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Ethnobotanical study of Traditional Medicinal Plants used by Indigenous People of Ankesha
District , Awi Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia
Alemitu Adane
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
August 2018
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Ethnobotanical study of Traditional Medicinal Plants used by Indigenous People of Ankesha
District , Awi Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia
Alemitu Adane
Thesis submitted to
The department of Zoological science and presented in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
August 2018
v
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE PROGRAMES
This is to certify that the Thesis prepared by Alemitu Adane Asegu, entitled: Ethnobotanical study
of Traditional Medicinal Plants used by Indigenous People of Ankesha District, Awi Zone, Amhara
Regional State, Ethiopia and submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in (Biology) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the
accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by Examining Board
Name Signature Date
1.________________________ (Examiner) __________________ ___________
2.________________________ (Examiner) ___________________ ___________
3. Dr. Ermias Lulekal (Advisor) ___________________ ___________
4.________________________ (Advisor) ____________________ ____________
5. ________________________ (Advisor) ____________________ ___________
6.________________________ (Department Head) _____________ ___________
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Abstract
Ethnobotanical study of Traditional Medicinal Plants used by Indigenous People of Ankesha
District, Awi Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia
Alemitu Adane Asegu MSc Thesis
Addis Ababa University, August 2018
Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants was conducted to document the indigenous plant-based
medicinal knowledge of people in Ankesha Wereda, Amhara Regional State Northern Ethiopia. A
total of 60 informants (age beteween20-80) were selected to collect information on medicinal plant
use from eight sampled kebeles. Of these, 8 key informants were selected purposively based on
recommendation by local elders and authorities. A total of 62medicinal plant species distributed in
59 genera and 40 families were collected and identified. Out of these, 51 species (82.2%) were used
against human ailments, 5species (8.1%) were used against livestock ailments and the remaining 6
species (9.7%) were used to treat both human and livestock ailments. From the total medicinal plant
species, 22 were herbs, followed by 18 species of shrubs, 15 species of trees, and 6 species of
climbers. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves (29.7%) followed by roots (24.7%)),
seeds (13.8%), fruit (6.9%), stems (6.9%), sap (3.9%) latex, (2.9%), bark (1.9%), flower (1.9%),
and bulb (1.9%). The most widely used method of preparation was crushing (53.5%), squeezing
(12.6%), and chewing (12.6%) of the different plant parts. The common route of administration
recorded was oral (62.6%) followed by dermal (21.2%) application. Agricultural expansion,
firewood collection, and construction were reported as major threats to plants of the study area.
The Ankesha people possess rich ethnomedicinal knowledge. This study can be used as a basis for
developing management plans for conservation, sustainable use and drug development.
Key words: Ethnobotany, Ethnomedicinal, Fidelity level, Informant consensus factor, Traditional
medicinal plants
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Ermias, Lulekal for his consistent
invaluable advice, comments and follow up right from start to the completion of my work.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Ankesha District Administration, Farmers and traditional healers for
their collaboration to participate to answer my question. I also thank the following Office; Woreda
Rural Agricultural Development Office, Woreda Health Office Woreda Finance For their provision
of data and information.
My heartfelt gratitude also goes to Department of Zoological science for their financial support to
carry out my research.
I would like to express deepest thanks to my field guides, Ato Nega Wubaye, Desalew Adamu and
Misikir Bantie for their help in data collection. I would also like to thank Dr.Amsalu Getahun the
support of translating local name of the disease to English name.
I would like to thank AAU and Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management, for
delivering materials for field activities. The National Herbarium Staff I am highly acknowledged
for material support during specimen collection and identification.
Finally my special gratitude also goes to my family for their moral and financial support to carry
out my research. My heart-felt thanks go to all who participated directly or indirectly in the
successful completion of my thesis work.
v
Table ContentsList of Figures ...................................................................................................................................viii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................ix
List of Appendices ...............................................................................................................................x
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms..................................................................................................xi
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Statement of the problem ........................................................................................................3
1.2. Objectives of the Study...........................................................................................................3
1.2.1. General objective ............................................................................................................3
1.2.2. Specific objectives .........................................................................................................3
1.3. Basic Research Questions ........................................................................................................4
2. Literature review..............................................................................................................................5
2.1. Origin and development of ethnobotany..................................................................................5
2.2. Indigenous knowledge .............................................................................................................7
2.3. Traditional medicinal plants ....................................................................................................7
2.4. Medicinal plants and ethnomedicine in Ethiopia.....................................................................9
2.4.1. Traditional medicinal plants in public health care system ...........................................9
2.4.2. Plants in Ethnoveterinary medicine............................................................................11
2.5 .Threats to and conservation of traditional medicinal plants (TMPs) in Ethiopia .................14
2.5.1. Threats to medicinal plants.........................................................................................14
2.5.2. Conservation of traditional medicinal plants..............................................................15
3. Materials and methods ...................................................................................................................17
3.1. Description of the study area ................................................................................................17
3.1.1. Population ...................................................................................................................18
3.1.2. Agriculture..................................................................................................................18
3.1.3. Vegetation ..................................................................................................................19
3.1.4. Soil..............................................................................................................................19
3.1.5. Human health .............................................................................................................22
3.2. Reconnaissance survey and selection of the study sites....................................................24
3.3. Data collection technique ..................................................................................................24
3.3.1. Semi structured interview...........................................................................................24
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3.3.2. Group discussion ........................................................................................................25
3.3.3 .Field observation ........................................................................................................26
3.3.4. Guided field walk .......................................................................................................27
3.3.5. Market survey.............................................................................................................28
3.3.6. Specimen collection and identification .......................................................................29
3.4. Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................29
3.4.1. Descriptive statistics...................................................................................................29
3.4.2. Informant Consensus Factor.......................................................................................30
3.4.3. Direct matrix ranking .................................................................................................30
3.4.4. Preference ranking......................................................................................................30
3.4.5. Fidelity level (FL) ......................................................................................................31
4. Results..........................................................................................................................................32
4.1. Ethnomedicinal Plant Species of the Study Area ...............................................................32
4.2 Medicinal plants Used to Treat Human and Livestock Diseases.........................................33
4.2 1. Sources (Habitats) of medicinal plant.........................................................................35
4.2.2. Plant habit (growth forms...........................................................................................36
4.2.3. Plant part(s) used for medicine...................................................................................37
4.2.4. Preparation methods of remedies ...............................................................................38
4.2.5. Conditions of preparation of remedies .......................................................................39
4.2.6. Dosage and route of administrations ..........................................................................40
4.2.7. Ways of applications of plant remedies .....................................................................41
4.2.8. Informant consensus factor (ICF).............................................................................41
4.2.9. Fidelity level index (FLI) ...........................................................................................42
4.2.10. Preference ranking....................................................................................................43
4.2.11. Direct matrix ranking ...............................................................................................44
4.3 .Market survey in the study area ............................................................................................45
4.4. Threats to Medicinal Plants and Indigenous Knowledge .....................................................46
4.4.1. Factors Which Threatening Medicinal plants ............................................................46
4.4.2. Threatened medicinal plant……………………………………………………… ..45
4.5. Management and conservation of medicinal plants ..............................................................47
5. Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation..............................................................................49
vii
5.1. Discussion .............................................................................................................................49
5.1.1. Ethnomedicinal Plant Species of the Study Area .......................................................49
5.1.2. Habits and Sources of Medicinal Plants.....................................................................50
5.1.3. Plant Parts Used, Conditions and Mode of Preparation .............................................50
5.1.4. Route of Administration, Dosage and Application of Medicinal Plants ....................52
5.1.5. Top Ranking Medicinal Plants ...................................................................................53
5.1.6. Marketable Medicinal Plants......................................................................................55
5.1.7. Threats and Conservation of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area .............................55
5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................57
5.3 Recommendations.................................................................................................................58
References……………………………………………………………………………………… 57
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of Ethiopia showing study woreda and kebele…………………………...................17
Figure 2. Group discussion with informants at Bekafita Kebele 26
Figure 3 Forests of the study area 27
Figure 4. Guided field walk 28
Figure 5. Market survey 29
Figure 6. Medicinal plants used to treat Human, Human & Livestock and Livestock ailments 34
Figure 7. Habits of medicinal plants used for human and livestock 37
Figure 8 Conditions of preparation of remedies 40
Figure 9. Route of administration of plant remedies used for human and livestock 40
ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Major food crops grown in the study area 20
Table 2. Ten top human ailments in 2015-2017 and number of patients treated in study area 22
Table 3. Distribution of collected species in different families 32
Table 4. Medicinal plants used to treat only human diseases 33
Table 5. Medicinal plant used to treat only livestock diseases 34
Table 6 .Medicinal plants cited most by informants 35
Table 7. Distribution of medicinal plants in different habitats 36
Table 8. Plant parts used for traditional medicine preparations in Ankesha woreda 38
Table 9 .Preparation methods of herbal medicine reported by people of Ankesha woreda 39
Table 10. Ways of application of plant remedies in human and livestock ailment treatment 41
Table 11.Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) 42
Table 12. Fidelity index of some medicinal plants 43
Table 13. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating abdominal pain 44
Table 14. Ranking of multipurpose medicinal plants 45
Table 15. Ranking of threats to medicinal plant 46
Table 16.Ranking of threatened plants 47
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List of Appendices
Appendix 1. List of human and livestock diseases which are treated by medicinal plants in the study
area……………………………………………………………………………………………….. ...70
Appendix 2. The most frequent human and livestock diseases and number of plant species used ...71
Appendix 3. Number of medicinal plant species in each family…………........................................71
Appendix 4. Scientific name, Family name, Local name and growth form of each medicinal plant
species in study area………………………………………………………………………………...73
Appendix 5.Gimjabet Mariam market survey medicinal plants sold in the market………………. .81
Appendix 6.Checklist of semi-structured interview questions for collecting ethnobotanical data....82
Appendix 7.List of informants in the study area………………………………………....................83
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
WHO World Health Organization
AAU Addis Abeba University
AWAO Ankesha Woreda Agricultural Office
AWHO Ankesha Woreda Health Office
AWCO Ankesha Woreda Communication Office
AWAO Ankesha Woreda Administrative Office
TMPs Traditional Medicinal Plants
IK Indigenous Knowledge
ICF Informant Consensus Factor
FL Fidelity Level
1
1. Introduction
Traditional medicine is an ancient medicinal practice which exists, in the communities before the
advent of modern health sciences. Traditional medicine is based on indigenous theories, beliefs
and experiences that are conserved down from generations. Several countries of Africa have
realized the need and importance to develop improved traditional medicines from native and
endemic plants that are traditionally used at various places for various ailments.
Traditional medicine still remains the main resources for a large majority (80%) of the people in
Ethiopia for treating health problems. Traditional medicinal consultancy including the
consumption of the medicinal plants has a much lower cost than modern attention (Mekonnen
Bishaw, 1990; Tessema et al., 2003).
Traditional people around the world possess unique knowledge of plant resources on which they
depend for food, medicine, and general utility including tremendous botanical expertise (Martin,
1995). In general, ethnobotany is the scientific investigation of plants as used in indigenous
culture for food, medicine, magic, rituals, building, household utensils and implements, musical
instruments, firewood, pesticides, clothing, shelter and other purposes (Kelbessa Urga et al.,
2004).
Ethiopia is a country characterized by a wide range of climate and ecological conditions with
enormous diversity of fauna and flora (Pankhurst, 2001). The country possesses a wide range of
potentially useful medicinal plants, more extensive indeed than available in many other parts of
the world (Dawit Abebe, 1986).
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In Ethiopia little emphases has been given to traditional medicinal studies over the past decade
(Debela Hunde, 2001). Therefore it can be said that ethnobotanical studies are merely at the start
in Ethiopia though investigating medicinal plants uses is as yet no in depth study on the relation
between medicinal plants and indigenous knowledge resources. Modern health care as never been
and probably will never provide a foreseeable future and adequate health service anywhere in
Africa, due to the financial limitation related to rapid population growth, political instability and
poor economic performance (Ankobonggo,1992).
The majority of Ethiopian people still depend on traditional medicine .The problem of ensuring
the equitable distribution of modern healthcare has become more serious, as the gap between
supply and demand has continued to widen (Sebsebe Demissew and Ermias Dagne, 2001). There
is a considerable global interest in tapping the accumulated knowledge of traditional medicine,
and therefore researches are being carried out in many countries with the aim of increasing the use
of traditional medicine to the welfare of the human population. Hence the present study was
initiated to investigate the medicinal plants and traditional knowledge in Ankesha Woreda, Awi
zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia.
According to Pankhurst (2001), detailed information on the medicinal plant could only be
obtained when studies are taking place in the various areas where little or no botanical and
ethnobotanical explorations have been made. Thus, this study was designed to carry out ethno
botanical investigation on medicinal plants of Ankesha wereda, Awi regional state with the
following general and specific objectives.
3
1.1. Statement of the problem
In Ethiopia, both human and natural factors heavily contribute to the loss of medicinal plants,
which links with the gradual displacement of indigenous knowledge associated with these plants.
In developing countries like Ethiopia, the indigenous knowledge about traditional medicinal
plants is transferred secretly from generation to generation orally. Since, there is a gap in the
documentation and records on medicinal plants in the country, indigenous knowledge on usage of
medicinal plants as remedies for both human and livestock ailments will be lost. Until this
moment, no research on ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants was conducted in Ankesha
District. The findings of this study will help people of the study area to be aware of problems
associated with medicinal plants and give attention for sustainable use and conservation of
medicinal plants of their surroundings.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
1.2.1. General objective
The General objective of this study was to investigate and document the traditional medicinal
Plants used by indigenous people in Ankesha Woreda to treat both human and livestock ailments.
1.2.2. Specific objectives
To collect, identify and document traditional medicinal plants that are used by the local
people for the treatment of human and livestock ailments in the study area.
To assess current status of medicinal plants and the indigenous knowledge of the people in
the study area.
To document plant parts used, for medicinal purposes, methods of preparation and ways of
administration.
4
To evaluate the indigenous knowledge of the people on the use, threat and conservation
measures of medicinal plants practiced in the study area.
To provide information that will contribute to the development of strategies for
conservation and sustainable utilization of traditional medicinal plants.
1.3. Basic Research Questions
The main focus of this study is to investigate the traditional uses and remedies of various plants,
which are used by Ankesha Wereda people. The findings of the study will try to answer the
following main research questions.
What are the main or most common human health problems in the study area?
What are the most important plants to treat human and livestock ailments?
Which medically important plants species are used by local people to treat their own
health problems and livestock ailments in the study area?
5
2. Literature review
2.1. Origin and development of ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is a broad term referring to the study of direct interrelations between humans and
Plants (Martin, 1995; Balick and Cox, 1996).Ethnobotany is also defined as local people
interaction with their natural environment: how they classify, manage and use plants available
around them (Martin, 1995). It is also described as “a unit of ecological study specializing in the
interaction of people and the plant world (Ford, 1978).
Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary science defined as the interaction between plants and people. It
is also defined as local people's interaction with their natural environment: how they classify,
manage and use plants available around them (Martin, 1995). The relationship between plants and
human cultures is not limited to the use of plants for food, clothing and shelter but also includes
their use for religious ceremonies, ornamentation and healthcare (Schultes, 1992).
Ethnobotanical work seems to have started with Christopher Columbus in 1492, at a time when he
brought tobacco, maize, spices and other useful plants to Europe from Cuba(Cotton,1996) and
when other immigrants from the new world documented food, medicine and other useful plants of
the Aztec, Maya and Inca peoples (Martin,1995).
Traditional people around the world possess unique knowledge of plant resources on which they
depend for food, medicine and general utility including tremendous botanical expertise (Martin,
1995). This implies that humans are dependent on plants for their life. Although various animal
and mineral products contribute to human welfare; the plant kingdom is most essential to human
wellbeing especially in supplying his basic needs. This close interaction and dependency of
humans on plants is studied under the field of ethnobotany.
6
John Hershberger proposed the term ethnobotany for the first time in 1895 (Balick, 1996),
however this term has been given different interpretations and definitions depending on the
interest of workers involved in the study (Cotton, 1996). Currently ethnobotany has become a
more diversified and multidisciplinary subject which requires experts in various fields of
academic study such as Botany, Anthropology, Agriculture, Linguistics, Archeology and
Economics (Martin, 1995; Alexiades, 1996; Balick, 1996). Ethnobotany is also rapidly growing
science, attracting people with widely varying academic backgrounds and interests (Mac Donald,
2009) and now days’ ethnobotany has tended to become more analytical quantitative cross
disciplinary and multi institutional (Hamilton et al., 2003).
Martin (1995) defined ethnobotany as a study of people’s classification, management and use of
plants. In 1941, Shultes redefined ethnobotany as the study of the relationship, which exists
between humans and their ambient vegetation (Castetter, 1944; cited in Cotton, 1996).
Ethnobotanical investigation documents the knowledge on cultural interaction of people with
plants. It also tries to find out how local people have traditionally used plants for various
purposes, and how they incorporated plants in to their cultural tradition and religions (Balick and
Cox, 1996). Therefore, traditional local communities worldwide have a great deal of knowledge
about native plants on which they intimately depend (Langeheim and Thimann, 1982). As stated
by Martin (1995) to achieve more detailed and reliable information of plants and plant use, ethno
botanical study needs involvement of specialists from various disciplines, such as plant
taxonomists, plant ecologists, anthropologists, linguists, economic botanists, pharmacologists and
others. With such interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches, ethno botany is aimed at
gathering and documenting indigenous botanical knowledge, cultural practice, use and
management of botanical resources and discovers benefits from plants.
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2.2. Indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge (IK) on remedies in many countries including Ethiopia, pass from one
generation to the other generation verbally with great secrecy (Jansen, 1981). Such secrete and
crude transfer makes indigenous knowledge or ethnomedicinal knowledge vulnerable to distortion
and in most cases, some of the lore is lost at each point of transfer (Amare Getahun, 1976).
Hence, there is a need for systematic documentation of such useful knowledge through
ethnobotanical research. Indigenous knowledge is a body of knowledge built up by a group of
people through generations of living in close contact with nature and it is cumulative and
dynamic.
Indigenous knowledge refers to the accumulation of knowledge, rule, standards, skills, and mental
sets, which are possessed by local people in a particular area (Quanash, 1998). The complex
knowledge, beliefs and practices generally known as indigenous knowledge develops and changes
with time and space. Hence, such knowledge includes time-tested practice that developed in the
process of interaction of humans with their environment (Alcorn, 1984).
2.3. Traditional medicinal plants
Traditional medicine(TMPs) has been defined by the world health organization (WHO,2008) as
the sum total of all knowledge and practices whether explicable or not, used in the diagnosis,
prevention and elimination of physicals, mental or social imbalances and relying exclusively on
practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation, whether
verbally or in writing. (Yilma Desta et al., 1996; cited in Fassil Kibebew, 2001). This system of
health care is also known as folk medicine, ethno medicine, or indigenous medicine.
8
According to FassilKibebew (2001), about 75-90 % of the rural population in the world
(excluding western countries) relies on traditional medicines as their only health care system. This
is not only because of poverty where people cannot afford to buy expensive modern drugs, but
traditional systems are also more culturally acceptable and meet the psychological needs in a way
modern medicine does not. According to WHO (2001), consultation of medicinal practitioners is
very helpful for the development and incorporation of useful approaches in planning and
budgeting system for health care provision of most developing nations and indigenous
communities. In Africa, traditional medicine plays a central role in health care needs of rural
people and urban poor. Here, it is said that, this situation would remain so long as modern
medicine continues to be unable to meet the health care of the people of the continent effectively
(Jansen, 1981). Their value and role of this health care system will not diminish in the future,
because they are both culturally viable and expected to remain affordable, while the modern
health care service is both limited and expensive (WHO, 1998). Indigenous traditional medicinal
practices were carried out essentially based on private practice, i.e. private agreement between
consenting parties, and the knowledge of traditional practice in most cases has descended through
oral folk lore (Asfaw Debela et al., 1999).The secrete of information retained by traditional
healers is relatively less susceptible to distortion but less accessible to the public (DawitAbebe,
1986). However, the knowledge is dynamic as the practitioners make every effort to widen their
scope by reciprocal exchange of limited information with each other (DawitAbebe, 1986; Abbink,
1993).
According to konno (2004), easily accessibility efficacy on treatment and affordable cost in
getting health services are also main reasons in preferring traditional medicine to modern
medication. Traditional medicine has also draw backs as various authors stated (Amare Getahun,
9
1976; Sofowora, 1982; Dawit Abebe, 1986). Lack of precision and standardization is one
drawback for the recognition of the traditional health care system. Lack of precise dosage which
could lead to toxicity is also the other drawback of traditional medicine (Dawit Abebe, 1986).
2.4. Medicinal plants and ethnomedicine in Ethiopia
2.4.1. Traditional medicinal plants in public health care system
Plants in general and medicinal plants in particular are important, fundamental and most useful to
almost all life on earth, one of the most significant uses of plant is the python medicinal role, i.e.
the benefits of medicinal plants have contributed to modern medicine, through providing
ingredients for drugs or having played central role in drug discovering, some drugs having
botanical origin, extracted from plants.
Plants have been used as a source of traditional medicine in Ethiopia from the time immemorial to
combat different ailments and human sufferings (Asfaw Debela et al., 1999). Due to its long
period of practice and existence, traditional medicine has become an integral part of the culture of
Ethiopian people (Pankhurst, 1965; MirgissaKeba, 1998). According to DawitAbebe (2001), there
is a large magnitude of use and interest in medicinal plants in Ethiopia due to acceptability,
accessibility and biomedical benefits. In this country, the long history of use of medicinal plants is
reflected in various medico- religious manuscripts produced on parchments and believed to have
originated several centuries ago (Fassile Kibebew, 2001). Medical textbooks written in Geez or
even Arabic in Ethiopia between the mid of 17th and 18th century imply that plants have been
used as a source of traditional medicine in Ethiopian health care system. Even today, it is
common for people living in rural and urban areas to treat some common ailments using plants
10
available around them (example, Hageniaabyssinicato expel tapeworm, Rutachalepensisfor
various health problems) (Abbink, 1995). The continued dependency on herbal medicine along
with the side of modern medicine is largely conditioned by economic and cultural factors
(Aketch, 1992). In addition to these factors, the fact that modern medical services are inaccessible
to the vast majority of the populations due to their costs made herbal medicines more acceptable.
The problem of ensuring equitable distribution of modern health care has become more serious, as
the gap between supply and demand has continued to widen. Hence, in present day Africa
including Ethiopia, the majority of people lack access to health care and where available the
quality is largely below standard (Abbiw, 1996). This is why Archer (1990) and Nijar (1996)
stated that for most indigenous peoples and the local communities’ reliance on plant resources
accounts for anything up to 95% of their survival requirements. Therefore, herbal remedies are the
world’s therapeutic means to act against diseases for a large proportion of people both rural and
urban centers in developing countries like Ethiopia (Abbiw, 1996).
Medicinal plants play typical role in the lives of many people in terms of health support, financial
income and lively hood security (Abdul hamid et al., 2004; Hamilton, 2003; Hamilton, 2004).
Plant has been indispensable and the most important sources of both preventive and curative
traditional preparation for human beings and livestock since time immemorial. By their capacity
of photosynthesis, plants form the basis of the biological food web and producing oxygen which
is the key for our lives and them balancing the gases of our environment. Plants are also recycling
essential nutrients, establishing soils and soil fertility, protecting areas of water catchments. They
keep ecological and climatic balances and helping to control rain fall through the process of
transpiration. And all these benefits of plants are directly or indirectly linked with health care
(Hamilton, 2004; Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 2004). Therefore, health care and botany have evolved
11
as inseparable domain of human activities since various plant products are paramount important
in traditional health care systems.
According to Mekonen (1990) and Tesema et al., (2003), about 80% of human population and
over 90% livestock in Ethiopia rely on traditional medicine. And thus, today in Ethiopia there is a
large magnitude of use and interest in medicinal plant due to socio- cultural acceptability,
accessibility, affordability and biomedical benefits of the traditional medicinal plants. In other
words, in all regions of the country traditional medicine has high acceptability since it is an
integral part of the local culture and hence, people often rely on their efficient and less costly
alternative health care (Konno, 2004; Mwambazi, 1996; WHO, 2000).
2.4.2. Plants in Ethnoveterinary medicine
In Ethiopia as well as in most developing countries animal disease remains one of the principal
causes of poor livestock performances leading to an ever increasing gap between the supply of
and the demand for livestock products (Teshale et al., 2004). Ethnoveterinary medicine and
related study is one of the most important means of controlling livestock diseases.
Ethnoveterinary medicine which refers to traditional animal health care knowledge and practices
comprising of traditional surgical and manipulative techniques, traditional immunization, magic-
religious practices and beliefs, management practices and the use of herbal remedies to prevent
and treat a range of disease problems encountered by livestock holders (Tafesse Mesfin and
Mekonen lemma, 2001).
Ethnoveterinary medicine provides traditional medicines, which are locally available and usually
cheaper than standard treatments. Livestock holders can prepare and use homemade remedies
with minimum expense. So far, many livestock holders in rural areas where there are relatively
12
few veterinarians and shortages of other facilities, traditional medicinal plants are the only choice
to treat many ailments (McCorkle, 1995).
In Ethiopia, as in other developing countries, livestock production plays an important role in the
lively hood and economy of majority of the population. Crop production is almost entirely
dependent on traction power provided by animals. Livestock offers in many harsh environments
the only way of survival and constitutes a driving force for food security and sustainable
development in developing countries like Ethiopia. Although, the gain from livestock production
is directly related with safeguarding animal health convention, veterinary medical system is
among the smallest in Ethiopia. Techniques such as those to treat the wider spread ailments are
common knowledge among livestock holders (ITDG and IIRR, 1996). On the contrary, others are
known only to a few indigenous professional healers who have over the year learned the practice.
Stock raisers, both farmers and herders have developed their own ways of keeping their animal
health and productivity (McCorkle and Mathias, 1996). They treat and prevent livestock diseases
using sometimes age old homemade remedies, surgical and manipulative techniques. Taken
together, these indigenous local animal health care beliefs and health care practices constitute an
ethnoveterinary medicine. Like other kind of local technical knowledge, ethno veterinary
medicinal practice and skills are built up on over time empirical observation, mainly through trial
and error and sometimes through deliberate or even desperate experimentation and innovation
(McCorkle and Mathias, 1996). Ethnoveterinary medicine can be useful when ever and where
ever stock raisers have no other animal health care options, whether in rural or peri-urban areas.
In spite of its paramount importance as livestock health care system, the various traditional
veterinary practices remained undocumented in Africa and Ethiopia (DawitAbebe and
AhaduAyehu, 1993). Thus, creation of awareness on ethno veterinary medicine emphasizing on
13
useful plants used for treatments of livestock has paramount importance to livestock management.
In addition, proper documentation and understanding of farmers’ knowledge, attitude and
practices about the occurrence, cause, treatment, prevention and control of various ailments is
important in designing and implementing successful livestock production (TafeseMesfine and
Mekonen Lemma, 2001). In Ethiopia livestock production plays an important role in the lively
hood and economy of majority of the population.
Ethiopia is one of the leading countries of Africa in livestock population (Mirutse Giday and
Gobena Amini, 2003). Although Ethiopia is rich in its livestock population, it is one of the
countries in the world with the lowest unit output.
The poor health condition and of its livestock has partially been responsible for the low
productivity (Mirutse Giday and Gobena Amini,2003).The ever declining provision of animal
health services related in the appearance of number of epizootic diseases reducing the economic
efficacy of livestock production in Africa (Mirutse Giday and Gobena Amini, 2003). An ethno
veterinary medicine involves the use of medicinal plants surgical techniques and livestock
management practice to prevent and treat a range of animal diseases (Mathias, 1996). The study
conducted by Wirtu et al., (1997) revealed as animal health care were provided by the owners,
traditional healers, and veterinary professionals. Besides, most modern drugs are expensive and as
a result, not affordable by the majority of Ethiopian farmers and pastoralists, most of them rely on
their traditional knowledge practices and locally available materials (mainly plants) in the control
of diseases of their domestic animals (Mirutse Giday and Gobena Amini, 2003). In spite of its
permanent importance as livestock health care systems the various traditional veterinary practices
remained undocumented in Africa and Ethiopia (Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu, 1993).
14
2.5 .Threats to and conservation of traditional medicinal plants (TMPs) in Ethiopia
2.5.1. Threats to medicinal plants
Africa’s including Ethiopia’s traditional medicine has faced with problems of sustainability
Ensermu Kelbessa, et al., 1992). The primary causes of this problem are loss of taxa of medicinal
plants, loss of habitats of medicinal plants and loss of indigenous knowledge. Some studies have
shown that most of the medicinal plants utilized by Ethiopian people are harvested from wild
habitats (Mirutse Giday, 1999, Tesfaye Awas and Zemede Asfaw, 1999) and hence this implies
the rate of loss of taxa with related indigenous knowledge and loss of widely occurring medicinal
plant species.
People use many wild species of plants for food, medicine, clothing, shelter, fuel, fiber, in come
generation and the fulfilling of cultural and spiritual needs throughout the world (ZemedeAsfaw,
2001). The primary causes of this problem are loss of taxa of medicinal plants, loss of habitats of
medicinal plants and loss of indigenous knowledge. Some studies have shown that most of the
medicinal plants utilized by Ethiopian people are harvested from wild habitats (MirutseGiday,
1999; TesfayeAwas and ZemedeAsfaw, 1999) and hence this aggravates the rate of loss of taxa
with related indigenous knowledge and loss of widely occurring medicinal plant species. There
are two sources of threats to medicinal plants, i.e. man-made and natural causes. Rapid increase in
population, the need for fuel, urbanization, timber production, over harvesting, destructive
harvesting, invasive species, commercialization, honey cut, degradation, agricultural expansion
and habitat destruction are human caused threats to medicinal plants. Likewise, natural causes
include recurrent drought, bush fire, disease and pest out breaks (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 1992).
As elsewhere in Ethiopia, the problem is manifested in Ankesha Woreda due to the above-
mentioned factors.
15
2.5.2. Conservation of traditional medicinal plants
Conservation is defined as the sustainable use of biological resources. The concept of
sustainability is now seen as the guiding principle for economic and social development,
particularly with reference to biological resources. According to ZemedeAsfaw (2001), medicinal
plants are considered to be at conservation risk due to over use and destructive harvesting (roots
and barks collection). Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu (1993) found that many medicinal
preparations use roots, stem and bark by effectively killing the plant in harvest. Plant parts used to
prepare remedies are different; however, root is the most widely used part. Such wide utilization
of root part for human and livestock aliments with no replacement has severe effect on the future
availability of the plant. Recent work of Haile Yineger (2005) confirms the fact that of the total
plant parts to prepare remedies root is widely used with 64 species (35.5%) followed by leaf 47
species (25.97%) which hence affects sustainable utilization. In a broad sense, conservation is
achieved through in-situ and ex-situ means. In-sit conservation is conservation of species in their
natural habitat. Some traditional medicinal plants have to be conserved in-situ due to difficulty for
domestication and management (Zemede Asfaw, 2001). Moreover, some plants fail to produce
the desired amount and quantity of the active principles under cultivation out of their natural
habitats. Medicinal plants can also be conserved by ensuring and encouraging their growth in
special places, as they have been traditionally (Zemede Asfaw, 2001), this can be possible in
places of worship (churches, mosques, grave yards, etc.), scared grooves, farm margins, river
banks, road sides, live fences of gardens and fields. According to (Zemede Asfaw (2001),
medicinal plants can be conserved using appropriate conservational methods in gene banks and
botanical gardens. This type of conservation of medicinal plants can also be possible in home
16
gardens, as the home garden is strategic and ideal farming system for the conservation, production
and enhancement of medicinal plants.
17
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Description of the study area
Ankesha is one of the 11 woredas of Awi zone Amhara Regional state. Gimjabet Mariam is the
administrative capital of Ankesha. Ankesha is bounded in north by Banja woreda, in east Banja
and Banjashikudad, in south Womberma, and Guangua in west. The woreda is located 135 km
south from the capital of the Amhara Regional state, Bahir Dar and 18km from the administrative
zone. It is 453 Km North of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. Its total area is about
102,924 hectares and comprises 16 Kebeles. Its elevation ranges 1500-2800 meter.
Topographically, Ankesha Woreda is 70.8% plateau, 26% mountainous 2.2 % valleys, 0.1%
swampy and 0.9 % others. (Fact sheet (2004) Ankesha Woreda Government Communications
Affairs Bureau)
Figure 1. Map of Ethiopia showing study woreda and kebele
18
As the Woreda Government Communication Affairs Bureau fact sheet 2004E.C (AWCO,2012)
the land utilization availability is: 72,271 hectares for farming, 8512 hectare covered by natural
vegetation, 3,937 hectares for forests cultivated by community participation, 12,741 hectares for
grazing, 720 hectare covered by water bodies and 360 hectares swampy. The meteorological data
taken from the district Communication Office(AWCO,2017) indicates that the major rainy
seasons in the district include spring(May), summer(June-August) and autumn(September-
October).The average annual rainfall of the district 1600-2000 mm ,while the average annual
temperature is about 15-200c.
Ankesha Woreda has three major climatic zones. These are Dega 10%, WoinaDega 80% and kola
10% (AWAO 2017). Different species of plants are grown in these three different climatic zones.
3.1.1. Population
According to (AWCO, 2017) the total population of the woreda is 235,816 of which 114,380 are
males and 121,436 are females with a ratio of almost 1:1. From these 15,236 females and 13,065
males are living in the town. The remaining106, 200 females and 101,315 males are living in the
rural areas.
The major ethnic compositions of the population found in the woreda are Awi 78.5%, Amhara
21% and 0.5% Gumiz. Awigna is the official language of both the District and the Administrative
Zone. About 98% of the population is Orthodox Christians and the rest are Protestants and
Muslims.
3.1.2. Agriculture
About 85% of the population is depending on agriculture. In kola climatic zones most people
harvest pepper but in Dega climatic zone planting the invasive plant species such as, Acacia
decurrens, and extracting charcoal is common (AWAO, 2017).
19
3.1.3. Vegetation
The vegetation of the study area consists of various trees, shrub and herbaceous species. Some of
the common plant species include Acacia abyssinica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Juniperus
procera, Ficus species, Acacia decurrens, Podocarpas falcatus, etc. The shrub layer includes
Justicia schimperiana, Olea europeae, Carissa spinarum, Calpurnia aurea, Vernonia sp. etc.
Most of the plants are found in and around protected areas, Church compounds and Grave yards.
The other areas are highly degraded due to agricultural activities, overgrazing, and high demand
of wood for construction, firewood and charcoal. Especially Juniperus procera, Cordia africana
and Acacia pilispina are cut and highly used for construction and other purposes. The common
crops cultivated in the study area include Zea mays (Maize), Eragrostis tef (Teff), Hordeum
vulgare (Barley), Triticumaestivum (Wheat), Pisum sativum (Field peas), Sorghum spp. Guizotia
abyssinica (Nug), Brassica carinata (Gomenzer), Linum usitatissimun (Telba) and etc(AWAO
2017).
3.1.4. Soil
The three different dominant soil types such as red, dark brown and black were favored to grow various
types of plants. The soil of the study area is dark brown soil which covers 53%, red which covers 30% and
black soil covers 17%. Dark brown soil is the type of clay that has greater importance for water storage
capacity (Ankesha Woreda Agricultural Office, AWAO, 2017).
20
Table 1. Major food crops grown in the study area (Ankesha Woreda Agricultural Office,(AWAO2017).
Crop category Scientific name English name Local name
Cereals Hordeum vulgareL
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)
Troteer
Sorghum bicolor. L
Triticum aestivum L.
Zea mays L
Barely
Teffe
Sorghum
Wheat
Maize
Simki
Taffi
Tsila
shumba
Sinday
Shumbi
Fruits Carica papaya L
Mangifera indica L.
Persea americana
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.
Psidium guajava L.
Musa paradisiaca L.
Papaya
Mango
Avocado
Lemon
Zeytun
Banana
Papaya
Mangu
Avucadu
Lumini
Zeytun
Muzi
Vegetables Brassica oleracea L
Capsicum frutescens L
Cabbage
Pepper
Amli
Kitu
21
Lycopersicon esculentum
Mill
Allium sativum L.
Cucurbita pepo L
Allium cepa L
Tomato
Garlic
Pumpkin
Shallot
Timatim
Shinkurchi
Patu
Dimi
Shinkurchi
Root crop and
Stem crops
Solanum tuberosum
Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam
Daucus carota
Potato
Sweet potato
Carrot
Dunizi
Shuqur
dunizi
Carut
Oil crops Linum usitatissimum L
Guizoia abyssinica(L.f.)
Ricinus communis L
Lin seed
Niger seed
Gulo
Tilbi
Liniguhie
Chaqimi
Pulses Pisum sativum L.
Vicia faba L.
Cicer arientinum
Pea
Bean
Chickpea
Huna atirie
Girigi atirie
Shimbrie
Cash crops Coffee arabica L.
Nicotiana tabacum L
Coffee
Tobacco
Bunn
Sijarie
22
3.1.5. Human health
The numbers of health stations in the woreda are; hospital 1, health centers 8, health extensions
33 and the total civil servants employed in these stations are males 139, females 196, and total
335.The health problems in Ankesha District are directly or indirectly related to the problems of
sanitation, inadequate diet, lack of potable water and poor physical condition of the houses. Data
obtained from Health Office of Ankesha District (2017) show the three common health problems
in the District based on the number of local people who have visited health services are febrile,
Acute upper respiratory and infections, Helminthiasis in 2015/16; Acute upper respiratory
infections, diarrhea in 2016/17(Source; AWHO), 2017)
Table 2. Ten top human ailments in 2015-2017 and number of patients treated in study area
2015 2016 2017
Diseases Total Diseases Total Diseases Total
Febrile 9703 Febrile 11,104 Febrile 4935
Acute upper
respiratory
infections
6422 Acute upper
respiratory
infections
7699 Acute upper
respiratory
infections
3644
Helminthiasis 5389 Diarrhea 6665 Diarrhea 2733
Diarrhea 4872 Helminthiasis 5996 Helminthiasis 2264
23
Diseases of
musculoskeletal
system &
connective
tissue
4026 Diseases of
musculoskeletal
system &
connective tissue
4266 Diseases of
musculoskeletal
system &
connective
tissue
2217
Trauma 3522 Infections of skin
& subcutaneous
tissue
3725 Infections of
skin &
subcutaneous
tissue
1906
Infections of
skin &
subcutaneous
tissue
3445 Trauma 3522 Trauma 1650
Malaria 2625 Urinary tract
infection
2343 Urinary tract
infection
1148
Urinary tract
infection
2040 Unspecific
diseases
1666 Malaria 811
Unspecific
diseases
1536 Malaria 1607 Asthma 632
24
3.2. Reconnaissance survey and selection of the study sites
Ankesha woreda has total of 16 kebeles. Reconnaissance survey was conducted from September
to October 2017 to select 8 potential kebeles, which included; Bekafita, Hateta, SosituG/bet,
Denatiquasheta, Sositu Tirba, Gewena, 01 and 02 kebeles for ethnobotanical data collections.
These kebeles were purposively selected based on the availability of traditional medicine
practitioners, traditional medicine use history, and altitudinal variation between kebeles.
A total of 60 informants (22 females and 38 males), out of these, 8 key informants were selected
by purposive random sampling based on the recommendations of local authorities and
knowledgeable elders. The other 52 informants were selected randomly from the local people of
the study area. Age group of the informants consists of young (20-39), middle (40-49) and elders
(50-80)
3.3. Data collection technique
3.3.1. Semi structured interview
Semi- structured interviews were prepared and used as guide following Martin (1995); Cotton
(1996).
Semi structured interview allowed the investigator to provide supplementary question when
needed. The items in the questionnaire were first prepared in English based on modified other
related literatures (Appendix 6).Then they had been translated into local language Awigna and
Amharic. Most of the questions were focused on the availability, distribution and threats of
traditional medicinal plants in Ankesha wereda. From Bekafita, Hateta, Denatiquasheta,
SosituTirba, Sositu G/bet, Gewena, 01and 02 kebeles 60 respondents were selected for this
25
interview since these could gave significant information for the investigator about the
conservation, distribution threats of traditional medicinal plants and information flow from elders
to youngers.
Key informants were first interviewed individually (Appendix 7) to mention about types of
human and livestock ailments in the study area, the local names of the plants they use to treat
diseases, diseases treated, part(s) of plants used, methods of gathering, methods of preparation of
remedies, route of administration of remedies, application of the remedies, dosage, side effects of
the treatment, use of the plants other than medicine, types of threat and conservation problems.
3.3.2. Group discussion
According to Martin (1995), intuition and experience are the best guides to informal ways of
gathering information.
Group discussion was conducted one times with the most knowledgeable ones who were
suggested by respective kebele elders and administrators about the status of the distribution,
threats and conservation attempt of traditional medicinal plants. Six male respondents were
participating in group discussion in Bekafita Kebele for one hour. They interacted face to face and
actively discussed on the distribution, threats and conservation in order to share information about
a topic. During the discussion, the informants were free to state about the traditional medicinal
plants without interference (Figure 2).
26
Figure 2. Group discussion with informants at Bekafita Kebele [Photo courtesy by Bereket Nega
2018]
3.3.3 .Field observation
Field observation was conducted in Zehtsi Forest at Hateta kebele, Techtsi Forest at Bekafita
kebele, Tirba Forest in Tirba kebele Dangula Washa in Denatiquasheta (Figure 3). Field
observation was carried out with the guidance of the local people. Important points such as the
plant community and the status of the medicinal plants in each visually identified plant ethno-
community type and cultivation practices of medicinal plants by the local people were also be
recorded. This field observation was carried with the famous traditional healer in each kebele
27
Figure 3. Forests of the study area (A-Zehtsi Forest dominated by Thalictrum rhynchocarpum , B-
Techtsi Forest dominated by Acacia pilispina and C-Dangula Washa Forest dominated by Croton
macrostachyus ) [Photo courtesy by Alemitu Adane 2018]
3.3.4. Guided field walk
Guided field walk is a combination of observation and interview methods. In this method, the
researcher guided some interviewee to the most knowledgeable once who was suggested by
respective kebele elders and administrators through areas where the plants of interest were
expected to be found. Specimen collection and recording had done at spot while the interview is
undergoing. It gave time to observe and discuss parts of plant harvesting or patterns of plant
distribution (Figure 4). .
BA C
28
Figure 4. Guided field walk (Left Hateta Kebele While the right Tirba Kebele) [Photo courtesy by
Sibihat Nega 2018]
3.3.5. Market survey
Market survey had taken in one market within Ankesha Woreda, Gimjabet Mariam market to
observe and collect data on the marketability and trade of medicinal plants (Figure 5). Therefore,
a market survey was conducted to gather the ethnobotanical information, to distinguish and record
the type of herbal drugs sold in the market, and the multipurpose role of some medicinal plants.
29
Figure 5. Market survey (Gimjabet Mariam market in different position)[Photo courtesyby Alemitu Adane 2018]
3.3.6. Specimen collection and identification
Medicinal plants were collected from wild and cultivated areas. The local names, habits and
associated plants were collected. The collected voucher specimens were taken to the National
Herbarium of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa University). The identification was done from March to
April by using various volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Finally, the identification of
the voucher specimens was confirmed by my advisor Dr. Ermias Lulekal and deposited at
National Herbarium of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa University).
3.4. Data analyses
3.4.1. Descriptive statistics
The ethnobotanical data was entered into microsoft Excel 2007spread sheet and organized for
statistical analysis.
30
A descriptive statistical method was applied to compute the (percentage and/or frequency) of
species,genera and families ofethnobotanical medicinal plants, their growth forms, proportion of
plant parts harvested,mode of remedy preparation and routes of administration.
3.4.2. Informant Consensus Factor
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated for categories of ailments to identify the
agreements of the informants on the reported cures using the formula. ICF was calculated using
the following formula ICF = Nur −Nt/ (Nur −1) Where Nur is the number of individual plant use
reports for a particular ailment category, and Nt is the total number of species used by all
informants for this aliment category (Martin, 1995). It may be used to analyze the data which will
be gathered through group discussion.
3.4.3. Direct matrix ranking
The direct matrix ranking was done as group exercise in which participants reach consensus on
ranking of each item or vote according to their individual assessments (Martin, 1995).
3.4.4. Preference ranking
Preferance ranking was conducted by using eight key informants to rank seven medicinal plants
reported to cure abdominal pain with different parts of medicinal plant used being paper tagged
then asked to assign the highest value (7) for the most preferred species against this illness and the
lowest value (1) for the least preferred plant and in accordance of their order for the remaining
one. The value of each species was summed up and the rank for each species determined based on
the total score. This helps to indicate the rank order of the most effective medicinal plants used by
the community to treat the disease.
31
3.4.5. Fidelity level (FL)
The percentage of informants claiming the use of a certain plant for the same major purpose was
also calculated for the most frequently reported diseases or ailments using the following equation
(TilahunTeklehaymanot, 2007).
FL (%) = NP∕N×100
Where NP is the number of informants that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular
disease, and N is the number of informants that use the plants as a medicine to treat any given
disease.
32
4. Results
4.1. Ethnomedicinal Plant Species of the Study Area
A total of 62 species of medicinal plants used to treat different health problems were gathered and
documented from the study area. These plants were found to belong to 59 genera and 40 families.
Out of these plants, 51 species (82.2%) were noted to treat only human ailments while 5 species
(8.1%) are used to treat livestock ailments and 6 species (9.7%) were reported to be to treat both
human and livestock ailments. In terms of species composition, family, Asteraceae contained 5
species family because of treating different disease and their diversity in the study area;
Cucurbitaceae& Rosaceae consisted 4 species each (Table 3) (Appendix3).
Table 3. Distribution of collected species in different families
Family No. of genera Percent (%) No. of species Percent (%)
Asteraceae 4 6.77 5 8.06
Cucurbitaceae 4 6.77 4 6.45
Rosaceae 3 5.08 4 6.45
Rutaceae 2 3.38 3 4.83
Euphorbiaceae 3 5.08 3 4.83
Solanaceae 3 5.08 3 4.83
Alliaceae 1 1.69 2 3.22
Oleaceae 2 3.38 2 3.22
Poaceae 1 1.66 2 3.22
Myrtaceae 1 1.66 2 3.22
Ranunculaceae 1 1.66 2 3.22
Fabaceae 2 3.38 2 3.22
Malvaceae 2 3.38 2 3.22
The remaining
species
1 45.76 1 41.93
33
4.2 Medicinal plants Used to Treat Human and Livestock Diseases
The numbers of ethnomedicinally important plant species that were reported to treat human
ailments in the 8 kebeles of Ankesha Woreda were 62 species which were mentioned to treat 47
different human and livestock ailments. Out of total (40) families and 59 genera, only 32 families
and 49 genera are used to treat human ailments (Table 4), while the rest 8 families and 10 genera
are used to treat livestock and both.
Table 4. Medicinal plants used to treat only human diseases
Family No. of genera Percent No. of species Percent
Rosaceae 2 5.4 4 7.8
Cucurbitaceae 1 2.7 4 7.8
Rutaceae 1 2.7 4 7.8
Euphorbiaceae 1 2.7 3 5.9
Asteraceae 1 2.7 2 3.9
Alliaceae 2 5.7 2 3.9
Oleaceae 1 2.7 2 3.9
Poaceae 1 2.7 2 3.9
Myrtaceae 1 2.7 2 3.9
Malvaceae 1 2.7 2 3.9
34
Table 5. Medicinal plant used to treat only livestock diseases
Family No. of genera Percent No. of species Percent
Asteraceae 1 20 1 20
Fabaceae 1 20 1 20
Solanaceae 1 20 1 20
Bignoniaceae 1 20 1 20
Scrophulariaceae 1 20 1 20
82.20%
8.10%
9.70%
Human
Livestock
Both
Figure 6. Medicinal Plants used to treat Human, Human & Livestock and Livestock ailments
In this study some plants were reported to have medicinal value more frequently than others to
treat various ailments. For example Euphorbia ampliphylla, was cited by 38 informants as a
source of remedy for treating Ascaris, Rabies virus, Leprosy and Wart followed by Allium
sativum cited by 32 informants for intestinal pain, common cold, Kidney pain, Malaria and
Kidney filtration; Carica papaya by 26 informants to treat Diabetes, Blood pressure and Wound
Lepidium sativum by 20 informants to treat Tumor and Gonorrhea Cucurbita pepo; by 15
35
informants to treat Tape worm and Joint pain; Zehneria scabra by 13 informants to treat common
cold; Croton macrostachyus by 12 informants to treat skin fungal disease; Phytolaca dodecandra
by12(20%) informants to treat Vomiting(kuriba);Ruta chalepensis by 8 informants to treat
Common cold; Zingiberofficinale by 6 to treat abdominal pain(Table 6).
Table 6 .Medicinal plants cited most by informants
Scientific name of plants No. of informants Percentage
Euphorbia ampliphylla 38 63.33
Allium sativum 32 53.33
Carica papaya. 26 43.33
Lepidium sativum 20 33.33
Cucurbita pepo 15 25
Zehneria scabra 13 21.66
Croton macrostachyus 12 20
Phytolaca dodecandra 12 20
Ruta chalepensis 8 13.33
Zingiberofficinale 6 10
4.2 1. Sources (Habitats) of medicinal plant
The majority of medicinal plant species were obtained from wild followed by home garden, road
side, agricultural field and live fence (Table 7). The fact that high number of medicinal plant
species was obtained from wild suggests that; the wild environment is highly exploited for its
medicinal plant resources hence needs prior conservation attention.
36
Table 7. Distribution of medicinal plants in different habitats
4.2.2. Plant habits (growth forms)
Analysis of growth forms of these medicinal plants (Figure 7 ) revealed that herbs constitute the
largest category ( 23 species, 37.1%) of the reported human and livestock medicinal plants
followed by shrubs (18 species, 29%), trees (15 species,24.2%) and climbers (6 species, 9.7%).
Habitat type No. of medicinal
plants
Percentage
Wild 30 48.4
Home garden 18 29
Road side 6 9.6
Agricultural field 4 6.5
Live fence 4 6.5
Total 62 100
37
Figure 7. Habits of medicinal plants used for human and livestock
4.2.3. Plant part(s) used for medicine
During the study different parts of medicinal plants were reported by respondants to be used for
medicines. The most frequently utilized plant parts were leaves followed by roots (Table 8).
38
Table 8. Plant parts used for traditional medicine preparations in Ankesha woreda
4.2.4. Preparation methods of remedies
Concerning the preparation of traditional medicine, the local people employ various methods of
preparation of traditional medicines for human and livestock ailments. The method of preparation
depends on the type of disease treated. The major methods of preparation of medicinal plants
were crushing(53.5%),squeezing(12.6%),chewing(12.6%),boiling(9.8%),soaking(4.2%),and
roasting(2.8%)(Table 9).
Plant parts Total responses % of total
Leaves 30 29.7
Roots 25 24.7
Seeds 14 13.8
Fruits 7 6.9
Stems 7 6.9
Bulbs 5 4.9
Sap 4 3.9
Latex 3 2.9
Bark 2 1.9
Flower 2 1.9
Bud 2 1.9
39
Table 9 .Preparation methods of herbal medicine reported by people of Ankesha woreda
Forms of preparation Total responses % of total
Crushing 38 53.5%
Squeezing 9 12.6%
Chewing 9 12.6%
Boiling 7 9.8%
Soaking 3 4.2%
Roasting 2 2.8%
Cooking 1 1.4%
Roasting and crushing 1 1.4%
Chopping and boiling 1 1.4%
4.2.5. Conditions of preparation of remedies
Local people of the study area prepare medicinal plants are in fresh form, dried or fresh and dried.
The results showed that herbal remedies are prepared using fresh material 35 (56.5%), while 7
(11.3%) were used in the case of dried plant material and 20 (32.2%) either fresh or dried (Fig 8).
40
56.50%
11.30%
32.20%
Fresh
Dry
Fresh&dry
Figure 8. Conditions of preparation of plant remedies in Ankesha district
4.2.6. Dosage and route of administrations
The route of Administration includes oral, dermal, nasal, ear canal and optical. From the reported
route of Administration the highest use through oral (62.6%), dermal (21.2%) ((Fig 9)
Figure 9. Route of administration of plant remedies used for human and livestock
41
4.2.7. Ways of applications of plant remedies
The prepared traditional medicines are applied in a number of methods, among which drinking
(33%), smearing (15.5%), eating (13.7%), put on and tide (10.7%), chewing (8.8%), smoking
(6.8%), dropping (5.8%) swallowing (2.9%) and others (2.9%) (Table10).
Table 10. Ways of application of plant remedies in human and livestock ailment treatment
No. Ways of Applications Total Responses Percentage (% )
Drinking 34 33%
smearing 16 15.5%
Eating 14 13.7%
Put on and tie 11 10.7%
Chewing 9 8.8%
4.2.8. Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The diseases of the study area have been grouped into different categories based on the types of
the diseases, condition of the disease as well as treatment resemblance of the disease to the local
people. The results of the study showed that diseases that are frequent in the study area have
higher informant consensus factor. It is further shown that medicinal plants that are effective in
treating certain diseases and well known by community members also have higher ICF values
(Table 11).
42
Table 11.Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)
Disease categories Nt Nur ICF
Skin problems,dandruff,athlete’sfoot,wound 4 59 0.94
Abdominal pain ,intestinal pain, diarrhea, vomiting 4 45 0.93
Organ diseases; eye ear,teeth,head,kidney,liver 5 58 0.92
Respiratory system problems, common cold, cough 5 48 0.91
STDs menstrual problem, sexual impotency,abortion,shotel 4 32 0.9
Swelling,’mich’,dehydration, 3 20 0.89
Malaria, rabies viruses 4 29 0.89
Evil eye 2 10 0.88
Joint pain, hiccup, 3 13 0.83
Diabetes ,blood pressure 3 11 0.8
Animal diseases ,leeches ,anthrax, animal bit, colic, skinny 7 30 0.79
Tonsillitis ,goiter 4 15 0.78
4.2.9. Fidelity level index (FLI)
Fidelity level (FL) values were calculated for some commonly used medicinal plants against the
some commonly reported ailments: Allium sativum (against malaria), Croton macrostachyus
(against skin fungal disease), Euphorbia ampliphylla (against Skin wart and leprosy), Phytolacca
dodecandra (against vomiting), Ruta chalepensis (against common cold), Embelia schimperi
(against tape worm) and Vernonia amygdalina (against abdominal pain) (Table 12).
43
Table 12. Fidelity level index of some medicinal plants
4.2.10. Preference ranking
When there are different species prescribed for the same health problem, people show preference
of one over the other. Preference ranking of seven medicinal plants that were reported for treating
abdominal pain was conducted after selecting eight key informants. The informants were asked to
compare the given medicinal plants based on their efficacy and to give the highest number (7) for
most effective and the lowest number (1) for the least effective plant in treating abdominal pain.
Zingiber officinalea scored 42 ranked first indicating that it is the most effective in treating
abdominal pain followed by Allium sativum and the least effective was coriandrum sativum
(Table13)
Botanical Name of
Medicinal Plants
Examples of ailment
treated
N p N FL FL%
Allium sativum Malaria 28 30 0.93 93
Croton macrostachyus Skin fungal disease 24 26 0.92 92
Euphorbia ampliphylla Skin wart and leprosy 19 22 0.86 86
Phytolacca dodecandra Vomiting or” kuruba” 14 17 0.82 82
Ruta chalepensis Common cold 12 16 0.75 75
Embelia schimperi Tape worm 10 14 0.71 71
Vernonia amygdalina Abdominal pain 9 13 0.69 69
44
Table 13. Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating abdominal pain
List of medicinal plants R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 Total Rank
Zingiber officinale 7 6 6 7 4 3 7 3 42 1st
Allium sativum 7 5 6 5 7 2 5 4 41 2nd
Vernonia amygdalina 5 4 5 6 3 2 6 5 36 3rd
Lepidium sativum 5 6 3 5 4 4 3 3 33 4th
Trigonella foenum- graecum 4 5 4 2 5 3 1 2 26 5th
Rubus steudneri 4 2 3 2 2 4 1 2 20 6th
Coriandrum sativum 3 3 2 1 4 2 2 1 18 7th
Key R-informants
4.2.11. Direct matrix ranking
Direct matrix ranking FW-fire wood, For-forage, Co-constraction, Fu-furniture, Ch-charcoal, Fe-
fence, Me-medicine.
Average score for direct matrix ranking of six medicinal plant species based on their general use
values (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used and 0 = not used)(Table
14).
45
Table 14. Ranking of multipurpose medicinal plants
Species Use categories Total Rank
Fw For Co Fu Fo Ch Fe Me
Rubus apetalus 5 2 0 0 3 3 5 5 23 3rd
Eucalyptus globulus 4 0 5 3 0 5 4 4 25 1st
Carissa spinarum 4 0 1 1 4 4 4 3 21 4th
Rubus steudneri 2 1 1 0 4 2 5 4 19 6th
Arundinaria alpina 4 3 5 5 0 0 5 2 24 2nd
Embelia schimperi 2 2 0 2 3 2 5 5 21 5th
Total 21 8 12 11 14 16 28 23 132
Rank 3rd 8th 6th 7th 5th 4th 1st 2nd
4.3 .Market survey in the study area
The local market surveys were conducted with in the area of research to document the medicinal
plants used in health ailments that are sold in local markets. But, there were not medicinal plants
that are sold in the market legally. During the interview, the respondents explained that most
healers prepared and sold TMPs in the home rather than selling in the market. Since the local
people prefer either collecting these plants by themselves from the available areas in the district to
prepare the medicines or they prefer to go directly to the local healers to get treatments instead of
buying the medicinal plants from the market.
46
Some medicinal plants (Zingiber officinale, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Ruta chalepensis, Linum
usitatissimum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Citrus Limon, Artemisia abyssinica and Lepidium
sativum) were marketed (Appendix 5).
4.4. Threats to Medicinal Plants and Indigenous Knowledge
4.4.1. Factors Which Threatening Medicinal plants
Rural people need plants in their livelihood for different aspects. From the interview with
informants various factors were recorded as the main threats to medicinal plants in Ankesha
Wereda. Agricultural encroachment, firewood collection, charcoal production, plant use for house
and fence construction, overgrazing, and urbanization were reported to be factors for the
dwindling of natural vegetation in general and medicinal plants in particular(Table15).
Table 15. Ranking of threats to medicinal plants
Threat R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 Total Rank
Agricultural expansion 6 5 3 4 5 2 6 6 37 1
Charcoal 5 2 4 5 4 3 6 2 31 4
Fire wood 3 4 5 5 2 6 4 5 34 2
Construction 4 5 3 2 5 3 5 6 33 3
Fodder 2 3 1 4 5 2 2 3 22 6
Drought 5 6 4 3 6 2 1 3 30 5
4.4.2. Threatened medicinal plants
The ranking of five medicinal plants based on the degree of threats was conducted using 8 key
informants. The results indicated that Echinops kebericho was the most threatened medicinal
47
plant followed by Aloe trigonantha and Kalanchoe petitiana and the least threatened were
Phoenix reclinata and Embelia schimperi respectively.
The ranking of five medicinal plants based on the degree of threats was conducted using 8 key
informants (Table16).
Table 16.Ranking of threatened plants
Threatened plants Informants
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 Total Rank
Aloe trigonantha 3 4 5 3 5 3 4 5 32 2nd
Echinops kebericho 5 4 5 4 3 5 3 5 34 1st
Embelia schimperi 3 2 3 2 2 4 5 3 24 5th
Phoenix reclinata 4 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 27 4th
Kalanchoe petitiana 2 3 4 5 4 3 5 4 30 3rd
4.5. Management and conservation of medicinal plants
Informants reported that the healers know time and processes of gathering and storing medicinal
plants. It is once a year that some medicinal plants are collected and preserved. Seed, leaf, fruit or
root are harvested, dried and preserved in roof corners or outside house, and dried parts are
powdered and stored in different containers like pots, bottles or tied with clothes and used when
needed. Indigenous people of the area have strong and genuine belief on healing power of plants
and they know their habitat, distribution, harvesting technique, time of harvest and the status of a
plant in the area. For instance, 24 medicinal plants were found in majority of family gardens and
farm borders in the study area, as they need these plants in their daily life as medicine or for other
48
values. Medicinal plants were also maintained or protected near vicinity due to their fragrance, as
live fence to avoid enemies, as spices and for food. Plants are also left as remnants of forest in
agricultural field due to their uses for construction, fuel wood and other values.
49
5. Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1. Discussion
5.1.1. Ethnomedicinal Plant Species of the Study Area
A total of 62 species of medicinal plants used to treat different health problems were gathered and
documented from the study area. These plants were grouped to 59 genera and 40 families. The
presence of 62 plants used by the local people to treat 47 different types of human and livestock
ailment was a good indication of the deep rooted culture of medicinal plants use in the study area.
Out of these, more number of medicinal plants (51) were used for treatment of human ailments.
This result shows that the local communities have more indigenous knowledge and give emphasis
to the uses of medicinal plants to treat human ailments than livestock diseases. This result is
similar with other results which were documented in other study sites of Ethiopia (Tesfaye Awas
and Sebsebe Demissew, 2009; Mirutse Giday et al., 2009; Moa Megersa, 2010; Getaneh
Gebeyehu, 2011).
The presence of traditional knowledge and practice on large number of medicinal plants by people
of Ankesha woreda shows that the indigenous people of the area still depends on traditional
medicine of plant origin. About 75-90 % of the rural population in the world (excluding western
countries) relies on traditional medicines as their only health care system, because of their
availability and cheap coast. Some of the medicinal plants recorded in Ankesha district are also
used as remedies in other parts of Ethiopia Fisseha Mesfin (2007) documented 30 plant species.
In terms of species composition, family, Asteraceae contained 5 species which may related to its
abundance and distribution in the study area. But families; Cucurbitaceae& Rosaceae consisted 4
species each followed by Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae and Solanaceae consisting of 3 species each.
The remaining families contained two or one species each. Similarly the dominance of family
50
Asteraceae for the treatment of human diseases was reported in the work of Endalew Amenu
(2007) and, Seyoum Getaneh (2009).
5.1.2. Habits and Sources of Medicinal Plants
In this study most medicinal plants were collected from the wild (48.4%).But the rest were
collected from home gardens (29%), roadside (9.6%), agricultural field (6.5%) and live
fence(6.5%).The finding is similar with the findings of other ethnobotanical studies elsewhere
(Haile Yineger and Delenasaw Yewhalaw, 2007; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2008; Tesfaye
Hailemariam et al., 2009; Getu Alemayehu, 2010; Nigussie Amsalu, 2010; Emiru Birhane et al.,
2011; Gidey Yirga et al., 2011) in which wild areas are the most sources of medicinal plants. This
indicates that the practitioners mostly exploit the wild sources or the natural environment rather
than homegardens to obtain the medicinal plants in the study area.
Of the total 62 medicinal plants collected from the study area, 23 (37.1 %) were herb species
followed by, 18 (29%) shrub species, 15 (24.2 %) tree species and 6 (9.7%) climbers. This shows
that the most widely used medicinal plants in the study area are herbs followed by shrubs. This
may be due to high level of abundance and distribution of herbs in the study area compared to
trees and climber species. Relatively high number of herbs and shrubs for medicinal purpose has
also been reported previously by Debela Hunde (2004) who studied medicinal plants of Boosat
around Welenchiti area.
5.1.3. Plant Parts Used, Conditions and Mode of Preparation
Results of plant parts used for medicinal purposes indicated that, the local communities mostly
use leaves (29.7%) followed by roots (24.7%). Other plant parts were also used to prepare
traditional medicine, i.e., seeds (13.8%), fruits (6.9%), stem (6.9%), bulbs (4.9%), sap (3.9%),
51
latex (2.9%), barks (1.9%), flowers (1.9%) and buds (1.9%). Analysis of the data showed that leaf
was the most widely used part for preparation of remedies. Previous reports in Ethiopia have also
shown that leaves were the most commonly used: followed by roots to treat various health
problems (Mirutse Giday, 2001; Haile Yineger and Delenasaw Yewhalaw, 2007; Mirutse Giday
et al., 2009; Tesfaye Hailemariam et al., 2009).
Given the highest frequency of leaves used for medicinal purposes in the study area, threat to the
destruction of medicinal plants was found to be minimal, as high threat to the mother plant comes
with root, bark and stem harvest. According to Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu (1993) medicinal
plant harvest that involves roots, rhizomes, bulbs, barks and stems have serious effect on the
survival of mother plants.
There are different methods of traditional medicinal plant preparations of remedies. The most
frequent and popular mode of preparation was in the form of crushed which accounts (53.5%)
followed by squeezing (12.6%), chewing (12.6%), boiling (9.8%). However, Getaneh Gebeyehu
(2011), in a similar study on people of Mecha District reported that most of the plant remedies are
prepared by squeezing.
In this study, the local people also use some other products as additives in their preparations. For
example, water, oil, butter, salt, milk, honeys are some of the additives that the local people
reported to be used to improve the flavor and reduce adverse effects such as vomiting and
diarrhea so that the efficacy of the traditional medicine would be maintained or increased. Such
additives were also reported by some previous researchers (Dawit Abebe, 1986; Mirutse Giday,
1999).
52
The results showed that herbal remedies were prepared using fresh material 35 (56.5%), while 7
(11.3%) were used in the case of dried plant material and 20 (32.2%) either fresh or dried
similarly, a study conducted by previous researchers Endalew Amenu (2007); Haile Yineger and
Delenasaw Yewhalaw (2007); Moa Megersa (2010) and Nigussie Amsalu (2010), showed that
using fresh materials for different health problems is more than dry materials because the contents
are not lost before use compared to the dried forms.
5.1.4. Route of Administration, Dosage and Application of Medicinal Plants
The route of Administration includes oral, dermal, auricular, nasal, and others. Overall, oral
administration was reported as a dominant route of administration (62.6%) followed by dermal
route (21.2 %) and others (16.2%). Both oral and dermal routes permit rapid physiological
reaction of the prepared medicines with the pathogens and increase its curative power. This
finding agrees with some previous reports (Dawit Abebe, 1986).
The dosages of medicine to be administered were reported to be given by rough estimation of the
age and physical condition of the patient. Hence there was no precision on the dosage of the
remedy. Dawit Abebe and Ahadu Ayehu (1993) reported that lack of precision in the dosage is
one of the major drawbacks of practicing traditional remedy.
The prepared traditional medicines are applied in a number of methods, among which drinking
(33%), smearing (15.5%), eating (13.7%), put on and tie (10.7%), chewing (8.8%), smoking
(6.8%), dropping (5.8%) swallowing (2.9%) and others (2.9%).This finding is in agreement with
other findings of ethnobotanical studies in Ethiopia (Alemayehu Kefyalew, 2010; Eskedar Abebe,
2011).
53
5.1.5. Top Ranking Medicinal Plants
Eight respondents were asked to compare Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum Vernonia
amygdalina, Lepidium sativum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Rubus steudneri and Coriandrum
sativum medicinal plants based on their efficacy of to identify the most effective medicinal plant
used for treating abdominal pain. The informants were asked to compare the given medicinal
plants based on their efficacy and to give the highest number (7) for the medicinal plant which
they thought most effective in treating abdominal pain and the lowest number (1) for the least
effective plant in treating abdominal pain. Zingiber officinale scored 42 ranked first indicating
that it is the most effective in treating abdominal pain followed by Allium sativum, Vernonia
amygdalina, Lepidium sativum and coriandrum sativum was the least effective. On the other hand
study by Mohammed Adafa (2009) reported that Allium sativum is the most preferred species in
the treatment of several diseases followed by Nigella sativa in Tuhuledere district, Ethiopia.
The medicinal plants that are widely used by the local people to treat one or very few ailments
will have higher FL values than those that are less popular (Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse
Giday, 2007). For example, Allium sativum was reported by many informants to treat malaria and
hence had 93% FL. In a similar study, Endalew Amenu (2007) has reported Allium sativum to be
the prior plant species used for treating malaria in Ejaji area.
The results showed that some medicinal plants were popular than others. The medicinal plants
were supposed to be effective in treating certain disease had higher ICF values, which indicated
that these diseases were more common than those with low ICF. It is further shown that medicinal
plants that are effective in treating certain diseases and well known by community members also
have higher ICF values. With the ICF values ranging from 0.94 to 0.77 per illness category.
54
Problems of respiratory system had the highest ICF value (0.94) due to the high incidence of the
disease in the area whereas; Heart problems, Diabetes, Blood pressure, had the lowest (0.77) may
be due to the rare occurrence of these diseases and the fact that most are successfully treated by
local healers. According to Tilahun Teklehymanot and Mirutse Giday, (2007) medicinal plants
that are presumed to be effective in treating a certain disease have higher ICF values. A high ICF
value close to 1 indicates that the respondents rely most on the same taxa to manage specific
disease condition, While low values of ICF close to 0 indicate that the informants disagree on the
taxa to be used in the treatment of a given ailments.
In this study, a number of medicinal plants were found to be multipurpose species being utilized
for a variety of uses. The common uses include medicinal, fodder, food, firewood, construction,
charcoal, fencing and furniture making. Six commonly reported multipurpose species and eight
use-categories were involved in direct matrix ranking exercise in order to evaluate their relative
importance to the local people and the extent of the existing threats related to their use values.
Eucalyptus globulus and Arundinaria alpina, were ranked 1st and 2nd and hence are the most
preferred medicinal plants by local people for various uses and are the most abundant species as
the informants reported, which was not evidently shown by their distribution scarcity and time
required for collection of these species.
Similarly, the values for use reports across the selected species were summed up and ranked. The
results show that the local people harvest eight multipurpose species mainly for fencing medicine
firewood, charcoal, Food, construction, furniture, forage, and with the rank of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th,
6th, 7th and 8th respectively. Thus, the long-term survival of the top- ranked species is under
question, as the daily demand of the local society is usual and continuous with lesser rate of re-
55
plantation, except for Eucalyptus globulus. This was evidenced by the high rate of loss of
Arundinaria alpina in the area.
5.1.6. Marketable Medicinal Plants
The local market surveys were conducted with in the area of research to document the medicinal
plants used in health ailments that are sold in local markets. But, there were not medicinal plants
that are sold in the market legally. During the interview, the respondents explained that most
healers prepared and sold TMPs in the home rather than selling in the market. Since the local
people prefer either collecting these plants by themselves from the available areas in the district to
prepare the medicines or they prefer to go directly to the local healers to get treatments instead of
buying the medicinal plants from the market.
Some medicinal plants (Zingiber officinale, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Ruta chalepensis, Linum
usitatissimum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Citrus limon, Artemisia abyssinica) were marketed
but only for other use values like for spices, food and fumigation. This result agreed with the
study reported by Eskedar Abebe (2011) in Debark Woreda, North Gonder, Etana Tolasa (2007)
in Gimbi Woreda Westren Wollega and Getu Alemayehu (2010) in Minjar Shenkora district. But
in other case Lepidium sativum was sold for the purpose of medicine and measured with a very
small spoon for a price of 5 birr.
5.1.7. Threats and Conservation of Medicinal Plants in the Study Area
Results show that the accessibility of medicinal plants in the study area is less when compared
with the past decade, so informants reported that they require long distance of travelling to fetch
medicinal plants.
56
The ethnobotanical knowledge on uses of medicinal plants is secrete and transferred from one
generation to the next orally. The result of the present study showed that agricultural expansion,
firewood, construction, charcoal, fodder and drought were ranked as the most severe threats not
only to medicinal plants but often plants of the Ankesha District as a whole. In this study
information gathered from the key informants indicated that the threats agricultural expansion is
the major threat to medicinal plants followed by firewood. Similarly, this finding agrees with
other findings (MirutseGiday, 2001).
Indigenous people of the area have strong and genuine belief on healing power of plants and they
know their habitat, distribution, harvesting technique, time of harvest and the status of a plant in
the study area. For instance, 24 medicinal plants were found in majority of family gardens and
farm borders in the study area, as they need these plants in their daily life as medicine or for other
values. According to Zemede Asfaw (2001), cultivation for medicinal value accounted for 6% of
the plants maintained in homegardens in Ethiopia.
Medicinal plants were also maintained or protected near vicinity due to their fragrance, as live
fence to avoid enemies, as spices and for food. Plants are also left as remnants of forest in
agricultural field due to their uses for construction, fuel wood and other values. Similarly Behailu
Etana (2010) cited that agricultural expansion and fire wood are the most threatening factors.
57
5.2 Conclusion
Sixty-two medicinal plants were recorded in the study area of which 51 species were noted to
treat human ailments while 5 species were documented to treat livestock ailments and 6 species
were reported to be used to treat both livestock and human ailments. The majority of medicinal
plant species were obtained from the wild (30) followed by home garden (18), road side (6),
agricultural field (4) and live fence (4). In the study area, 47 ailments were reported which were
being treated by traditional medicinal plants of the area. Herbal remedies were prepared from
fresh materials 35 (56.5 %), dried plant materials7 (11.3 %) and fresh or dried 20 (32.2%). Herbs
were highly utilized 23(37.1%) for medicinal purpose than trees, shrubs and climbers. 29 (28.7%)
leaves were used for medicinal purpose more than other plant parts for preparation of human and
livestock remedies. The remedies were taken with different additive and solvents and water is
more frequently used for this purpose. Most of the medicinal plants were administered orally
(62.6%), followed by dermal (21.2%). The major threats to medicinal plants and the associated
knowledge in the study area were agricultural expansion, firewood collection, construction,
charcoal production, fodder and drought in that order. Whereas threats that erode indigenous
knowledge emanate from secrecy, oral based knowledge transfer, unwillingness of young
generation to gain the knowledge, unavailability of the species, influence of modern education
and awareness factors were the major ones. Therefore, awareness creation campaigns are timely
needed to improve local community’s knowledge on the importance and management of
medicinal plants and awareness raising should be made among the healers so as to avoid erosion
of the indigenous knowledge and to ensure its sustainable use.
58
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the finding of the study, the following recommendations were suggested.
The local community of the study area should be involved in conservation and
management of plant resources and their indigenous knowledge in their locality.
The Government should encourage and license the indigenous knowledge and skill of
traditional medicine practitioners.
The Woreda Agricultural Office and local elder people must be taught of growing
medicinal plants in home gardens mixing with crops in the agricultural fields and live
fences.
The Woreda Administration and woreda Health Office have to encourage the local herbal
medicine practitioners to enhance the use of traditional medicine through licensing and
other incentives.
Local government give awareness for young generation, to avoid negative impacts on the
medicinal plants and associated knowledge in the area, hence, documentation of the
medicinal plants of the area needs to continue.
The Government and health office should give attention so as to standardize standardise
measurements and maintain hygiene of the medicines made from plants by training both
the healers and other members of the local community.
To give more support to the finding of this research, further scientific investigations are
needed for Croton macrostachyus and Lepidium sativum to extract active contents and run
pharmaceutical research.
59
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Appendix 1. List of human and livestock diseases which are treated by medicinal plants in the study area
No. Local Name English Name No. Local Name English Name
1 Shewu quniza Abdominal pain 26 Chahawu Hepatitis2 Gyemitsign Abortion 27 Seba Stabbing pain3 Ameba Amoebiosis 28 Shinki Hypertension4 Wesfat Ascariasis 29 Ahitini danti Internal parasite5 Asim Asthma 30 Kuritimi Joint pain6 Bila Athlete’s foot 31 Kulalita qunzi Kidney pain7 Mahuristign Bloating 32 Gintsiqi Leech
8 Anigu eniqari Breast swelling 33 Hisanti qunzi Leprosy9 Fihutsiwu qunzi Bronchitis 34 Shuta Malaria10 Glavi Colic 35 Gisiegne qunza Rabies11 Goni Common cold 36 Shotelay RH factor12 Wuri Coughing 37 Wulitini Skinny(weak body)13 Huribi Dandruff 38 Muri egna Snake bite14 Shiquar qunza Diabetes 39 Kinchif Syphilis15 Enigiquwi Diarrhea 40 Shinchi Tape worm16 Enquwahi nefsati Ear insect 41 Tsagnaja Tonsillitis17 Enquwahi
chiggerEar problem 42 Erkuwi qunza Tooth ache
18 Chifa Eczema 43 Gurandi Tumor(wart)19 Gudali Evil eye 44 Gerkagaw Ekil Uncontrolled
menstruation20 Elu chigger Eye problem 45 Kinchif Venereal disease21 Chiguri Gastritis 46 Liqitsi Vomiting22 Garidia Giardiasis 47 Lahane Wound25 Gnari qunza Head ache
71
Appendix 2. The most frequent human and livestock diseases and number of plant species used
Disease treated Total Species PercentWound 10 10.52Common cold 6 6.31Evil eye 5 5.26Tape worm 5 5.26Ear disease 5 5.26Abdominal pain 4 4.21Swelling 4 4.21Malaria 3 3.15Skin fungal disease 3 3.15Skin wart and leprosy 3 3.15Eye disease 3 3.15Toothache 3 3.15Hypertension 3 3.15Tonsillitis 3 3.15Stomach problem 3 3.15Rabies 2 2.1Ascariasis 2 2.1Amoeba 2 2.1Syphilis 2 2.1Diabetes 2 2.1Diarrhea 2 2.1Hiccup 2 2.1Joint pain 2 2.1Cough 1 1.05Kidney disease 1 1.05Abortion 1 1.05Intestinal parasites 1 1.05Bronchitis 1 1.05Headache 1 1.05Snake bite 1 1.05Gonorrhea 1 1.05Hepatitis 1 1.05Goiter 1 1.05Colic 1 1.05Giardiasis 1 1.05Vomiting 1 1.05Asthma 1 1.05Skinny 1 1.05Tumor 1 1.05
72
Appendix 3. Number of medicinal plant species in each family
No. Family Number ofgenera
Number ofplant species
Percentage ofplant species(%)
1 Asteraceae 4 5 8.062 Cucurbitaceae 4 4 6.453 Rosaceae 3 4 6.454 Rutaceae 2 3 4.835 Euphorbiaceae 3 3 4.836 Solanaceae 3 3 4.837 Alliaceae 1 2 3.228 Oleaceae 2 2 3.229 Poaceae 2 2 3.2210 Ranunculaceae 2 2 3.2211 Myrtaceae 2 2 3.2212 Malvaceae 2 2 3.2213 Fabaceae 2 2 3.2214 Apocynaceae 1 1 1.6115 Boraginaceae 1 1 1.6116 Bignoniaceae 1 1 1.6117 Aloaceae 1 1 1.6118 Asclepiadaceae 1 1 1.6119 Scrophulariaceae 1 1 1.6120 Caryophllaceae 1 1 1.6121 Apiaceae 1 1 1.6122 Celastraceae 1 1 1.6123 Rhamnaceae 1 1 1.6124 Caricaceae 1 1 1.6125 Linaceae 1 1 1.6126 Chenopodiaceae 1 1 1.6127 Rubiaceae 1 1 1.6128 Verbenaceae 1 1 1.6129 Capparidaceae 1 1 1.6130 Acanthaceae 1 1 1.6131 Phytolaccaeceae 1 1 1.6132 Arecaceae 1 1 1.6133 Brassicaceae 1 1 1.6134 Moraceae 1 1 1.6135 Myrsinaceae 1 1 1.6136 Combertaceae 1 1 1.6137 Amaranthaceae 1 1 1.6138 Zingiberaceae 1 1 1.6139 Lamiaceae 1 1 1.6140 Crassulaceae 1 1 1.61Total 40 59 62 100
73
Appendix 4. Scientific name, Family name, Local name and growth form of each medicinal plant species in study area
Scientific Name Family nameLocal namein Amharic
& Awigna
Diseasetreated
Mode of preparation and application Growthform
Route
HumanorLivestock
Coll.No
Zingiber officinaleRose
Zingiberaceae Zingible(Gingiblie)
Abdominalpain
Stems: Chewing with salt Herb Oral Human A.A46
Allium cepa L Alliaceae Keyeshinkurt(Gubarie)
Bloodpressure
Bulbs: Crush the bulbs and mix with waterthen drink a cap of juice every morningbefore food
Herb Oral Human A.A47
Euphorbiaampliphylla Pax
Euphorbiaceae
Qulqual(Qulquli)
Ascariasis
Rabiesvirus
Leprosy
Skin Wart
Latex: Prepare injera from teff powder andmilky juice and eat before foodLatex: prepare bread from teff powder andmilky juice after that eat and drink wheyFlower: The flower mix with honey andpaint on wound surfaceLatex: paint the milky juice on wart surface
Tree Oral
Oral
DermalDermal
Human A.A38
Zehneria scabra L Cucurbitaceae
Haregressa(Ehuwaahera)
Commoncold
Leaves: The leaves are boiled with waterand drink
Climber
Oral Human A.A 2
Coriandrumsativum L
Apiaceae Dinbilal(Endadbie)
Diarrhea(Ascariasis)
Seeds: Boil the seeds with water and drinkit
Herb Oral Human A.A44
Cymbopogon sp Poaceae Serdo(Serdu)
Breastswelling
Stem: Crush the stem and mix with honeyand drink it
Grass
Oral Human A.A15
Mentha spicata L Lamiaceae Nana Syphilis Leaves; the leaf is pounded,With butter and creamed on affected part.
Herb Dermal
Human A.A16
Malva verticillataL
Malvaceae Lut(Liti) Head ache Roots: Crush the root and mix with waterand wash the head
Shrub
Dermal
Human A.A20
74
Achyranthesaspera L. Amaranthace
ae
Telenji Diabetesand bloodpressure
Leaves: Crush the dry leaves and boil withwater and drink
Herb Oral Human A.A42
Allium sativum L Alliaceae Nechshinkurt(Fuchishinkurchi)
IntestinalpainKidneypainCommoncoldMalariaKidneyfiltration
Bulbs: Crush the bulb and swallow it beforefoodBulbs: Boil with water and drinkBulbs: Eating with food
Bulbs: Eating one-two parts before food
Herb Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Human A.A48
Combertumterminilia Friss etal Combertacea
eAbalo(Abali)
Eye pain
Leprosy
Buds: Squeeze one-seven buds and paint onthe eyeFruit: Crush the fruit and mix with honeyand paint on wound
Shrub
Optical
Dermal
Human A.A49
Crotonmacrostachyus Del Euphorbiacea
e
Bisana(Asisi)
Fungal skindiseaseMalaria
Buds: The buds are squeezed and thecontent is dropped on the infected siteBuds: Eat fresh shoot tip with shiro wot
Tree Dermal
Oral
Human A.A18
Cucumis ficifoliusA. Rich Cucurbitacea
e
Yemidirembuay (Bitlomena)
Wound
Eczema(Wound)
Snake bit
Roots: Yemidiremboay together withYegibmrkuz (Steganotaenia araliaceae)root crushed and put on wound surfaceFruits: Yemidireemboay together withAllium sativum and Chili (Capsicumannuum)Mix up Honey or Butter and smear onwoundRoots: Chewing the root and swallowingthe juice
Herb Dermal
Dermal
Oral
Human A.A 7
Cucurbita pepoL.Cucurbitaceae
Duba(Patu) Tape worm
Joint pain
Seeds: Crush the seeds and eat with injeraor breadSeeds: Crush the seeds and mix with honeyand drink before food
Climber
Oral
Oral
Human A.A12
Datura stramoniumL.
Solanaceae Astenagir(Asleflif)
Ear insect Leaves: Crush the leaves and squeezed theliquid part and drop into earLeaves: Crush the leaves and paint on
Herb Earcanal
Human A.A 1
75
Dandruff
Toothache
infected area or headSeeds: Dried seeds with Capparistomentosa fresh or dried root is fumigatedorally
Dermal
OralEmbelia schimperiVatke
Myrsinaceae Enkoko(Enkoku)
Tape worm
Hepatitis
Seeds: Crush the seeds and eat withporridge or drink with water
Leaves: Crushed leaves with Niger andafter drink
Herb Oral
Oral
Human A.A43
Ficus carica L. Moraceae Beles Ear pain Sap: Pour the liquid part of the leaves intoear
Shrub
Earcanal
Human A.A29
Hagenia abyssinica(Bruce) J. F. Gmel
Rosaceae Kosso(Shinchi)
Tape worm Fruits: Crush the fruit and mix with waterand drink it
Tree Oral Human A.A22
Lepidium sativumL.
Brassicaceae Feto(Fitsu) TumorGonorrhea
Internalparasite
Stem: Put a hot stem on wound surfaceSeeds: Crush the seeds and mix with boiledmilk and drinkSeeds: Crushed seed mixed with water isgiven orally for cattle
Herb Dermal
Oral
Oral
Human
Livestock
A.A50
PhytolacadodecandraL’Herit
Phytolaccaeceae
Endod(Sbiti) VomitingOr ‘kuruba’
Abortion
Stem: Crush the stem and mix with wheyand drinkLeaves: Squeeze the leaves and drink withhoneyRoots: Crushed root mixed with water isgiven orally
Shrub
Oral
Oral
Human A.A39
Ricinus communisL. Euphorbiacea
e
Chaqma(Chaqimi)
Vomiting‘kuruba’
Roots: Chewing the roots by adding gingerand swallow
Shrub
Oral Human A.A27
Ruta chalepensis L Rutaceae Tenadam(Naruqi)
Commoncold
Malaria
Leaves: Boil the leaves with tea or milk andthen drinkStem: Dried or fresh shoot boiled withginger and drink
Herb Oral
Oral
Human A.A13
76
Sida schimperianaHochst. ex A. Rich
Malvaceae Chifrig Syphilis Roots: Crush the roots and mix with honeyand swallow
Shrub
Oral Human A.A 8
Vernoniaamygdalina Del.
Asteraceae Girawa(Quqitsi)
Abdominalpain
Amoebiosis,Giardiasis
Stomachpain
Leaves: Crush the leaves into powder andmix with waterthen drinkLeaves: Dried or fresh leaf is soaked withhoney and drinkLeaves: Fresh leaf soaked with water isgiven orally for cattle
Tree Oral
Oral
Oral
Human
Livestock
A.A25
Verbena officinalisL
Verbenaceae Atuch Stabbingpain
Roots, Leaves and Fruits: are crushed withcardamom and mix with Honey andswallow
Herb Oral Human A.A 9
Carica papaya L Caricaceae Papaya(papayi)
Diabetesand bloodpressure
Wound
Leaves: Boil the dry leaves with water anddrinkSap: The leaves or stem juice paint onwound surface
Tree Oral
Dermal
Human A.A36
Linumusitatissimum L
Linaceae Telba(Tilbi) Wound
Intestinalwound
Seeds: Crush the seeds and mix with honeyand tie on wound surfaceSeeds: Crush the seeds mixed with water isgiven orally before food
Herb Dermal
Oral
Human A.A51
Aloe trigonanthaLeach
Aloaceae Riet(Embirkaki)
WoundContinuouslyweightlossInsectcide(weevil)
Sap: Cut the leaves and take a jelly juiceand paint on infected siteLeaves: Fresh or dried leaf is given orallyfor continuously loss cattle
Leaves: put the leaves where the cerealstored.
Shrub
Dermal
Oral
Human
Livestock
A.A52
Erythrina brucei L Fabaceae Korch(Buri) Infectedwound
Abdominalpain
Leaves: Dry leaves are crushed and spreadthe powder on wound placeLeaves: Squeezed leaves with Cucumisficifolius is given orally
Tree Dermal
Oral
Livestock
A.A30
77
Solanum anguiviLam
Solanaceae Zerichenboay(Empampy)
Joint ache
RabiesviresSexualimpotency
Fruits: Crush and drink one cupFruits: Crush Zerichenboay and Beles(Ficus carica) fruit and eat with meatRoots: Chewing the root during sexualintercourse
Herb Oral
Oral
Oral
Human
Livestock
A.A 5
Echinops keberichoMesfin
Asteraceae Kebercho(Kober)
Cough Stem or roots: Smoke the nasal cavity ofthe patient with dried stem or root
Shrub
Nasal
Livestock
A.A17
Trigonella foenum-graecum. L
Fabaceae Abish(Kochi)
Swelling
Abdominalpain
Seeds: Crush both Abish and Bean, thenmix with water and tie on the swell partSeeds: Crushed seeds mixed with water andhoney and then drink
Herb Dermal
Oral
Human A.A53
Olea europaeasubsp. cuspidata(Wall.ex G. Don)Cif
Oleaceae Woira(Aweri)
Wound
Eye or earpain
Evil eye
Leaves: Leaves together with Enboacho,burn with fire and crush it and then washthe wound with lemon and spread it
Sap: Remove the bark and take juice andpaint on ear or eyeLeaves: Fresh or dried leaves are fumigatednasally
Tree Dermal
EarorOpticalNasal
Human A.A21
Acmella caulirhizaDel
Asteraceae YemdirBerberie(Bitberbera)
Tonsillitis Flower: Chewing the flower and swallow Herb Oral Human A.A23
Carissa spinarumL.
Apocynaceae Agam(Atsiri)
Evil eye Roots: Crush the roots and smoke or tie onthe neck
Shrub
Nasal(tieonNeck)
Human A.A35
Phoenix reclinataJacq
Arecaceae Selen(Ankuty)
Goiter Leaves: The leaves will be squeeze andpaint on goiter
Tree Dermal
Human A.A31
Silene macrosolenA. Rich
Caryophllaceae
Wugirt(Wugrty)
Tape worm Fruit: The fruit will be crushed togetherwith Niger seedsand eat it
Herb Oral Human A.A37
78
Verbascumsinaiticum Benth
Scrophulariaceae
Ketetina Skinny(weak body)
Roots and Leaves: Crush together with saltand eat
Shrub
Oral Livestock
A.A54
Lagenariasiceraria(Molina)Standl
Cucurbitaceae
Qil(Kib) Ear pain Leaves: Squeeze the leaves and pour theliquid part in to ears
Climber
Earcanal
Human
Stephaniaabyssinica DilloEnand A.Rich) Walp
Menispermaceae
Yeait hareg(Yintsiahera)
Wound Root: Crush the roots and paint on woundsurface
Climber
Dermal
Human A.A55
CynoglossumcoeruleumSteud.exDC.
Boraginaceae Shimgigit(Shibtbiti)
FibrilillnessUncontrolledmenstruation
Leaves: Squeeze the leaves and drink andpaint on the whole bodyRoot: Fresh root is given orally
HerbOralandDermal
Oral
HumanA.A19
Nicotiana tabacumL
Solanaceae Timbaho(Sijari)
Leechinfection,BloatingCommoncold
Leaves: Fresh leaf juice with water is givenorally or nasally for cattleLeaves: Fresh leaf juice with water is givenorally
Shrub
Orally ornasally
Oral
Livestock
A.A45
Stereospermumkunthianum Cham
Bignoniaceae Washinte(Zany)
Wound Bark: The barks will be crushed togetherwith red soil and after drink
Tree Oral Hyenabittenlivestock
A.A32
Echinopslongisetus A.Rich
Asteraceae Kosheshile(Danduri)
StabbingpainColic
Stems: The stems will be tied on painsurfaceRoot: Fresh root boiled with water is
applied on the horse skin
Herb Dermal
Human
Livestock
A.A56
Jasminumgrandiflorum L
Oleaceae Tembelel Eye painCommoncold
Leaves: The leaves will be crushed and dripon eyeRoots: Dried root boiled vapor is inhaledorally or nasally
Climber
OpticalOralorNasal
Human A.A57
79
Clematis simensisFresen.,
Ranunculaceae
Yeazohareg(Azuahara)
Swelling Leaves: Fresh leaf juice with water isapplied topically
Climber
Dermal
Human A.A 4
ThalictrumrhynchocarpumDill &A. Rich.
Ranunculaceae
Sirebizu(Siramencha)
Evil eye
Animal bit
Roots: Crushed root is tied on neckRoots: Crushed root with water is givenorally for Cattle
Herb TiedonneckOral
HumanLivestock
A.A 6
Citrus limon L Rutaceae Lomi(Lumini)
Athletesfoot
Asthma
Fruit: The fruit of Citrus lemon is squeezedand creamed on affected for continuousdaysLeaves: Boil the leaves with stem of sugarcane and drink hot decoction
Shrub
Dermal
Oral
Human A.A58
Rubus apetalusPoir
Rosaceae Enjory(Tsarky enjory)
Gastritis Leaves and fruits: Dried leaf and fruitsoaked with water is given orally
Shrub
Oral Human A.A59
Prunus persica (L.)Batsch
Rosaceae Kok(Kok) Swelling Leaves: Dried leaf powder mixed with foodis given orally
Tree Oral Human A.A40
Rhamnus prinoidesL’Herit
Rhamnaceae Gesho(Geshu)
Tonsillitis Leaves: one-seven leaf buds are chewingand swallowing
Shrub
Oral Human A.A11
Rubus steudneriSchweinf.
Rosaceae Kega(Gimsy)
Tape worm Fruits: Fresh fruit is given for eating Shrub
Oral Human A.A 3
Maytenusalbutifolia (Lam.)Exell
Celastraceae Koba(Koky) Venerealdiseases
Bark: Dried, roasted stem bark powder withbutter is applied on infected place
Tree Dermal
Human A.A28
Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae
Qosta(Kosta)
dehydration
Leaves :the fresh leaves will be cookedwith oil & added salt, then after will beeaten
Herb Oral Human A.A60
Arundinaria alpinaK.Schum
Poaceae Qerikha(Shembeku)
Shotelay Roots: the root of Arundinaria alpina istie on neck part of the body
Herb Tieonneck
Human A.A61
Clausena anisata(Willd.) Benth
Rutaceae Lemeche(Luntsy)
Evil eye Roots: The fresh roots are crushed andmixed with water and drunk
Tree Oral Human A.A41
Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae Buna(Kankupa)
Diarrhea Seeds: The seeds of Coffee are roasted,crushed, powdered, boiled and the filtrateone cup of tea, mixed with few drop of oilthen drunk
Shrub
Oral Human A.A10
Psidium guajava L Myrtaceae Zeytune(Zeytona)
Amoeba Seeds: The seeds are eaten together with itsfruits
Tree Oral Human A.A24
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Eucalyptusglobulus Labill
Myrtaceae Nechbahirzaf(Fuchibarzaf)
Bronchitis Leaves: The leaves of Eucalyptus globulusare chopped and boil with water and inhalerepeatedly the vapor
Tree Nasal
Human A.A26
ArtemisiaabyssinicaSch.Bip.exA.rich
Asteraceae Arite(serent) Stomachache
Leaves Chewing the leaves Shrub
Oral Human A.A62
Kalanchoepetitiana A. Rich
Crassulaceae Andawula(Andiqui)
Ear pain
Evil eye
CommoncoldTonsillitis
Tooth ache
Roots: The roots of Kalanchoe petitiana aresqueezed and added few drops through earRoots: Fresh root is inhaled nasally
Roots: Fresh root is fumigated nasally
Roots: Fresh root crushed with water isgivenRoots: Chewing fresh root
Herb EarcanalNasal
Nasal
OralOral
Human A.A14
Capparistomentosa Lam
Capparidaceae
Gumero(khanguri)
Tooth ache Root: Crush the roots of Capparistomentosa and Datura stramoniumStem together and fumigated
Shrub
Oralinhale
Human A.A34
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Appendix 5.Gimjabet Mariam market survey medicinal plants sold in the market
Local name Scientific name Family name Their uses
Naruqi Ruta chalepensis Rutaceae Common cold, Malaria
Serent Artemisia abyssinica Asteraceae Abdominal pain
Kosta Beta vulgaris Chenopodiaceae Dehydration
Tilbi Linum usitatissimum Linaceae Wound
Lumini Citrus limon Rutaceae Athletes foot,Asthma
Gingiblie Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Abdominal pain
Gubarie Allium cepa Allaceae Blood pressure
Fuchishinkurchi Allium sativum Allaceae Itestinal pain ,Kidneypain,common cold,malaria
Kochi Trigonella foenum-graecum
Fabaceae Swelling,Abdominal pain
Fitu Lepidium sativum Brassicaceae Tumor,Gonorrhea,Intestinalparasite
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Appendix 6.Checklist of semi-structured interview questions for collecting ethnobotanical data
Semi structured interview and questionnaires
Date______________________Kebele________________________
Name of informant__________________________________Sex; Male_____Female______Age_____
Occupation _______________Religion________________Level of education_______________
1) What are the main or most common human health problems in your locality?
2) What are the main or most common livestock health problems in your locality?
3) What are the most important medicinal plants used to treat human and livestock ailments?
List of medicinal plants used for both human and livestock, scientific name; family; local name; habit; parts used;disease treated; methods of preparation with dosage used and route of application
Scientificname
Family name Local name Diseasetreatment
Mode ofpreparation
Route
4) Which plant do you use to treat the particular health problem (disease)?
5) For what other purpose do you use the medicinal plants? Beside, its medicinal value?
6) What part of medicinal plant is used?
7) How is the parts gathered? (Including the collected time)
8) Does the dose differ among sex and age?
9) Any restrictions in taking remedies (pregnancy, age, etc.)?
10) Are medicinal plants easily accessible?
11) Do you store the medicine? If yes. How and for how long? ____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________12) Are the medicinal plants marketable? If Yes;
A) What is their availability?
B) What is their measurement?
C) How much its price?
13) What are the major threats to medicinal plants?
14) How do you conserve the medicinal plants?
Thank you very much
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Appendix 7.List of informants in the study area
No.
Name Sex Age
Maritalstatus
EducationStatus
Residencekebeles
Occupation
1 AmsaluAlemayehu
M 55 Married Read &write 01 Merchant KeyInformants
2 Ayalew Kassahun M 48 Married G->12 01 Teacher3 Habitamu Amsalu M 20 Single G-10 01 Student4 Beyen Haile M 56 Married Illiterate 01 Farmer5 Birtukan Adugnaw F 23 Married Read& write 01 House wife6 Emye Muloye F 39 Married G->12 01 Teacher7 Aster Moges F 38 Married G->12 01 Teacher8 Adanech Enidalew F 33 Married Illiterate 01 House wife9 Marugojjam
FentahunM 35 Married G-10 02 Student Key
Informant10 Asaye Alene M 40 Married Read &write 02 Merchant11 Abiyot Dagmiyaw M 38 Married Read & write 02 Merchant`12
Tibebu Desaiew M 24 Single G-10 complete 02 Merchant
13 Dagmiyaw Belay M 56 Married Read &write 02 Farmer14 Rahel W/Giworgis F 20 Single G-10 02 Student15 Shashitu Engida F 40 Married G->12 02 Teacher16 Belaynesh Tibebu F 48 Divorced Illiterate 02 Merchant17 Melese Yibelu M 47 Married Illiterate Ateta Farmer Key
Informant18 Kindie Yenesew M 45 Married G->12 Ateta Teacher19 Tiruneh Yihun M 55 Married Read & write Ateta Farmer20 Aderaw Menigie M 42 Married Read & write Ateta Farmer21 Alemneh Mihiret M 36 Married Read & write Ateta Merchant22 Teweda Ayenew F 43 Married G->12 Ateta Teacher23 Mesel Hunegnaw F 32 Married Illiterate Ateta House wife24 Enatfanta Amare F 29 Married Illiterate Ateta House wife25 Tilahun Kebede M 48 Married Illiterate Bekafita Farmer Key
Informants26 Abriham Abate M 39 Married Illiterate Bekafita Farmer27 Hiruyi Alemayehu M 57 Married G->12 Bekafita Teacher28 Muluneh Yirdaw M 48 Divorced Illiterate Bekafita Farmer29 Birhan Zeru M 60 Married Read & write Bekafita Merchant30 Meri Tebeje M 51 Married Read & write Bekafita Merchant31 Mulu Tesera F 31 Married Illiterate Bekafita House wife32 Hiwot Anagaw F 31 Married G_>12 Bekafita Teacher33 Fekadu Bogale M 50 Married Read & write Denatiqus
hitaFarmer KeyInformants
34 Alemu Yihun M 42 Married G->12 Denatiqushita
Teacher
35 Molla Bekele M 55 Married G->12 Denatiqushita
Teacher
36 Ayenew Yenew M 27 Divorced G-5 Denatiqushita
Merchant
37 Yenew Yihun M 48 Married Illiterate Denatiqushita
Farmer
38 Abeba Bantigegne F 30 Single G-10 Denatiqushita
Merchant
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39 Zewuditu Meseret F 32 Married Read & write Denatiqushita
House wife
40 Worku Kelemu M 50 Married Illiterate S/Gimjabet
Farmer KeyInformants
41 Alemayehu Ayen M 44 Married G->12 S/Gimjabet
Teacher
42 Adimas Shiu M 41 Married Illiterate S/Gimjabet
Farmer
43 Tiruneh wondim M 35 Married Illiterate S/Gimjabet
Farmer
44 Alemitu Worku F 33 Married Illiterate S/Gimjabet
House wife
45 Teje Mihiret F 37 Married Illiterate S/Gimjabet
House wife
46 Worknesh Belew F 43 Married Read &write S/Gimjabet
House wife
47 Mergata Birhanu M 30 Married Read &write S/Tirba MerchantKeyInformants
48 Gitachew Agi M 50 divorced Illiterate S/ Tirba Farmer49 Worikayehu
ManaminoM 41 Married G->12 S/ Tirba Teacher
50 Abiyot Shitu M 32 Divorced Read &write S /Tirba Merchant51 Biritukan Zerihun F 34 Married Read &write S/ Tirba House wife52 Beza Worku F 56 Married Illiterate S/Tirba House wife53 Mulu Gashaw F 28 Married Read &write S/Tirba House wife54 Nigatu Alemu M 52 Married Illiterate Gewena Farmer Key
Informants55 Getenet Yetwale M 40 Married Read& write Gewena Farmer56 Belay Zeru M 43 Married Illiterate Gewena Farmer57 Getachew Genet M 39 Married Illiterate Gewena Farmer58 Yeshumie Nigat F 49 Married Illiterate Gewena House wife59 Demekech Aniley F 45 Married Illiterate Gewena House wife60 Teje baynes F 38 Married Illiterate Gewena House wife
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Declaration
I, Alemitu Adane Asegu confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where
information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the
thesis. The material contained in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree at
Addis Ababa University or any other university and all the sources of materials used for thesis
are acknowledged.
Name Alemitu Adane Asegu
Signature_____________
Date- August 2018
Place- Addis Ababa University
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as an academic advisor.
Advisor; Ermias Lulekal(PhD)
Signature __________________
Date_______________________
