: I349; Vazquez de Espinosa : 432). To cure leishmaniasis the resin and the bark of the tree wereGeogrficas 1969

boiled in water until the water remained colored, and from this fluid the Indians took a portion on an empty stomach, and a

second portion in the afternoon (Cobo : 6LXXVIII). The dried and pulverized resin was applied against ulcers.1964

Lizarraga describes the resin as an excellent for diseases of the ; he had tried the resin onremedy respiratory system

himself (Lizarraga : 81). The leaves, cooked and applied in a bath, were used for gout, and the crushed leaves were1968

applied on wounds (Cobo : 6LXXVIII). The liquid made by boiling the leaves in water was a good remedy for1964

eczema (Garcilaso : 504). From the leaves a kind of oil was prepared that was useful for pain in the joints and for1966

ailments of the stomach ( 1965: I349). A decoction of the leaves was applied as a bath for theRelaciones Geogrficastreatment of the swollen legs of dropsy patients, and for gout. A plaster of the fruits was supposed to be effective for

stomach complaints (Cobo : 6LXXVIII). The fruits of the molle were crushed and the juice gave a beverage that was1964

taken for kidney and bladder complaints (Garcilaso : 504). The fruit was also used to prepare a kind of , which1966 chicha

was more intoxicating than the chicha made from maize, and which was highly esteemed by the Indians (Cobo :1964

6LXXVIII). Besides medicinal properties the molle possessed some other qualities. Its wood was preferred as the basis

for charcoal. This was the reason that it lost its importance in colonial times. Before the conquest the tree was very

common, but a few years after the conquest it had decreased dramatically (Garcilaso : 504) because of the need of1966

charcoal for brasiers.

Another plant with widespread application was the ( ). The plant was an important foodplant;quinua Chenopodium quinoa


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it was especially attractive because it grew at high altitude. It was also used in medicine for a number of ailments such as

stomach complaints, inflammations, spasms, swellings, fever, liver complaints and so on (Losa : 71, 72; Calancha1983

: 138; Garcilaso : 500). Another attractive feature was the possibility of preparing a good quality of inebriating1974 1966

chicha.

The ( ) was a strongly hallucinogenic plant (Fig. 3). In low doses the plant was used againstchamico Datura stramonium

fever, insomnia, inflammations, and to abate pain. According to Cobo the chamico was taken to get inebriated. Higher

doses were used in criminal practices, a custom that has persisted till modern times. According to Cobo the chamico was

secretly administered to victims who became intoxicated, and thus could be robbed easily. The chroniclers do not report

about the use of chamico in religion, in contrast with other psychoactive plants.

Fig. 3 or was used in medicine and in malevolent practices.Datura stramonium chamico

Some plants, such as , (tobacco) and potatoes were especially important in social life as food plants or incoca sayri

religion as offerings ( ). However, all of them were also used ashttp://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/jlvoris/thesis.html

medicine. Chewing of coca leaves was practiced to ease , thirst and tiredness, and this habit became especiallyhunger

important after the conquest (Fig. 4). Coca leaves were applied externally to strengthen and to curebroken bones

wounds and ulcers. The decoction was taken against diarrhea and to combat stomach complaints. The dried pulverized

leaves were used for asthma. Coca was added to tobacco and chewed maize in an ointment to treat the bites of

poisonous animals (Lope de Atienza : 75). Two types of tobacco were distinguished: a cultivated and a wild form. It1931

seems likely that these two forms correspond with and , respectively (Wilbert ;Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana rustica 1987

). Both were used in medicine, but mostly it is nothttp://www.hoboes.com/html/Politics/Prohibition/Notes/Shamanism.html

indicated which form was used. The root of the wild form was called , and was especially suited for a number ofcoro

diseases, including syphilis. Tobacco was usually smoked, but the Indians used the tobacco also as snuff (Cobo :1964

4-LVI). Tobacco was used to treat headache and migraine, and to improve . Poma de Ayala states that tobacco, insight

the form of snuff, was used against fever and cold (Poma de Ayala : 769). One of the main applications of tobacco1980

was to treat bites of poisonous animals (Apuntes : 14; Maroni : 157). The medical applications of potatoes were1987 1988

limited. Cooked potatoes were applied against gout. Potatoes were freezedried for conservation, and the resulting

product was called . The chuu was considered an excellent against ulcers, spasms, pain of syphilis, andchuu remedy

verruga (Cobo : 4XIII). The Incas knew many tubers that were very important as food plants. All these plants,1964


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among which are potato, ( ), ( ), ( ) and (oca Oxalis tuberosum maca Lepidium meyenii ulluco Ullucus tuberosum au

), were also applied in medicine. About the economic aspects of these plants an excellent internetTropeaolum tuberosum

source is available ( ).http://www.nap.edu/books/030904264X/html/

Fig. 4 The coca plant played a role in Inca religion and medicine. Its use in preHispanic times, however, was strongly regulated by

the Inca ruler.

Procreation and Plants

A number of plants were used to modulate fertility, or to induce sterility. The use of plants was mostly combined withmagic. Among the plants that were applied to induce fertility were the , the ( ), thecabega vilca Anadenanthera colubrina

( ), and the . Murua (1987: 435) states in a general way that the Indians used manyespinco Medicago hispida mocomoco

plants and potions, not only to procure fertility, but also to induce sterility. In a society where having children was

important, the administration of sterilityinducing plants was a severe crime that was punishable by death (Casas :1939

147; Elferink ). Because those who induced sterility saw few reasons to be communicative, the chroniclers write in1999

general terms about it and give no concrete names of plants. A colonial source reports that the Peruvian Indians

considered the consumption of an infusion of the leaves of the ( ) a means to cause sterility insogue Salix humboldtiana

women (Losa : 110). It is noteworthy that the Incas used the plant for several medicinal purposes, but that for these1983

applications the infusion of the leaves was not taken orally.

Both plants and magic were applied to increase or to decrease (Elferink ). Acosta warned that the excessivelibido 2000

consumption of or (chili pepper, ) by youngsters was undesirable, because of theuchu aj Capsicum annuum aphrodisiac

action of the plant (Fig. 5). This pepper was applied frequently to spice meals. Its use was so common that abstainingfrom consuming aj was considered fasting. Other plants described as an aphrodisiac were the , the , thecuchuchu siaya

and the . The , presently better known as ( ), has been described astocoracas itapallo au mashua Tropaeolum tuberosum

an anaphrodisiac (Cobo : 171; Garcilaso : 501). The Inca ruler gave the roots of the plant (it is an important1964 1966

food plant) to their soldiers as food, so that they forgot their wives. A later source describes the plant as an aphrodisiac

(Losa : 133). From the plant called ( sp.) a male and a female form existed. Cobo describes the1983 penccuc Mimosa

aphrodisiac properties of this plant, and he states that only the roots of the male form of the plants were stimulating; the

roots of the female form had the . A comparable peculiar difference between the male and female form of aopposite effect

plant has been ascribed to the (or ). The male form, ( ), waschutarpo huanarpo huanarpo macho Jatropha macrantha

known to act as an aphrodisiac. The female form, ( ), acted in the reverse way,huanarpo hembra Cnidoscolus peruvianus


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and could be used as an anaphrodisiac to annul the effect of the former (Santa Cruz Pachacuti ). Although the1992

effects of these plants have not been investigated, the description suggests that the plants possessed a magic action

rather than a real one. However, in contemporary the huanarpo macho is still used as an aphrodisiac forfolk medicine

men, while the huanarpu hembra is considered an aphrodisiac for women and a desaphrodisiac for men (Brack Egg 1999

: 145). The ( ) is a plant that has gained a lot of interest in recent times because of its supposedmaca Lepidium meyenii

aphrodisiac and other properties. Because it can stand low temperatures, it was a favorite food plant of high altitudes.

Descriptions about its use as an aphrodisiac in ancient Peru are scarce. Cobo ( : 4XVI) suspects that the relative1964

increase of the population in the province of Chinchacocha was due to the "hot" properties of this plant.

Fig. 5 or chili pepper was an important food plant. It was considered a medicine and also an aphrodisiac.Capsicum annuum

Magic Plants

Plants-Religion-Magic

A few plants played roles in Inca religion because they were used as offerings. Coca and tobacco were most frequently

used (Fig. 6). Much information is available about coca and the Incas. The plant was important, but mainly for the upper

social classes, because common men were not permitted to chew coca except with the ruler's permission. In some

regions the was frequently used as an offering (Arriaga : 211). In many burial mounds of the Chimus (theespingo 1968

Chimu kingdom was conquered by the Incas) strings of espingo seeds have been found. Priests used espingo in chicha

to get very drunk, suggesting that the plant had psychoactive properties. The identification of the plant is not certain. In an

indirect sense maize was the most important plant in religion, because chicha prepared from maize was used by all

important and notimportant ceremonies as an offering. Furthermore, maize was the basis of , a kind of orsanco dough

bread that was used in religious ceremonies as a kind of communion.


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Fig. 6 Tobacco was considered a medicine rather than a recreational drug. Two types of tobacco were used. The wild tobacco was

probably identical with .Nicotiana rustica

Maize, coca and potatoes were so important that figures were made from them. These were called ,saramama

, (or ), respectively, and were venerated as objects with supernatural powers. Thecocamama papamama axomama

veneration had a practical background: it was meant to have a good crop of the product from which the figure was made

(Arriaga : 200, 204, 205, 273; Albornoz : 165). The religious importance of these plants is probably connected1968 1988

with the that the Incas had for these plants: coca as a psychoactive plant, and maize and potato as importantappreciation

food plants. In addition, all three plants were used in medicine.

Divination

Some plants played a decisive role in Inca divination. To obtain an idea about the importance of divination in Inca society

we only have to look at the different types of described by the chroniclers: more than 50 Quechua names arediviners

reported. The absolute number of diviners was also very large, as indicated by Acosta ( : 172) and others (Morua1954

: 72; 1992: 8) who simply state that there were innumerable diviners. Cobo confirms that1946 Relacin de los Agustinos

there were many diviners of several types (Cobo : 160-163). In every town there were many of them, a statement1990

that earlier was also made by Cieza de Leon (1962: LV). Citing another source, Cobo gives the figure of 475 people in

Cuzco who had no other occupation than just divining. Intuitive divination was among the principal types of divination, and

was often mediated by in the form of . A number of (mostly psychoactive) plants were applied to facilitateoracles huacas

contact with the supernatural. Diviners called , who recruited spirits from fire, took coca leaves. Theyyacarcaes

pronounced spells with which they summoned the spirit of the person from whom they wanted information. After a few

other rituals the "devil" (as the chroniclers describe it) came and without being seen spoke to the attendants. He told them

that he was the spirit of the person to whom they wanted to speak (Cobo : 169). The procedure was followed in1990

divinations where potential dangers for the Inca ruler or the empire were determined. That could be threat of rebellion or a

plot against the Incas. The procedure resembles the one that was used by Inca sorcerers in love affairs. Here tobacco in

combination with coca was applied. The person who wanted the love of another went to these sorcerers with a piece of

clothing of that person. The sorcerers used coca and tobacco to get into a trance and raise the spirits of persons who had

to become the beloved one.

Vilca ( ) was very popular among diviners, who consumed the drug in theAnadenanthera colubrina alcoholic beverage


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chicha (Cobo : 169), to get intoxicated and attain the right psychic condition to make divinations (Fig. 7). According1990

to Acosta ( : 172) vilca, alone or in combination with chicha, was applied for all types of divinations. Among the1954

questions which had to be answered, were predicting future events such as the outcome of certain enterprises, whether

one would stay healthy or become ill and die. Another purpose was to find stolen or lost goods. For the same purposes

the , now better known as San Pedro ( ), was used. Murua has described theachuma cactus Trichocereus pachanoi

divination ceremony.

To perform these superstitions and divinations they locked themselves in a house that was closed from

within. There they started to drink and to get intoxicated until they lost their senses, and after a day they

gave answers to the questions. To reach this effect they smeared their body with certain ointments. The

sorcerers first talked with the in an obscure place in a way that the people heard a voice, but did notdevil

see who talked. They performed many ceremonies and offerings, and answered the questions with yes or

no, as they liked it. For this purpose they used vilca or achuma. (Murua 1987: 432-434).

Fig. 7 A number of psychoactive plants were used in divination practices. Among these was the orvilca

. Vilca was also the name of certain idols. Here the Inca ruler talks with the vilcas andAnadenanthera colubrina

huacas.

Currently some other psychoactive plants such as ( ) are used in divination, in addition toayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi

those mentioned before. It is not sure however, if ayahuasca was used in Inca times.

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Ethonobotany of the Incas