ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLACES OF RELIGIOUS

ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLACES OF RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES IN CALCUTTA

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN SCIENCE (BOTANY)

OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN

2012

SRILATA DE

UGC CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN

BURDWAN-713104

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my deep sense of respect and gratitude to Professor Ambarish Mukherjee, Department of Botany, my revered supervisor, for his active inspiration and guidance which motivated me in this noble area of research. I convey my sincerest appreciation for the encouragement and untiring help that I have received from him. His personal care and the immense patience with which he has looked into my limitations and constrains during the course of my work as a part-time scholar enabled me to complete the work. I feel blessed to get him as my guide. I am also thankful to Dr. Jai Prakash Keshri, Head of the Department of Botany, Burdwan University for providing various facilities during the course of this work. I thank and acknowledge all teachers, librarian and staff of this department for their moral and academic support extended to me. I am thankful to my friends Dr, Debnath Palit, Dr. Goutam Bala, Dr.Archan Bhattacharya Sri Sujit Kumar Mandal, Ms. Irani Biswas, Ms. Soma Chanda, Ms.Tripti Bouri, Ms. Rimi Roy, Ms. Anasua Roy, Sri Animesh Maji , Joydeep Acharya, Bikash Jana, Sk. Sayantan and all others associated with the Ecotaxonomy Laboratory where I worked with their cooperation. I am indebted to Dr. S.K. Jain, D.C Pal, Priyadarshan Sen Sharma, Dr. Shakti M. Gupta and Dr. Roma Mitra ethnobotanists of great eminence for their blessings which has paved the pathway of this endeavour to complete the work. It will be injustice to my conscience if I do not mention here the immense help I received from Hon’ble Justice Toufique Uddin, who took much pain to accompany me as my elder brother to most of the Islamic religious places for collecting necessary information there from. I owe a special debt of gratitude to all the religious heads, gardeners, knowledgeable associates, informants, devotees and local councilors of Kolkata Municipality Corporation whom I approached for help, time and again, to undertake the present study in the religious sites. Most of them tried their best to assist me on hearing the objective of my work. I remember an old and infirm man who stood at the gates of a burial ground, asking for alms, got curious of my intentions and on hearing that it had an academic concern he guided me to the office of the Registrar and blessed me. The kind help received from all these persons is gratefully acknowledged. I must thank my colleagues of Rammohan Vidyamandir for Girls High School, Kolkata, where I have been recently appointed Headmistress, for their help and co-operation. I also remember with gratitude the encouragement I received from my ex-colleagues of Kapasdanga Satin Sen Vidyapith, Hooghly where I served previously as a Teacher. Last but not the least I would be failing in my duties if I do not mention the cooperation, encouragement and whole hearted support that I have received from my little son Parthiv and husband Ratan till the completion of this work. I specially remember my mother Smt. Reba De, Ex-Professor of Serampore College, who always lamented for not being able to complete her Ph.D thesis, to bring me up single handedly after the sad demise of my father, when I was a few months old. She always looked up to fulfill her dreams in me and constantly hammered my conscience to rise up to her level of expectation. …………………………………

( SRILATA DE) Date: Ecotaxonomy Laboratory UGC Centre of Advanced Study Department of Botany

Burdwan University.

CONT

Introdu

Chapte

Chapte

Chapte

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uction

er 1 : Ge

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Contents

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 (a) Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2005.

Table 2.1 (b). – Rainfall data : Year 2005

Table 2.2 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2004


Table 2.3 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2003

Table 2.3 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2003





Table 4.1 : A precise account of secondary sources to record information about tenets and

other perspectives, related to present work.

Table 4.2. An account of the field work performed along with details of study site.

Table 4.3: The list of knowledgeable informants used as primary sources in the present

work.

Table 5.1.1 (a): Details of study sites for Buddhist monasteries and cemeteries.

Table 5.1.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.

Table 5.1.2(a):The taxonomic census of plants found in Buddhist monasteries and

cemeteries.

Table 5.1.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Buddhist monasteries

and Cemeteries

Table 5.1.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Buddhist

monasteries and Cemeteries

Table 5.1.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Buddhist

beliefs and taboos

Table 5.1.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth

Table 5.1.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries

Contents

Table 5.2.1 (a): Details of study sites of Churches and Cemeteries.


Table 5.2.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Churches and Cemeteries.

Table 5.2.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Churches and

Cemeteries.

Table 5.2.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Churches

and Cemeteries

Table 5.2.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Christian

beliefs and taboos.

Table 5.2.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.

Table 5.2.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Churches and Cemeteries

Table 5.3.1 (a): Details of study sites of Fire Temple and Tower of Silence.


Table 5.3.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Fire Temple and Tower of

Silence.

Table 5.3.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Fire Temple and Tower

of Silence.

Table 5.3.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Fire Temple

and Tower of Silence

Table 5.3.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Zoroastrian

beliefs and taboos


Table 5.3.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Fire Temple and Tower of Silence.

Table 5.4.1 (a): Details of study sites of Gurudwaras

Table 5.4.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant Relationship

Table 5.4.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Gurudwaras

Table 5.4.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Gurudwaras

Contents

Table 5.4.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all

Gurudwaras


Table 5.4.5: Summary of Plant wealth of all Gurudwaras

Table 5.5.1 (a): Details of study sites of Guru Ravidas Mandir


Table 5.5.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Guru Ravidas Mandir

Table 5.5.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir

Table 5.5.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Guru

Ravidas Mandir


Table 5.5.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Guru Ravidas Mandir

Table 5.6.1 (a): Details of study sites of Jain temples.

Table 5.6.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship

Table 5.6.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Jain temple study-sites

Table 5.6.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Jain Temples

Table 5.6.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Jain

Temples

Table 5.6.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jain beliefs

and taboos


Table 5.6.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Jain Temples

Table 5.7.1 (a): Details of study sites of Mosque and Burial grounds


Table 5.7.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Mosque and Burial grounds

Table 5.7.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Mosque and Burial

grounds

Table 5.7.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Mosques and

Burial grounds

Contents

Table 5.7.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Islamic

religious beliefs and taboos


Table 5.7.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Mosques and burial grounds

Table 5.8.1 (a): Details of study sites of Nirankari temple.

Table 5.8.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant

relationship

Table 5.8.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Nirankari temple

Table 5.8.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Nirankari Temple

Table 5.8.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in

Nirankari Temple


Table 5.8.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Nirankari Temple

Table 5.9.1 (a): Details of study sites of Synagogues


Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Synagogues

Table 5.9.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Synagogues

Table 5.9.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all

Synagogues

Table 5.9.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jews beliefs

and taboos


Table 5.9.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Synagogues

Table 5.10.1: An account of tree species associated with Hindu festivals and rituals

Table 5.10.2(a): Details of study sites of Hindu religious activities

Table 5.10.2(b): Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship

Table 5.10.2 (a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Hindu religious sites

Table 5.10.3(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Hindu

Temples and Crematoriums


Hindu Temples and Crematoriums

Contents

Table 5.10.5: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with

the Hindu beliefs and taboos


Table 5.10.7: Summary of Plant wealth of Hindu Temples and Crematorium

Table 5.11.1 (a): Details of study sites of Upasanalayas of Brahmos


Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Upasanalayas of Brahmos

Table 5.11.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Upasanalayas of

Brahmos

Table 5.11.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Upasanalayas

of Brahmos


Table 5.11.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Upasanalayas of Brahmos

Table 6.1: APTI values of important species in different places of religious species as

revealed from literature.

Contents

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.1 – Location map of Kolkata

Fig. 2.2 – Location map of Kolkata in Kolkata Metropolitan area

Fig. 2.3 – Road network of Kolkata

Fig. 2.4 – Ward wise division of Kolkata

Fig. 2.5 – Population density of Kolkata 1991

Fig. 2.6 – Population density of Kolkata 2001

Fig. 2.7 – Land cover map of Kolkata 1998

Fig.5.1.1 (a) –(e) Percentage distribution of plants of all Buddhist religious sites in

different use categories.

Fig. 5.1.2 Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Buddhist Monasteries and

Cemeteries

Fig. 5.1.3 (a)–(c) Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Buddhist religious

sites

Figs.5.2.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Churches and Cemeteries in


Fig. 5.2.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Churches and Cemeteries

Fig 5.2.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Christian religious

sites

Fig 5.3.1 (a) - (c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Zoroastrian religious sites in

different use categories

Fig. 5.3.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Zoroastrian religious sites:

Fig. 5.3.3 (a) – (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Zoroastrian

religious sites

Fig. 5.4.1: Percentage distribution of plants of all Gurudwars in different use categories.

Fig. 5.4.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras

Fig. 5.4.3: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras

Fig. 5.5.1: Percentage distribution of plants of Guru Ravidas Mandir in


Fig. 5.5.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Guru Ravidas Mandir

Contents

Fig. 5.5.3 (a)–(c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Guru Ravidas

Mandir

Fig. 5.6.1(a) –(f): Percentage distribution of plants of all Jain religious sites in different

use categories

Fig.5.6.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Jain Temples

Fig. 5.6.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Jain Temples

Figs.5.7.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Mosqes and Burial grounds in


Fig. 5.7.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Mosques and Burial grounds

Fig 5.7.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Islamic religious sites

Fig. 5.8.1: Percentage distribution of plants of Nirankari Temple in different use

categories

Fig. 5.8.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Nirankari Temple

Fig 5.8.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Nirankari

Temple

Fig. 5.9.1(a) –(e): Percentage distribution of plants of all Synagogue sites in different use

categories

Fig.5.9.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Synagogues

Fig. 5.9.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Synagogues

Fig. 5.10.1 (a) – (c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Hindu temples and

crematoriums in different use categories

Fig. 5.10.2 : Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Hindu Temples and

Crematoriums

Fig. 5.10.3 : Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Hindu religious sites

Fig 9.11.1 (a) –(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Upasanalayas of Brahmos in


Fig 5.11.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Upasanalayas of Brahmos

Fig. 5.11.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Upasanalayas of

Brahmos

Contents

LIST OF PLATES

Plate No. 4.1 – Herbarium sheet -1











Plate No. 5.1.1: Tanaka Bikshu at Nippon Zan, Myohoji, Buddha Mandir, Dhakuria

Kolkata.

Plate No. 5.1.2: Yin Yee Thong Cemetery (Site No. 106) with Hsuan Tsang

Buddhist Temple (Site No. 105) in the background.

Plate No. 5.2.1 : St. Paul’s Cathedral church (Site No. 82)

Plate No. 5.2.2: Rev. Subrata Fullonton at Baptist Mission Church (Site NO.18)

Plate No. 5.2.3 : Epitaph in memorial of army who laid their lives in World War II at

Bhowanipur Cemetery (SITE No. 81)

Plate No. 5.2.4 : Shade giving and Ornamental plants at Bhowanipur Cemetery

Plate no. 5.3.2: Site No. 20- Agni Mandir at Metcalfe Street

Plate No. 5.4.1: Tejinder Singh (Pujari/Granthi) at Behala Gurudwara (Site No. 26 )

Plate No. 5.4.2: A view of Gurdwara Sant Kutiya (Site No. 122)

Plate No.5.61: A view of Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Tmple (Site No. 14)

Plate No. 5.7.1 Md. Kamal Hussain, Matwale of Waqf Masjid Rahamania at Site No. 6

Plate No. 5.7.2: Bagmari Burial Ground (Site No. 87)

Plate No. 5.7.3: Canopy of trees at Site No. 87

Plate No. 5.7.4: Site No. 94 – Wajid Ali Shah Mosque

Plate No. 5.9.1 : A view of the Maghen David Synagogue

Plate No. 5.10.1 : Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir (Site No. 24)

Contents

Plate No.5.10.2 : Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No.10)

Plate No. 5.10.3 : Devotees at a Shiv Mandir of North Kolkata (site No. 83)

Plate No. 5.11.1A glimpse of one of the Brahmo Upasanalayas of Kolkata

1

INTRODUCTION

Man was born in the cradle of nature. From his very inception man has been

procuring elements of his livelihood from the vast resources of nature. The aesthetics and

diversity of nature has wondered him from time to time. But it also developed a fear-

psychosis within him when he had to encounter the occasional devastating phenomena of

nature which were mysterious and unpredictable to him. He felt powerless to deal with

many such events as flood, hurricane, drought, thunderstorm and many other perils of

nature and that filled him with fear and awe. As man faced disaster in the catastrophes of

nature, a feeling of helplessness, fear and anxiety subjugated him to some supernatural

powers of nature and eventually the cult of nature worshiping began. The wise groups of

men started understanding the nature and their empirical knowledge yielded the

realization that existence of man depends greatly on his attitude towards nature and

disregarding nature means precluding his own existence. So from the dawn of this

realization, the common men were induced to develop an instinct in the sub-conscious

state of his mind to conserve the nature.

Origin of religions dates back to the prehistoric phase of development of man

between 500,000 and 100,000 B.C.E. It was during this long period of human evolution

that religious emotions and motivations became hard-wired into the human brain. During

subsequent periods of human evolution, from hominoids to Neanderthal man and then to

Cro-Magnon man, these primitive forms of religion imbedded themselves ever more

firmly into the genes of human beings. The genes for susceptibility to religion and

superstition remain among of the most pervasive and powerful genomic motivators of

man. Ever since man started praying Gods, religion has grown as an institutional power.

Until the eighteenth century, the Age of Enlightenment, religion had organized itself into

the dominant power governing all spiritual and secular affairs of man. Incidentally prior

to 1700 AD, all affairs of society were under the domination of religious hierarchies.

Today approximately 80% of all people on earth are adherents of organized religions.

Humans, who were motivated by a God or Gods whom they feared and whom they were

willing to obey, acted with a high degree of cooperation. Apprehension of punishment

Introduction

2

from their God or his priests acted as a powerful force for socialized behavior. Priests and

magicoreligious practitioners established a moral code of conduct. Since the package of

moral code of conduct got associated with each of the organized religions and preached

by the priests, the belief in the supernatural power disseminated to enforce self-restraint,

morality and values amongst the followers.

During the prehistoric phase of development of man, he used to rely only

on his physical prowess and very primitive tools. Many millennia of environmental

hardships enhanced evolutionary progress and honed the thought processes of man. He

learned to rely on the power of his brain to an ever-increasing degree. Man’s

environmental conditions have changed drastically during the last 100,000 years. Science

has transformed nature from a force that man feared and held in awe, to a force that is

subservient to him. Untamed nature was, and still is, man’s greatest enemy. However,

man no longer fears nature as he had done earlier. Man has tamed nature and he now

dominates over nature to a very high degree. Rationality takes a major place in his belief

system along with the superstition and religious faith he inherited.

But religion is still powerful, though it has lost the all-pervasive stranglehold on

human affairs. Moreover, nature worship remains intermingled in religious beliefs. At all

ages religion has motivated men and all have followed the code of conduct laid down by

religion. Religious rituals are still being followed in which the objective of conservation

of plants and animals lay cryptic. Man, either unknowingly in the past or knowingly in

the present is in practice of performing some religious rituals daily which are

manifestations of man’s age long heritage of nature worshipping. This can be viewed as a

struggle against degradation of moral values and extinction of natural resources. So

religion at present can be seen in this perspective as a society linked value used as a tool

for optimizing nature through spiritual sustenance.

In the history of religions and cultures, nature worship as a definite and complex

system of belief or as a predominant form of religion has not been well documented.

Among primitive people the concept of nature as a totality was unknown; only individual

natural phenomena--e.g., stars, rain, and animals were comprehended as natural objects

or forces that influence them and were thus in some way worthy of being venerated or

placated. Nature as an entity in itself, in contrast with man, human society and culture, or

Introduction

3

even God, is a philosophical or poetic conception that has developed among advanced

civilizations. Nature Worship sprang from the unquestionable supremacy of Nature; and

it is believed that the five element Agni (fire), Jala (water), Vayu (wind), Prithvi (earth)

and Akash (space) have a great influence on life. They believe that in each village, any

large tree is revered as the power that sustains the community.

There developed a popular belief that all plants are conscious with distinct

personalities of their own for which they deserve consideration either as Gods or sacred

or abodes of Gods and Goddesses or even of supernatural powers, demons and devils.

And since time immortal, the grateful populace found it entirely logical to worship trees

that gave them food, fire, shelter, shade, clothing and medicine. In fact a seal discovered

during excavations at an Indus Valley site (the first-known ancient Indian civilization, c.

3000 BC - 1700 BC) shows the peepal tree being worshipped. The importance of trees is

also mentioned in the Puranas. Because they do not stop growing, trees symbolize

reproduction, especially the flowering and the fruit-bearing species. Therefore in villages,

any large tree is revered as the power that sustains the community. Trees play an

important role in almost all ceremonies, especially their twigs, leaves, exudates, fruits,

seeds, stems, wood, bark and roots.

Some trees are considered sacred for being the incarnation of a specific deity. For

example, all trees, which have trifoliate leaves, like the varun (Crataeva religious), are

believed to be associated with the Trimurti. The leaves of the bel, which are also

trifoliate, represent Shiva's three eyes and are offered to him in worship. Other trees are

held sacred because they are believed to be the homes of certain Gods. According to the

Padma Purana and the Brahma Purana, there was once a time when the demons

(Asuras) defeated the Gods. To save themselves, the Gods hid in various trees: Shiva in

the bel, Vishnu in the peepal and Surya in the neem . The SkandPurana a says that the

parijata (Nyctanthes arbortristis), the mango (Mangifera indica) and the banyan (Ficus

sp) emerged from the ‘samudra manthan’ the mythological event of Sea churning by

Gods and demons. In the Bhavishya Purana, durva (Cynodon dactylon) is believed to

have been produced from the hair on Vishnu's hands and thighs (other sources say it was

from his back). The Mandara mountain which he had supported during the samudra

manthan got rubbed against him forcing some of his hair to fall down which after getting

Introduction

4

touched by amrita, became the grass familiar in India as ‘durva’(Cynodon dactylon).

According to another myth, when the gods obtained Amrita (the divine semisolid food for

immortal life) from the ocean, they drank it quickly, before the demons could wrest it

away. In their haste, a few drops of amrita spilt on the grass below, which became

immortal. This grass was durva.

Because trees are sacred, it is an act of virtue for man to plant and water them.

Elaborate rituals precede the occasions of planting or cutting trees. Traditionally, trees are

cut only if at all it is absolutely necessary. Before being cut, the tree-spirit is prayed for

forgiveness. Various mantras (hymns or odes) are recited, so as to subdue God’s reaction

to the misdeed.

There are different beliefs associated with trees. It is believed that during

the Chaturmasya, the Gods rest in trees and plants. Therefore if trees are worshipped and

boons asked for during this time, the Gods are likely to be generous. Kalpavriksha, a

mythological tree mentioned in the Puranas, is believed to be a wish-granting tree. The

spirits that live in certain trees like the jackfruit are believed to wander from their

arboreal homes at night. For this reason, people avoid certain trees when it is dark.

Trees also help avert unhappiness. Boys and girls are often married to

trees by certain ethnic communities, if it has been foretold that their first marriage will be

unhappy or end with the spouse's death. The tree is considered the first spouse, who will

bear the effect of the prediction. The person is then married 'again', to a human spouse.

Since an unmarried girl cannot be cremated, a daughter who remains unwed past a certain

age, is married to a tree. These practices are still followed in our country, though rarely,

in remote areas.

Threads are tied around certain ‘key stone species’, like the peepal, to seek a

boon. After the boon is granted, the thread is untied and buried at the foot of the tree.

Because of their strong bonds with trees in general, people have been known to actually

lay down their lives in defense of trees. The Bishnois, people of a sect in Rajasthan, are

proud and aggressive environment worshippers who attack those who violate the

ecological rules and ethics, thereby contributing enormously to conservation of nature

and her creations especially in and around their hamlets.

Introduction

5

The efforts of environmentalists to build up a vocal and active force in India today

deserve mention. Environmental movements in India in the meantime has fetched some

success notable in records like saving from threatening destruction the rain forests of the

Silent Valley in Kerala and the Himalayan foothills, through the 'Chipko Andolan'

(literally 'hugging movement') in which village and city activists hugged trees to prevent

their felling. There have also been deeply concerned protests against the building of large

dams, which threaten to flood/inundate ecologically rich areas. Many consider the

demarcation of biospheres and sanctuaries, and execution of programmes for

reforestation and social forestry, as the appropriate and apt measures, blessed by the

Gods.

The intimate relationship between man and plants progressively developed in both

temporal and spatial scales through generations. The mysteries of nature and her

creations started getting progressively deciphered and interpreted by wise men in terms of

abstract philosophy and science. The theory and practice of the knowledge thus gained

got communicated progressively by the judicious scientists and philosophers to the

common men in the matrix of religion. The religious teachings, rituals, holy

performances, taboos etc. could so comprehensively conceptualize the general mass

about science that it became a part of common men’s traditions. The common people in

good number even today do neither dare nor find interest to detect science concealed in

religious capsule. However in the last few decades, there has been a wide realization of

the value of traditional knowledge still surviving through generations in the religious and

cultural practices of indigenous and conservative societies and the modern scientists have

started showing concern in such anthropological perspectives which have concern and

potential to contribute towards optimization of the life-sustaining system operating in

nature and improve quality of life. Aptly documentation and validation of the knowledge

sustained in traditions presently occupy position of significance in the research schedule

of the modern environmental scientists and ecologists. Moreover environmentalists have

been organizing their efforts to promote growth of environmental awareness, importance

of indigenous culture and traditions in preserving nature’s economy and conserving

biodiversity.

Introduction

6

The objective of the present work is to record detailed information related to man-

plant relationships prevailing in the places of worship and other ritualistic activities under

the domain of different religions integrated with the cultural heritage of an Indian

metropolis and reveal the scientific rationale cryptic in such relationships.

For fulfillment of this objective the city of Calcutta was selected, the reasons

being its cosmopolitan nature sustaining a unique composite culture designed by different

religious beliefs and faiths. Calcutta houses people of different faiths, such as Hinduism,

Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Brahmo-dharmo, Zoroastrianism, to

name a few. Settlement of the people from diverse beliefs can be traced back to the early

trade and traders who had come to the city with genuine motives to trade but later settled

in the city for its cordial hospitability, suitable climatic conditions and economy

prosperity. The present study has been kept concerned with the metropolitan city of

Calcutta following the geographical boundary as set up by Kolkata Municipal

Corporation. Plants grown and sustained in places of various religious activities and those

used while performing rituals in these places in Calcutta have been studied and recorded.

Since the expectancy of benevolent materialistic outputs, ecofriendly performances,

psychological motivations and aesthetic influences need immediate surveillance,

evaluation and documentation, the present anthropobotanical investigation was

undertaken which on scientific maneuvering and application is likely to optimize quality

of life and its ambience not only in Calcutta but also in other urban areas.

The objective would thus concern:

(i) Preparation of a taxonomic account of plants cultivated or maintained in gardens

associated with temples, mosques, churches, synagogues, crematories etc.

(ii) Preparation of a data base of bio-resources used in worships, rituals and

ceremonies in the places of religious activities selected for study.

(iii) Revelation of the utilitarian and aesthetic perspectives of such bio-resources.

(iv) Elucidation of the role of the areas of religious activities played in bio-diversity

conservation and management.

(v) Preparation of a data base for retrieving comparative account of shares of

different religious groups towards conservation biodiversity and plant genetic

resources.

Introduction

7

(vi) Setting of guidelines for undertaking of similar or more fruitful studies for other

metropolitan cities of the country.

The present work has been presented in eight chapters. The first chapter entitled General

résumé deals with a brief elucidation of the state of art of the subjects like ethnobotany,

traditional knowledge, anthropology of religion, religion, nature and ecology to lay the

foundation of the work. The second chapter entitled ‘Kolkata at a glance’ incorporates

information about the genesis and geographical location of the city, physical and

meteorological features, demography, cultural and other pertinent perspectives. Review

of literature covered in chapter three, gives an overview of the work so far done in the

present context. The fourth chapter deals with ‘Materials and Methods’ to include every

aspect of the work performed. Results of the work are presented in the fifth chapter each

and every aspect of which has been discussed in the sixth chapter entitled ‘Discussion’ so

as to reveal keeping parity with objective the significance and scope of the work. The

seventh chapter summarizes the work and concludes with precision, rationality and

contemporary pertinence. All the publications referred to in this work have been cited

under References in the eighth chapter.

1: GENERAL RÉSUMÉ

1. State of art of the subjects of concern:

Total scientific and technical knowledge currently available and pertinent to the title

of the present research work can be grouped into four broad categories, viz. ethnobotany,

traditional knowledge, anthropology of religion, and religions in conservation a precise

account of which is given in the following.

1.1 Ethnobotany

1.1.1. History

Though the term “Ethnobotany” was coined in 1895 by the US botanists John

William Harshberger, the history of the field began long before the event of its

nomenclature. In AD 1, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published “ De Materia Medica”

which gave an account of about 600 plants occurring in the Mediterranean region. It also

included information on how the Greeks used the plants, especially for medicinal

purposes.

In the beginning, ethnobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and

sometimes not much helpful, but in the early twentieth century, botanists and

anthropologists finally collaborated mutually and the collection of reliable, detailed data

began.

Evolution of human life and culture has directly or indirectly been associated with

and influenced by the surrounding environment, especially the vegetal world. Primitive

man living closely associated with nature, mainly depended on it for his survival. His

dependence on the plants around him, made him to acquire the knowledge of economic

and medicinal properties of many plants by trial and error. Consequently he became the

store-house of knowledge of many useful as well as harmful plants, accumulated and

enriched through generations and passed on from one generation to another, without any

written documents. It is therefore, important that before this rich unwritten knowledge on

uses of plants and sustenance of plant resources is lost forever. It must be properly

documented and preserved.

Chapter 1: General resume

9

“Ethnobotany” appears to be an anthropocentric approach to botany which is

essentially concerned with gathering information on plants and their uses. Powers (1873-

1874) used the term “Aboriginal botany” to refer to the “study of all the forms of

vegetable world which the aborigines used for medicine, textile fabrics, ornaments etc.

The term was first time coined by Hershberger, in 1896 in the daily Evening

Telegraph, Philadelphia although concern with ethnobotany dates back to the dawn of

civilization.

“A truly broad concept emerged only when Robbins et al. (1916) defined the term as the

“study and evolution of the knowledge of all phases of plant life amongst primitive

societies and of the effect of the vegetal environment upon the life.”

Vestal and Schultes (1939) have employed the term “Economic Botany” to

include all plant products of use to man”, stating that, in this sense, economic botany is

more inclusive than ethnobotany, “ a term by which most investigators have designated

the plants used by aboriginal peoples”. They have adopted what they regard as the

broader term economic botany, “because not all the uses of plants by primitive people are

of necessity aboriginal in origin”.

Jones (1941) defined it as “the study of the interrelations of the primitive man and

plants”. Later, Schultes (1941) reiterated this point of view, stating that the member of

science of one or another school are agreeing rather unanimously to regard ethnobotany,

as “the study of the relationship between man and his ambient vegetation”.

Castetter (1944) confined ethnobotany to man in primitive state of culture and

stated that the “ethnobotany is sharply differentiated from economic botany in that it is

vitally concerned with the fundamental cultural aspects of plant utilization, while

economic botany practically ignores the cultural aspects in a very general way.”

1.1.2. Modern Ethnobotany

With the beginning of the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany

experienced a shift from the compilation of raw data to a greater methodological and

conceptual reorientation, which marked the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The

founding father of this organized discipline is Richard Evans Schultes (1941, 1960,

1962).


10

The subject has been growing fast and undergoing ramification into various

sub-disciplines and anatomizing scientists of different disciplines so as to assume a

multidimensional structure with interdisciplinary configuration. The most valuable

contribution towards nourishment and development of the subject was from S.K. Jain

who would always be remembered with regards and gratitude for his dedication and

enormous contribution in ethnobotany. Some of his outstanding publications

(Jain,1963,1981,1987,1989,1991a & b,1997,1998,1999; Jain et al.,1984) have escalated

the significance of the subject. Other important publications covering diverse aspects of

ethnobotany including ancient literature, traditional art, sculptures and culture, myths,

religion and places of religious activities, rituals, festivals, ceremonies etc., which

deserve mention include those of Randhawa (1964), Schultes and Hofmann, (1979), Pal

(1980), Tarafder (1983a, b & c), Westling (1985), Vartak et al.,(1987), Rao(1989),

Shengji (1991), Sur et al. (1992), Gupta(1971, 1995a & b), Sensarma and Pal (1995),

Varghese (1996), Chaudhury and Pal (1997), Vartak and Gadgil(1997),Pal and

Jain(1998), Merat (2002), Mandal and Mukherjee(2003), Sensarma(1989, 1998,2003),

Godble and Sarnaik (2004), Basu(2007), Pandey and Saini (2007) and others.

The indigenous societies all over the world have developed their own

knowledge about the plants and animals in their surroundings and have integrated them

with their needs, cultural practices and developed mutually sustainable relationships.

Studies on direct man-plant and man-animal relationship have been given great

importance in composing a subject known as ethnobiology (Swaminathan,1996).

The coverage of the subject is much more extensive today. It is a multi-

disciplinary subject in one hand and intra and inter-disciplinary on the other hand

(Mukherjee and Hotwani,2006). Ethnobotany, the holistic approach to study all aspects of

direct man-plant relationship, has grown to the extent of its further ramifications into

different sub disciplines and flourished to build relationship with other disciplines

(interdisciplinary). Analysis of the direct man-plant relationship reveals five categories –

i) relationship useful to both plants and man. ii) useful to man but harmful to plants, iii)

useful to plants but harmful to man, iv) harmful to both and v) cultural relationships.

There are now many interdisciplinary approaches of Ethnobotany viz.,

ethnomedicine, ethnoveterinary, ethnocosmetics, ethnogastrology, ethnopharmacy,


11

ethnopharmacology etc., the growth of each of which necessitates enrichment by

pertinent indigenous knowledge. So aptly the decade beginning from 1st January 1995,

was observed as the International Decade for the World’s Indigenous People with the

main objective of immediate documentation of the so long uncared indigenous

knowledge which would otherwise be extinct in future. The ethnobotanists realized the

necessity to develop methods that empower the people with whom they work. There is an

urgent need to record all ethnobiological information from the diverse ethnic

communities before the traditional cultures are completely lost. Ethnobotanists have to

shoulder the responsibility of stock taking the traditionally used- biological resources and

revitalizing the traditional beliefs for conservation of such resources.

Ethnobotany or the study of all aspects of direct relationship between man and

plant does not remain confined to primitive societies today since even a city dweller,

especially in a country like India, is still conservative about certain perspectives of this

relationship in his social and cultural traditions, religious activities and ways of life

(Mukherjee, 1997). While reviewing the cultural relevance of Indian plants Mukherjee

and Mukherjee (1995) realized that a thorough perusal of religio-ceremonial practices

and ancient art and literature can bring into light many useful attributes of man-plant

relationship, the scientific rationale of which can not only optimize human living but also

execute conservation.

1.1.3. Significance of Ethnobotany

The significance of Ethnobotany gets reflected in :

1. Use of man-plant relationship in developing human society.

2. Understanding of history and heritage of a community based on existing human

culture.

3. Identification of genetic pool of resistant crops for development of hybrid plant

species.

4. Scientific investigation of herbal practices existing among different ethnic

communities and tribal groups to discover new area of knowledge, treatment,

therapies and new drug development.


12

5. Utilization of traditional technologies with scientific inputs for the benefit of artism

classes and for sustainable utilization of natural resources.

6. Indigenous knowledge can be used in alteration of both Linnean and Wallacean short

falls and augmentation of biodiversity documentation.

7. Ethnobotany promises to hand over phytoresources of diverse types for human

benevolence especially the medicinal plants together with the ways and means of their

sustenance.

8. The cultural perspectives of ethnobotany always have a direct bearing on conservation

of species and ecosystem as a whole.

9. Ethnobotany provides to handover phytoresources of diverse types for human

benevolence especially the medicinal plants together with the ways and means of their

sustenance.

10. Ethnobotany provides opportunities for identification of wild varieties of the present

day economic plants, which are likely to handover genotypes for disease and pest

resistance and pave the pathway towards sustainable agriculture.

11. Ethnobotany may generate guidelines for ecorestoration of degraded ecosystems.

1.2. Traditional Knowledge:

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) used the term “Traditional

Knowledge”- to refer the tradition based literacy, artistic or scientific work

performances, scientific inventions, discoveries, designs, marks, names and symbols,

undisclosed information and all other tradition based innovations and creations resulting

from intellectual activity in different scientific field. The Traditional Knowledge refers to

the knowledge systems which have generally been transmitted from one generation to

another by oral means only and are generally regarded as pertaining to a particular group

of people or community or its territory, they are constantly evolving in response to

changing environment. The message of science used to be communicated in the past

through religions so that all religions are potential repositories of scientific knowledge

emanating from experience and wisdom which survives through generations till today in

traditional rituals, faith, taboos and cultural performances. The traditional knowledge and

scientific rationale cryptic in different religions need to be worked out and documented


13

immediately since there has been a progressive diminution of interests and involvements

in religions.

Documentation of Traditional Knowledge (TK) were carried out in India

under the “Man and Biosphere” Project. Traditional Knowledge can act as a source of

wisdom for decision making regarding various developmental activities. This is also

considered as a valuable asset of the community, helping them to shape and control their

own development.

In the current Intellectual Property Right (IPR) regime, documentation of TK with

appropriate protection can prevent misappropriation and wrong patenting. Documentation

of ethnomedicinal wisdom would further help the identification of promising plants/

other materials to be selected for detailed scientific investigation and validation.

It may also help in establishing linkages with the plan and process,

especially in the formation of innovative programmes and projects that can be

implemented at grass root level. Value addition of selected plants/ other materials may

help to enhance the socio-economic status of the knowledge providers/ custodians as well

as the community as a whole.

Considering the importance of TK in modern era- the scientists have shifted their field of

interest to the nature where still reside people with enormous knowledge.

So documentation of traditional knowledge is one of the thrust areas in scientific world

today.

The study of Ethnobiology presently gets the topmost priority in scientific research.

Places of religious activities in Kolkata, capital city of West Bengal State, are also ideal

places for studying ethnobotany for being the matrix of diverse religions and culture of

both indigenous and exotic origin.

1.3. Anthropology of religion:

The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation

to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across

cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between

magical thinking and religion (Manickam,1977) and that every religion is a cultural

product, created by the human community that worships it. In virtually every major


14

anthropological work on religion, and in most if not all introductory textbooks in cultural

anthropology, the question of the truth or falsity of religious beliefs is evaded, ignored, or

de-emphasized in favor of questions concerning the social, psychological, ecological,

symbolic, aesthetic, and/or ethical functions and dimensions of religion. Considerations

of disciplinary integrity, public welfare, and human dignity demand that religious claims

be subjected to anthropological evaluation. It is precisely such areas as social,

psychological, ecological, symbolic, aesthetic, and ethical functions and dimensions of

religion where the anthropology of religion has made and continues to make its greatest

contributions. Nevertheless, the scientific study of religion will never be fully legitimate

until scientists recognize and proclaim the reality of religion (Lett, 1997).

1.4. Religion, nature and ecology:

By the 1990s, many scholars of religion had put their sincere endeavors to

generate scientific literature discussing and analyzing the envision of nature and its

valuation by different religious systems of the world. A landmark setting event took place

during 1996 - 1998 when a series of ten conferences on Religion and Ecology were

organized at the Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions under the

esteemed leadership of Professors Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim of Yale

University. More than 800 international scholars, religious leaders, and environmentalists

participated in the conference series. The conferences concluded at the United Nations

and at the American Museum of Natural History and eventually a series of ten books

(The Religions of the World and Ecology Book Series), one for each of the world's major

religious traditions, viz.. Buddhism (Tucker and Williams,1997), Christianity (Hessel and

Ruether,2000), Confucianism(Tucker and Berthrong, 1998), Daoism(Girardot et al.,

2001), Hinduism (Chapple and Tucker, 2000),Indigenous Traditions.( Grim, 2001),Islam

(Foltz et al., 2003), Jainism (Chapple, 2002), Judaism (Tirosh-Samuelson, 2002),Shinto

(Bernard, 2004). Other landmarks in the emerging field were the publication of the

Worldly Wonder: Religions Enter Their Ecological Phase by Tucker in 2003 and the

Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature by Taylor in 2005. Taylor also led the effort to

form the International Society for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, which was


15

established in 2006, and began publishing the quarterly Journal for the Study of Religion,

Nature, and Culture in 2007.

Subsequent to the conferences, Tucker and Grim formed The Yale Forum on

Religion and Ecology which has been instrumental in the creation of scholarship, in

forming environmental policy, and in the greening of religion. In addition to their work

with the Forum, Tucker and Grim's work continues in the Journey of the Universe film,

book, and educational DVD series. It continues to be the largest international

multireligious project of its kind.

The American Academy of Religion has remained active since 1991, and a

number of universities, especially in North America are now offering courses on Religion

and The Environment. The peer-reviewed academic journal Worldviews: Global

Religions, Culture, and Ecology and the encyclopedia The Spirit of Sustainability have

been putting efforts to augment the scientific message of religion for optimization of

environment for peace, prosperity and improvement of qualities of life.

2 : KOLKATA AT A GLANCE - IT’S PAST AND PRESENT 2.1.Location:

The city Calcutta (the erstwhile Kolkata) curls lazily along a curve on the east

bank of the river Hooghly, a branch of the holy Ganges. It is located at Latitude 22º 32' N

and Longitude 88º 20' E in the state of West Bengal and it covers an area of

approximately 1480 Sq. km on the bank of Hooghly River at a height of 6m above the

mean sea level.

2.2.History:

The city has a history of great reputation and value. During the British rule Calcutta was

the capital city of India up to 1911 and after independence Calcutta (erstwhile Kolkata)

became the capital of West Bengal State. The city has turned out to be the intellectual

and cultural of India. In the late 17th century, Calcutta was a village which slowly grew

into a township and later into a city. Trading by the Europeans (the Portuguese, Dutch,

English and French operated at one time or the other) was conducted through “kuthi”

or trading outposts overseen by an “agent” since about the middle of the 17th century.

They brought, stored and shipped a variety of goods, such as saltpeter, cotton goods,

silk, spices and so on. The British trade was monopolized by the “Governor and

Company of Merchants of London Trading Into the East Indies”(commonly known as

the East India Company) which had received a Royal Charter in 1600 from Queen

Elizabeth - 1.They had commenced trade at Surat in Gujarat and in Madras. In 1653, the

Emperor Shah Shuja granted them the permission to start trading in Bengal as well.

The convenient location in respect of trade between East Asia and Europe and the

navigability of the Hooghly river in movement of trade attracted the Portuguese in the

mid 16th century, much before the British. The increased activity of the British,

especially the fortifications, aroused the ire of the then Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-

daula. He attacked the British in 1756 and drove them out from their outposts and he

burnt down large parts of the fort and adjoining areas including the Burrabazar. The

East India Company however would not let go so easily and invited General Robert

Clive (then Colonel) to take back the areas by force if necessary. Palace intrigue and

Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance

17

treachery by trusted officials coupled with inspired generalship by Clive led to the

defeat of Siraj-ud-daula, and the founding of the British empire in India in 1757. The

East India Company lost little time in consolidating its position at Kolkata. The

descendants of the Portuguese and the native Christians from Goa continued to play a

notable role in the social and economic life, particularly in education, sports,

confectioneries and eateries in the 1950/60’s.

Other traders and businessmen from overseas thronged to Kolkata. The first were

the Armenians who had set up business since the early 1700’s. From spices to muslin and

indigo, jute, shellac and to real estate, there was little that the enterprising Armenians did

not dabble at. The Jews followed. Although Jews had long being doing business in India,

Kolkata was a relatively new outpost, mainly comprising of the community from Syria

and Bagdad. Through their typical network, they traded between Kolkata, the Middle

East, Europe and China. Like their counterparts, the Armenians from Asia Minor, the

Jews branched into real estate and contributed noticeably to the social life and

philanthropic work in the growing city of Kolkata for the major part of the 19th century.

Another lot enterprising immigrants were the Parsis. A few of them came from Surat,

which was an early British trading post in western India. The earliest record of Chinese

settlers doing business in Kolkata goes back to about 1780. They entered the sugar mill

business with the encouragement of the British. But their skills and ingenuity really shone

in carpentry and cabinet–making, boat and ship repair, and last but not the least, shoe-

making. Chinese cuisine both literally and metaphorically has added a new dimension to

the taste of Kolkata.

Another major influence on Kolkata and its social and cultural life came in the wake of

two tragedies separated by about 60 years. The first was the defeat and decapitation of

Tippu Sultan in south India in 1795, following which his sons and family were moved by

the British authorities to Tollygunge in south Kolkata around 1806. Although Muslims

had long been living in Kolkata, their numbers, specially of the gentry, increased notably.

Mosques and mazhars to muslim saints came up in great numbers. The second was the

deposition and transportation of Wajed Ali Shah, the Nawab of Oudh in north India, in

1855 about the time of Sepoy Mutiny. Lucknow came to be transplanted in the

Watgunge and Metiaburz areas of south west Kolkata.


18

The growth and consolidation of British commercial interests together with added

responsibilities in revenue collection and maintenance of law and order were initially

under a Governor and then the Governor General, the first of whom was Warren Hastings

in 1772, followed by other illustrious administrators. Gracious mansions, churches,

avenues, theaters, gardens and parks sprang up, so much, that more than one visitor from

overseas was to remark on the “city of palaces “ and its splendour.

From this early history of Kolkata it is seen that the city has embraced people

from all religious beliefs through ages which contributed to the development of a rich

matrix of socioeconomic and cultural lives, cosmopolitanism in its truest sense and this is

aptly reflected in its regular religious activities. The city is dotted by churches, temples,

mosques, synagogues, gurdwara, upasanalays and worship spots of many other religions.

On visit to these places of religious activities it is observable that people from all

religions perform some rituals daily or periodically which are linked with man’s long

heritages of nature worshiping. Almost all religious places including the ‘Burning Ghats’

and cemeteries /crematoriums have boundaries with some amount of open space, at

times with large open areas even in the heart of the city. Some authorities of the place of

worship maintain beautiful gardens and even take care to introduce and sustain exotic and

rare plants. Some places are not presently so maintained but show signs of at one time

well organized gardens with diversity in species. There are others which have open

spaces with well maintained grass lawns or small bordering shrubberies for religious

gatherings, ceremonies and festivities. Above all, in these days when there is a boom in

real estate business and high rise multistoried complexes are flourishing here and there

over the city, nobody (not even Government bodies) dares to touch or acquire in the name

of development or real estate business, such vast open religious places with numerous

plants and water-bodies, and many elements of aesthetic pleasure due to the apprehension

of hurting the religious sentiments of the people.

2.3.Climate of Kolkata:

The weather of Kolkata is unusually the tropical wet-and-dry types. Mainly three

type of weather seasons are found here. The summer season is continued for long time

from March to July. In this season the temperature increases extremely high up to 48° C

and a destructive storm locally called as Kal-Baishakhi run over the city. It enters from


19

the northern sea of India called Bay of Bengal. The average temperature of Kolkata in

summer is approximately 36° C.

The Monsoon season appears at the end of July and continues to mid of September.

During this season temperature vary from 25° C to 40° C. The average rainfall of the city

is approximately 1,582 mm. The winter season starts from November and continues to

middle of February. The minimum temperature during this season is 12°C and the

average temperature of Kolkata in winter is approximately 18° C. The temperature,

rainfall and related data of Kolkata as recorded during 2001-2005 by the Alipur

Meteorological Station, Calcutta is tabulated in the following [ Tables 2.1(a) - 2.5 (a) &

2.1(b) to 2.5(b) ].

Table 2.1 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2005.

MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE

HUMIDITY

Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

More or less than normal temparature

More or less than

normal temparature January 30.5 + 4 12.8 -1 100 33

February 34.6 + 5 12.4 -3 99 25

March 36.5 + 4 18.9 -2 99 30

April 38.7 + 3 21.5 -4 98 20

May 39.3 + 3 20.3 -6 96 39

June 40.6 + 6 23.5 -4 100 37

July 34.8 + 3 23.7 -2 98 58

August 36.7 + 5 25 -1 98 55

September 34.8 + 3 23.7 -2 99 56

October 34.1 + 2 21.5 -2 100 44

November 32.5 + 2 14.9 -2 99 30

December 29.1 + 1 12.9 -1 97 29

Here + means above normal & - means below normal temperature.


20


MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL

(mm)

NO. OF DAYS OF

RAINFALL

MAX. RAINFALL IN

A DAY

January 22 2 14.9

February 0 0 0

March 70.7 6 27.9

April 112.9 8 56.8

May 99.1 12 50

June 331.9 15 84

July 330.7 25 54.1

August 252.1 26 43.7

September 247.8 19 103.2

October 449.5 20 115.6

November 0 0 0

December 0.2 1 0.2

TOTAL 1916.9 134

Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall.

Table 2.2 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2004

MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE HUMIDITY


More or less than

normal temparature

More or less than

normal temparature January 26.7 + 2 9.4 -4 98 38

February 35.8 + 5 12.1 -2 99 25

March 37.7 + 4 17.8 -2 98 18

April 37.9 + 2 20 -4 100 36

May 40.6 + 5 20.4 -6 100 33


21

June 37.8 + 5 22 -5 100 50

July 35.8 + 3 23.2 -3 99 56

August 34.6 + 3 25.3 -1 100 59

September 35.0 + 3 22.5 -3 99 56

October 33.9 + 2 20.6 -2 100 40

November 31.8 + 2 17.5 -2 100 34

December 29.7 + 3 12.2 -2 100 36




(mm)

NO. OF DAYS OF

RAINFALL

MAX. RAINFALL

IN A DAY

January 0 0 0

February 21.2 2 21.1

March 30.8 4 21.1

April 66.9 9 34.1

May 34.5 10 23.9

June 230.5 13 38.5

July 209.94 26 25.44

August 488.5 24 163

September 276.1 25 64.3

October 345.4 13 177.2

November 0 0 0

December 0 0 0

TOTAL 1703.84 126



22



HUMIDITY



More or less than

normal temparature January 28.2 0 9.3 -5 97 28

February 33.6 +3 15.5 -1 100 34

March 36.5 + 4 16.0 -4 98 28

April 37.7 +2 21.0 -4 97 32

May 39.6 +5 22.0 -4 96 35

June 37.7 +3 24.7 -2 100 54

July 34.8 + 3 25.4 -1 98 63

August 35.4 +3 25.6 0 98 60

September 34.8 + 3 25.3 -1 98 62

October 34.5 +3 23.0 -1 100 39

November 32.5 +3 14.5 -1 98 44

December 28.5 +2 12.4 -2 100 31




(mm)

NO. OF DAYS OF

RAINFALL

MAX. RAINFALL

IN A DAY

January 0 0 0

February 1 1 1

March 55.1 9 16.3

April 83.4 10 30

May 242.3 10 73.4

June 231.1 17 64.7

July 281.3 27 92.2


23

August 189.3 22 26.6

September 166.5 19 32.3

October 381.7 19 149.2

November 0 0 0

December 22.1 5 11.4

TOTAL 1653.8 139




HUMIDITY



More or less than

normal temparature January 29.9 +3 12.7 0 100 31

February 33.6 +4 12.9 -2 98 26

March 36.5 +3 18.5 -1 98 21

April 37.0 +1 19.4 -6 98 31

May 43.0 +7 21.6 -5 97 21

June 38.1 +3 24.3 -3 99 32

July 37.6 +6 25.0 -1 98 44

August 34.7 +3 23.6 -2 98 57

September 35.4 + 3 24.0 -2 98 47

October 35.6 +4 19.4 -3 97 34

November 32.8 +3 17.3 -2 98 41

December 30.8 +4 12.2 -2 98 31



24



(mm)

NO. OF DAYS OF

RAINFALL

MAX. RAINFALL

IN A DAY

January 29.3 4 18.1

February 0 0 0

March 12.9 7 9.6

April 102.1 12 29.4

May 115.1 19 26.1

June 374.8 20 74.1

July 409.9 23 110.2

August 328.1 25 102.1

September 311.3 21 98.5

October 70.8 15 37.8

November 85.3 4 81.5

December 0 0 0

TOTAL 1839.6 150

Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall


MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE HUMIDITY


More or less than

normal temparature

More or less than

normal temparature January 30.3 10.7 100 32

February 34.6 13.5 100 30 March 36.6 17.3 98 22 April 38.9 22.9 98 16 May 37.7 21.3 98 39 June 34.4 24.6 98 48 July 33.7 24.5 98 62

August 34.6 25.5 100 59


25

September 35.6 24.0 98 49 October 35.4 23.4 98 46

November 33.7 19.2 98 42 December 31.2 12.7 98 36



(mm)

NO. OF DAYS OF

RAINFALL

MAX. RAINFALL IN

A DAY

January 0 0 0

February 5.8 1 5.8

March 61.4 6 29.8

April 37.3 10 15.4

May 218.9 14 99.5

June 381.1 24 41.7

July 215.5 30 30.3

August 224.6 25 61.5

September 219.1 15 77.3

October 126.7 17 33.9

November 14.7 6 5.6

December 0 0 0

TOTAL 1505.1 148



26

Figure 2.1 – Location map of Kolkata


27

Figure 2.2 – Location map of Kolkata in Kolkata Metropolitan area


28

Figure 2.3 – Road network of Kolkata


29

Figure 2.4 – Ward wise division of Kolkata


30

Figure 2.5 – Population density of Kolkata 1991


31

Figure 2.6 – Population density of Kolkata 2001


32

Figure 2.7 – Land cover map of Kolkata 1998


33

2.4. Population and languages:

Kolkata is the eighth biggest city in the world with a population of 44,86,678 according

to the census of 2011. There are people speaking different languages. The people of

Calcutta mainly use the Bengali dialect as their spoken language, although many other

languages are also spoken here. These are Hindi, Urdu, Oriya, Haryanvi, Rajasthani,

Bhojpuri, Tamil, Assamese, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi and Gujarati.

Bengali, Hindi and English are used as official languages.

2.5. Religions and festival :

Being a cosmopolitan city, Calcutta represents a blend of different religions. Majority of

people inhabiting Calcutta are Hindus. The major religions of the city are Hinduism (73

%), Muslims (23 %), Christians (2 %) and the rest are Brahmas, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs,

Mona Punjabis, Nirankaris, Jews, Zorastrians etc. All types of religion followers in

Kolkata city celebrate a number religious festival in their own custom.

The main religious festivals of the city are Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Saraswati

Puja, Lakshmi Puja, Jagadhatri Puja (Hindu festivals), Christmas Day, Good Friday

(Christian festivals), Holi, Janmastami, Ratha Yatra,Chhat Puja and Shivaratri (Hindu

festivals), Eid ul-Fitr (Muslim festival) and Moharram (Muslim festival). In addition to

these festivals, three more national festivals are also celebrated here with great

enthusiasm. These festivals are – the Independence day of India, The Republic day of

India and Gandhi Birthday.

3 : REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1. Land, people, culture and plants of Kolkata:

Calcutta, the dreamland of Job Charnock with its long history and tradition, is a

remarkable city. On one hand, it is the pioneer centres of education, arts, culture, sports,

science, technology and trade and on the other hand, it is also the city of unending

processions, traffic snarls, unusual garbage, frequent power cuts and hazardous pollution.

( Bagchi, 1939; Nair, 1989 Gangopadhyay,1988). If greenery is selected as an index, one

can perhaps claim with some degree of confidence that it is more of a city of trees than

anything else. Ornamental plants not only adorn and beautify the city, but also create a

salubrious influence on the daily life of its residents. (Chakraborti, 1990; Randhawa,

1979). Plants from various corners of the globe have been introduce in the metropolis,

largely through the efforts of East India Company, which coupled with its indigenous

flora provide a remarkable admixture of eastern and western elements. ( Prain, 903-

1905). The site upon which Kolkata stands today, a very old forest existed nearly 300

years ago. ( Guha, 1953). It was full of sundari Heritiera fomes trees which lent their

name to the present Sunderbans. (Hooker, 1875-1897).

Job Charnock landed and formed a settlement on August 24, 1690 in the three small

villages – Suttanutte, Govindpur and Kalikata – at the bank of the river Hooghly. These

villages, alongside other contiguous marshy areas, were often inundated by tidal bores.

(Guha, 1935). From the early history of Kolkata we see that the city has embraced people

from all religious beliefs which have contributed to the city a rich background of social

and cultural life. (Bose, 1958, 1967). The city is dotted by worship spots from all

religious beliefs (Chattopadhyay, 1986) (Bandyopadhyay, 1988) and on visit to these

places of religious activities it is observed that people from all religions perform some

rituals daily whose roots are embedded in man’s long heritages in nature worshipping.

(Choudhuri, 1989; Basu, 1990). With the country attaining freedom in 1947, Calcutta was

confronted with a mass exodus of population from East Bengal (Bangladesh) which

threw out of gear the socio-economic life of the city. (Chatterji, 1968). The situation was

tackled on an emergency footing and programmes for settlements of new immigrants

were envisaged by expanding the township towards the north and the south. Therefore

Chapter 3: Review of Literature

35

Calcutta became the world’s second most thickly populated city. (Chaudhuri, 1990).

Since the existing amenities were highly insufficient to meet their demands, it resulted in

occasional epidemics. In order to bring cosmos into the chaos, a civic body was

established in 1961. It prepared a master plan covering broadly four aspects viz. water

supply, water and sewerage disposal, roads and transport, development of slums areas

and housing. (Siddiqui, 1969). For implementing the blue prints of the master plan, the

Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) was created in 1970. One of

tasks of CMDA was regreening of Kolkata, where the policy of protection and

conservation of existing plant life of the city was attempted for the first time( Chaudhuri,

1990; Griffith, 1970). As the city stepped into the new millennium with overwhelming

population explosion, moral degradation and increased pollution the age long heritage of

nature worship survived through the daily religious rituals performed by man in the

different religious places dotting the city (Hasnat, 1989). With the increasing number of

skyscrapers in the populated city of Kolkata open spaces in the form of parks and gardens

must receive due attention. (Raha, 1987).

Calcutta has always been a place of cultural activities over the years. It is a living city

(Chaudhuri,1990).The history of Calcutta streets is just like the history of

man(Chattopadhyay, 1991). An excellent work was received from Chattopadyay as early

as 1936. The book was forwared by R.C. Majumdar and it deals with the social

conditions of the then Calcutta, babu culture etc. At the end of the book the bibliography

is very interesting. An account of in the 19th century Calcutta was received from Nair

(1989) from thirty five rare books to provide source materials for Calcutta's history. The

author has gathered almost all rare works on this city in this book. This is a unique

contribution to the history of Calcutta. Choudhuri (1989) has focused attention on

important streets of Kolkata and Ghatak (1989) dealt with the history of the street of

Kolkata. Bandyopadhyay (1988) gave us a book on Calcutta focussing on the religious

centres and interesting information on temples, masjids, churches in Calcutta. Basu

(1990) presented a book dealing with scientific research in Calcutta for three hundred

years. The study has been divided by period such as 1689-1784; 1784-1135; 1835-1876;

1876-1917; 1917-1947 and 1947- . D.Basu(1990) is to be credited for compilation of

seventeen articles covering various aspects of Calcutta. The articles are on : (i) Kolkatar

prachinnatta by Indrajit Chowdhury. (iii) Kalkatar mandir - Staphatya by Tarapada Santra


36

(iv) Kalkatar Jaina mandir by Ganesh Lalwani (v) Kalkatar native girja by Alak Ray (vi)

Kalkatar durga dalan by Bimal Kumar Pal. Chattopadhyay(1986) dealt with the details of

some important architectural buildings and institutions and lights on the dates on how

these were established.

An excellent work was received from Basu (1985) on anthropological profile on Muslims

of Kolkata The book consists of four chapters with three appendices and at the end a

bibliography. A bibliography on Calcutta (Anon, 1990) was compiled by the staff

members of Calcutta Metropolitan library which includes 465 English books and 115

Bengali books with location. The main part is arranged subject wise and other part is

author -title index. The work of Chakraborty (1990) would always prove useful to

researches on plants of Kolkata. His book deals with one hundred trees of Calcutta and it

also includes where these trees are available and the history of the trees, their flowers and

fruits. This edition is a good one to the tree lovers and it will help them to identify trees.

Some of these articles were published during 1970-72 in the Bengali daily newspapers.

Trees of South Calcutta have been dealt here with in large numbers.

Catley(1956) presented a short history on the Saint Paul's Cathedral, Calcutta, the

foundation stone of which was laid on 8th October, 1839 and consecrated on 8th

October, 1847.

Chaudhuri (1381 B. S)’s work is a souvenir of the Kalipuja of the Naba Yubak

Sangha. The pictures and photographs of Calcutta in the book are by courtesy of

Sukumar Roy. The topics dealt with here are: Kolikatar Barnona; Kolkata, Murshidabad

theke Kolkata, Job Charnock Prosonga, Itihaser Kolkata, Kolkatar pathghat, Janabasatir

Padakshep; Kabitai Kolkata; Utsab; Palaparbon; Amod promod; Samaj Chitra; Kolkatar

Mandir, Masjid, Girja, Kolkatar Sanskriti Kendra O darshoniyo Sthan, etc.

A fascinating history of the Jewish people in Calcutta can be known from the work of

David Horowitz. There are eight chapters of the book dealing with ancient origins and

Babylonian exile; Early settlers; Synagogues and institutions; Customs and usages;

communal affairs; prominent personalities; Asutosh hunter,

On the eve of the great city's ter-centenary Gangopadhyay(1988) released a book entitled

“Calcutta steps into 300 years with rich heritage, thus offering the tourist with an

accurate date and history of Calcutta. The names of some landmarks are interesting.

Other interesting items are (i) Around the city; (ii) Tourist information offices, (iii)


37

Travel agents, (iv) News media in Calcutta (v) Accommodation ; (vi) Ashrams and

Missions ; (vii) Restaurants ; (viii) News Agencies (ix) Imp Govt. offices.(x) Museum

Art Gallery (xi) Theatre Halls (xii) Auditorium/ PublicHalls (xiii) Theatre; (xiv) Cinema;

(xv) Sports.

Brahmo Samaj was established in 1818 and is increasing still now. Shri Shibnath Shastri

wrote the history of the Samaj in 2 volumes in 1911 in English and Dr. Ghosh wrote this

book in Bengali. The book consists of six chapters. The second chapter viz. KaliKata

Brahmo Samaj is noteworthy to trace the history of the Samaj in Calcutta.

The real name of the author is Amitabha, a graduate in mechanical engineering from

Jadavpur University. Calcutta may be called the first mechanized city. This book deals

with some Calcuttans who are mainly responsible for the mechanical development of the

city. The history of forgotten materials such as gas light, ball tower of Fort William iron

made art materials etc. are traceable from here. The book is fully illustrated. The book

presents, in brief, all that makes Calcutta of the present day with a rich historic, political,

commercial and intellectual legacy it has inherited from the eventful past. The city has

not only grown in its girth but can claim to be one of the ten cities of the world with

largest population exceeding ten million. It remains a city of contrasts, a mix up of light

and shade, a strange medley of the ancient and the modern, a muddle of the skyscrapers

and slums, rich and the poor’s heaven as seldom found anywhere in the world. The

contents of the book are: 1. The story of Calcutta. 2. Education and culture. 3. Trade and

industry 4. Transport and communication 5. Calcutta administration 6. Calcutta at a

glance and 7. Directory section.

Kemp (1918) prepared a Catalogue of the scientific serial publication in the

principal libraries of Calcutta.. This catalogue is designed for the use of those who have

occasion to consult the scientific periodicals represented in Calcutta libraries, whether

belonging to Govt. of private institution. This vol. deals with the collection of twenty four

libraries in Calcutta. Libraries catalogued, are mentioned in the context. By this catalogue

the readers may know the periodicals on Calcutta in the 24 libraries of Calcutta.

4 : MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present work is primarily based on thorough field survey in the study sites located in

Calcutta (Fig. Maps), and study of pertinent literature (Thomas, 1893, Seth, 1941,Thakur,

1952, Chatterjee, 1968; Anon.,1978,Siddiqui,1982, Nair,1984,1987, Ray, 1990a & b,), a

precise account of which is given in the chapter dealing with glimpses of Calcutta,

alternatively called Kolkata.

Keeping parity with the objective of studying direct man-plant relationship, field surveys

were conducted in places of religious activities, viz. Buddhist Monasteries, Churches and

Cemeteries, Fire Temples and Tower of Silence of Zoroastrians, Gurdwaras, Gurdwara

Mona Punjabi, Jain Temples, Mosques and burial grounds, Nirankari Temple,

Synagogues, Hindu temples and Burning Ghats, Upasanalayas [Table 4.2].

The study-schedule followed in this work covers two interrelated disciplines i.e.

ethnobotany and taxonomy for execution of which extensive field work was necessary

[Plate Nos. 4.1 – 4.11]. The brief tenets and history of each religion, important rituals,

festivals and other information having pertinence to the present work were also

documented from primary sources i.e. the knowledgeable informants during

ethnobotanical studies as well from secondary sources which include such important

publications as those of Cotterell (1999), Chapple and Tucker(2000), Ray(2001), Buck

(2002), Buddha Priya Bhikshu (2005) and others [Table 4.1]. The information thus

procured [Table 4.3] and experience gained through direct contact and observations along

with the emanating data have been compiled and systematically presented in the Chapter

5 entitled “RESULTS”.

Chapter 4: Materials and Methods

39

Table 4.1 : A precise account of secondary sources to record information about

tenets and other perspectives, related to present work:

Religion Source

Buddhism 1. “Buddhism". 2009. In Encyclopædia Britannica.

Retrieved November 26, 2009, from Encyclopædia

Britannica Online Library Edition.

2. Bhikkhu Bodhi, "The Noble Eightfold Path. The Way

to the End of Suffering," Buddhist Information, at:

http://www.buddhistinformation.com/

3. Richard Gombrich. 1988 .Theravada Buddhism: A

Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern

Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, page 49.

4. Garfinkel, Perry. 2005. "Buddha Rising". National

Geographic: 88–109.

5. Lily de Silva.5 June 2010 "The Buddhist Attitude

Towards Nature", Access to Insight, ,

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/desilva/attit

ude.html

6. R. Chalmers, H.T. Francis, E.B. Cowell and W.H.D.

Rouse, 1990. The Jātaka, trans.

Christianity 1. Esler. The Early Christian World. p. 157f.

2. Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com.

http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.ht

ml. Retrieved 2009-05-05

3. Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith

in the Christian Tradition.

4. Barnes, Albert. Barnes' New Testament Notes, Entry

for Matthew 22:40.

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/barnes/ntnotes.iv.xxii.xl.html.

Retrieved 7 October 2012.


40

5. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/

holydays

6. http://www.catholic-saints.info/catholic-

symbols/plants-trees-christian-symbols.htm

7. Hunter, W.W. 1897. (The) Thackerays in India and

some Calcutta graves, Hewry Frowde, London.

8.Madge, E.W. 1909. Illustrated handbook of St.

John’s Church (Old Cathedral), Calcutta. Thacker,

Spink & Co., Calcutta.

9. Marak, K.C. and Aghamkar, A.Y. 1998. Ecological

challenge and Christian Mission, ISPCK, New Delhi.

10. Wenger, E. S. 1908. (The) Story of the Lall Bazar

Baptist Church Calcutta; being the history of Carey’s

Church from 24th April 1800 to the present day.

Edinburgh Press, Calcutta.

Zoroastrians 1.Boyce, Mary.1979. Zoroastrians: Their Religious

Beliefs and Practices, published by Routledge

and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, UK.

2.Rustomjee, Framroz, 1957. "Daily Prayers of the

Zoroastrians" published by Parsi Zoroastrian

Association, Calcutta, India,.

3.Dhalla, Maneckji K. 1963."History of

Zoroastrianism" published by K.R. Cama Oriental

Institute, Bombay, India,

4. Cavendish, Richard; Ling, Trevor Oswald,1980,

Mythology: an Illustrated Encyclopedia

5. http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/

6. Zoroastrianism: Holy text, beliefs and practices".

2010-03-01.

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-

historical-review. Retrieved 2010-03-01


41

7. Goodstein, Laurie (06-09-2008). "Zoroastrians Keep

the Faith, and Keep Dwindling". The New York Times.

http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/us/06faith.html.

Retrieved 2009-10-03.

Sikhism 1. Singh, Khushwant ,2006. The Illustrated History of

the Sikhs. p. 15. Oxford University Press, India.

2. Adherents.com. "Religions by adherents" (PHP).

http://adherents.com/misc/rel_by_adh_CSM.html.

Retrieved 2003337-02-09.

3. Mann, Gurinder Singh,2001. The Making of Sikh

Scripture. p. 21.Oxford University Press: United States.

4. Brar, Sandeep Singh, 1998. "The Sikhism

Homepage: Sri Guru Granth Sahib — Authors &

Contributors". http://sikhs.org/granth2.htm. Retrieved

30 May 2006.

5.

http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/Sikhism_and_the_

environment

6.Singh, R.K. 2000.The vitality of the Sikh Practice,

Abstracts of Sikh Studies, Vol.II, Issue 1, January –

March.

7. Singh, Prabhjot, 2006 ‘Sikhism is eco-friendly’,

The Tribune ;

http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060820/spectrum

/main3.htm


42

Ravidassia 1. Gerald Parsons, 1993. The Growth of Religious

Diversity: Traditions. pp. 227.Psychology Press,

Philadelphia, USA.

2. “Ravidass followers declare separate religion,

release separate Granth". SikhNet. 2010-02-01.

http://www.sikhnet.com/news/ravidass-followers-

declare-separate-religion-release-separate-granth.

Retrieved 2012-07-17.

3. Parsons, Gerald,1994. The Growth of Religious

Diversity: Britain from 1945. p. 227. Routledge,

Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB, UK.

4. “Religion, or a prayer for identity". Indian Express.

03-02-2010.

http://www.indianexpress.com/news/religion-or-a-

prayer-for-identity/574754/. Retrieved 2012-02-27

contd……


43

Jainism 1. Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999.

Jainism: An Indian religion of salvation. (Lala Sundar

Lal Jain research series) (English Edition).p.24. Motilal

Banarsidass Publ.Pvt.Ltd.,New Delhi.

2. Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in.

http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Indi

a_at_glance/religion.aspx. Retrieved 2010-09-01.

3. The Jains. Routledge. p. 271. ISBN 0-415-26606-8,

9780415266062.

http://books.google.com/?id=5ialKAbIyV4C&pg=PA2

99&dq=jains+britain#v=onepage&q=jains%20britain&

f=false

4. "Parasnath Jain Temple Calcutta". Indian Heritage

Destinations. http://www.nighthawks.co.in/indian-

heritage-destinations/parasnath-jain-temple-

kolkata.html. Retrieved 23-09-2009.

5 Jain, P K. , DIETARY CODE OF PRACTICE

AMONGST JAINS : 2000,

http://www.ivu.org/congress/2000/jainism.html

Islam 1. "Accurate Information About Islamic Beliefs,

History and Civilization from Authentic Sources. The

Institute of Islamic Information and Education at

http://www.iiie.net/

2. Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online

3.Chaudhury, R.A. 1988. Muslim Festivals and

Ceremonies. Islam International Publications Ltd.,

U.K.

4.Farooqi, M. I.H. 1995. Plants of the Qur’an. Sidrah

publishers, Lucknow, India.

5. Farooqi, M. I.H. 1995. Fruits mentioned in the


44

Qur’an. Sidrah publishers, Lucknow, India.

6. Rippin, Andrew,2001. Muslims: Their Religious

Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge,

Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB, UK.

7. Plants of the Noble Quran:

http://www.ummah.com/islam/taqwapalace/fitness/heal

th2.html

8. What does Islam mean? 2011. The Friday Journal,

(6 Feb 2011)Mumbai

Nirankaris 1. Singh, Sardar Harjeet.2009. Faith & Philosophy of

Sikhism. pp. 144.Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi.

2. Knott, Kim,1998. "The Religions of South Asian

Communities in Britain". In Hinnells, John R. A New

Handbook Of Living Religions (2nd ed.). pp. 756–774.

Penguin Books Canada Ltd. Mass: Cambridge.

3. "History | Baba Buta Singh Ji (1873–1943)". Sant

Nirankari Mission. Sant Nirankari Mandal (Regd.),

Delhi.

India:http://www.nirankari.com/modules/founder/baba

buta/. Retrieved 10 December 2010.

Judaism 1. "Knowledge Resources: Judaism". Berkley Center

for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs.

http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/tradition

s/judaism. Retrieved 22-11-2011

2. World Jewish Population, 2010. Hebrew University

of Jerusalem, Sergio Della Pergola.

3. The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith". Hebrew

for Christians.

http://www.hebrew4christians.net/Scripture/Shloshah-

Asar_Ikkarim/shloshah-asar_ikkarim.html. Retrieved

22-08-2010.


45

4. "Tefillin", "The Book of Jewish Knowledge",

Nathan Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p.458

5. “Judaism 101: Kashrut". Jewfaq.org.

http://www.jewfaq.org/kashrut.htm. Retrieved 22-08-

2010.

6. Seymour Rossel, "Basic Judaism: Jewish Holy

Days," at: http://www.rossel.net

Hinduism 1. Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin,2010.

Religions of the World, Second Edition: A

Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices,

p. 1324.ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, USA.

2. Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions,: Saint

Mary's Press, Winona, MN,USA.

3. Vivekananda, Swami (2005), Jnana Yoga, Kessinger

Publishing, Whitefish, MT(Montana),USA.

4. The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of

Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (Right

Wealth), Kama (Right Desire), Moksha (Right Exit

(Liberation)), 2006.Pustak Mahal, New Delhi.

5. “Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library

of Congress. September 1995.

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-

bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055).

Retrieved 2007-04-19

6. CIA-The World Fact Book,

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-

factbook/geos/in.html

7. Kapoor, Satish,K. 2001.Sacred Trees of The

Hindus: Mythological and Social Linkages.

Prabhuddha Bharata, Chennai.


46

8. Harshananda, S., 2001, All about Hindu Temples,

Sri Ramkrishna Math, Chennai.

Brahmo

religion

1. Kenneth W. Jones, 1989. Socio-Religious Reform

Movements in British India" pp. 33-34, Cambridge

Univ. Press,UK.

2. Sarkar, H.C., -‘History of the Brahmo Religion’

(1906).Published in Calcutta.

3.Kopf, David, 1979. Brahmo Samaj and the Making of

Modern India. pp 43–57. Princeton University

press,USA.

4. Sastri, S.1911. History of the Brahmo Samaj. 2nd ed.

p.81. Published in Calcutta

5. Brahmo Samaj FAQ Frequently asked Questions".

Brahmo.org. 2011-07-25. Archived from the original

on 2011-07-25.

http://web.archive.org/web/20110725101858/http://bra

hmo.org/brahmo-faq.html. Retrieved 2012-10-15.

6.Brahmo Sammilan Barta, May 2003, Brahmo

Sammilan Samaj, Kolkata.


47

The ethnobotanical and taxonomic methods followed in this work are stated separately in

the following.

4.1.1 Ethnobotanical studies:

For ethnobotanical studies, the principles and practices communicated in the work of

Jones (1941), Shultes (1960,), Jain (1987, 1989, 1991), Rao (1989), Bellany (1993) and

Cotton (1996) were adopted and a questionnaire and data collection sheet was prepared.

While collecting data during field work emphasis was given on documentation of

traditional knowledge regarding use of plant resources sustained by each of the concerned

religions so as to assess the relationship with plants, its conservational implications and

attitude towards environmental optimization. Plants used by the followers of each

religion in worship, mythology, taboos, magico-religious practices, ceremonies etc. were

also given adequate attention, since cultural activities have an age-long strong traditional

integration with conservation of biodiversity.

Field surveys were planned in such a way so as to cover 123 religious sites linked with 11

religions in different seasons since 2003 [Table 4.2]. During field work adequate time

was spent through frequent visits to come in close acquaintance with 82 knowledgeable

informants among whom there were the religious Heads, priests, garden keepers,

gardeners, caretakers elderly devotees especially aged men and women and other

associates [Table 4.3], to gather data with their full consent about their knowledge related

to use of different trees, herbs, shrubs, vines etc. following standard ethnobotanical

method (Rao,1989) and recorded in the data collecting sheets or the questionnaire

prepared keeping adequate relevance to the present work, a sample of which is also

presented in the following.

DATA COLLECTING SHEET

1. Date of Visit:

2. a) Place:

b) Affiliated to:


48

3. a) Location:

i) heart of the city:

ii) outskirt::

iii) suburb:

4. Details of the place of visit:

i) Entrance ---Guarded/ unguarded?

ii) Compound wall – made of bricks, stone/

other/barbed wire fencing? :

iii) Height of Compound Wall:

iv) Maintained Garden – Yes/No:

v) Religious activity performed?

Daily/Seasonally/Occasionally:

vi) Management – Trustee/Board/

Organization Name:

vii) a) Head of the Institution/organization:

b) Designation:

c) Name:

viii) Name and other particulars of other informant(s)

ix) No. of devotees visiting the place daily:

x) No. of devotees visiting on particular occasion:

Name of occasion No. of visitors

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

xi) No. of residents

Religious Head:

Caretaker:

Guard:


49

Any other:

Total:

xii) Rules & Regulations/Taboos/Rituals etc.:

5. a) Total area of the place:

b) If water body is in the compound, it’s area:

c) Area of garden (if partly occupied):

6. Place connected with people of - :

(i) Particular religious group (Name):

(ii) All religious:

7. a) Whether connected with any international organization?:

b) If yes, Name:

8. a) Whether any garden in the compound? Yes/No:

b) If yes,

(i) Is the garden considered sacred?

(ii) (a) Specific plant(s) considered sacred?:

(b) Name of sacred species growing in the garden?:

(iii) Historical background:

(a) Name of the founder:

(b) Date of foundation:

9. Delivery of plants

Herbs:

Herbs & Shrubs:

Herbs, Shrubs & Trees:

Trees only:


50

10. Name of dominating species:

11. Name of most interesting species:

12. No. of specimens collected:

Names Field Nos.

13. Names of rare species sown in the garden:

14. Utilitarian aspect of the plants:

Ornamental:

Medicinal:

Economic:

Ornamental, Sacred & Shade giving:

All types:

Special type:

15. Activity of plants:

All of local origins:

All exotic:

Local & exotic both:

16. Part of the plant offered to deities:

Flower:

Fruit:

Seed:

Leaves:

Stem:


51

Roots:

17. How such plant is procured?:

18. (a) Whether kitchen garden present? Yes/No:

(b) If yes,

(i) Types of vegetables:

(ii) Any connection with offerings

(Viz, Bhoj, Nabanna etc.):

19. Photograph:

(a) Shrine/Institute – Yes/No:

(b) Plants of relevance – Yes/No:

20. Any other special points to mention:

Table 4.2 : An account of the field work performed with details of study-site:

Site No.

Date Place of Visit Address Religious belief

Esta- blishd

On 1 22-05-

2003 Kalighat Temple 9, Bhagabati Lane,

Kolkata - Hinduism Not

known 2 26-05-

2003 St. Teresa of Avila Church

92, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata - 14

Christian 1897

3 28-05-2003

Gurudwara Jagat Sudha

31, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata - 26

Sikhism 1920

4 29-05-2003

Nippon Zan, Myohoji

29, Panchanantala Road, Kolkata -37

Buddhism 1935

5 05-06-2003

Laldada Ki Masjid

15/1 Hatibagan Road, Kolkata - 14

Islam Not known

6 05-06-2003

Wakf Masjid Rahamania

P 7 Surawardi Avenue, Kolkata - 17

Islam 1928


52

7 10-06-2003

Sacred Heart Church

720, M. G. Road, Thakurpukur, Kol- 63

Christian 1830

8 11-06-2003

Oxford Mission (St. Peter's Church)

Barisha, Kolkata - 8 Christian 1880

9 11-06-2003

Karunamoyee Mandir

32, M. G. Road, Kolkata - 82

Hinduism Not known

10 14-06-2003

Keoratala Mahasmashan

113, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata - 26

Hinduism Not known

11 14-06-2003

Aatharobari Nibasi Late Mohima Chandra Ray Choudhury Smashan Mandir

113/1 Tollygunge Road, Kolkata

Hinduism 1830

12 14-06-2003

Beth el Synagogue

26/1, Pollock Street, Kolkata -1

Jew Not known

13 14-06-2003

Maghen David Synagogue

109A, Biplabi Rash Behari Bose Street, Kolkata

Jew 1884

14 01-06-2003 & 15-06-2003

Sri Parasanath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir

26, Belgachia Road, Kolkata

Jainism

15 02-06-2003 & 15-06-2003

Gulam Mohammad Mosque (well known as Tipu Sultan Mosque)

143, Deshpran Sasmal Road, Kolkata -33

Islam 1843

16 22-10-2003

Sacred Heart Church

3, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata - 13

Christian 1834

17 27-10-2003

Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid

185, Dharmatola Street, Kolkata

Islam 1799

18 27-10-2003

Baptist Mission Church

42 & 43 A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata

Christian 1818

19 03-11-2003

Firingi Kalibari 244, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata

Hinduism Not known/ 905 (Bangabda)

20 03-11-2003

Atash & Adaran (Fire temple)

91, Metcafe Street, Kolkata

Zorastrian Not known


53

21 30-11-2003

Tower of Silence 109, Beliaghata Main Road, Kolkata

Zorastrian Not known

22 18-02-2004

Gopal Mandir 93 & 93B Tollygunge Road, Kolkata -33

Hinduism 1252, 13th Falguna (Bangabda)

23 18-02-2004

Chandimatar Mandir

21, K. K. Roychoudhuri Road, Barisha, Kolkata -8

Hinduism 1694

24 18-02-2004

Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir

1B, Watgunge Street, Kolkata -23

Hinduism 1604

25 18-02-2004

Behala Siddheswari Kali Mandir

Behala, Kolkata. Hinduism 1170 (Bangabda)

26 18-02-2004

Behala Gurudwara

23, D. H. Road, Kolkata -53

Sikhism 1943

27 18-02-2004

Sri Ghanteswar Mahadev Mandir

274A, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata -12

Hinduism Not known

28 18-02-2004

Ram Mandir Central Avenue, Kolkata

Hinduism Not known

29 02-03-2004

Sri Sri Gouranga Mandir

12, Gouranga Mandir Road, Kolkata -86

Hinduism 1952

30 02-03-2004

Basana Kalibari Garia, Kolkata -86 Hinduism Not known

31 02-03-2004

Aanandadham Aanandadham Joramandir, Kolkata -84

Hinduism 1355, 23rd Aswin (Bangabda)

32 02-03-2004

Adi Maha Smasaneswar Mandir

Garia Smasan, Kolkata

Hinduism Not known

33 02-03-2004

Rathtala Durgamandir

N. S. C. Bose Road, Kolkata

Hinduism Not known

34 07-03-2004

Ram Thakur Ashram

38, Central Road, Kolkata -32

Hinduism 1942, 26th February

35 07-03-2004

Bijoygarh Thakurbari

Kolkata -32 Hinduism Not known


54

36 07-03-2004

Baaro Bhuter Mandir

Bijoygarh, Kolkata -32

Hinduism 1358, 1st Magha (Bangabda)

37 07-03-2004

Bijoysri Mandir 2/56A, Sri Colony, Kolkata -92

Hinduism 1357 (Bangabda)

38 07-03-2004

Ram Thakur Ashram

E1/A, Bhaghajatin Stattion Road, Kolkata -86

Hinduism 1970 (23rd Poush)

39 07-03-2004

Sri Guru Ashram 11/2, Durga Prasanna Paramhansa Road, Naktala, Kolkata - 47

Hinduism 1960

40 13-03-2004

Nakuleswar Mandir

9, Bhagabati Lane, Kolkata -

Hinduism 1660

41 20-03-2004

Sadharon Brahmo Samaj

211, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata - 6

Bramho 1878

42 29-03-2004

Shahi Begum Masjid

49, D. H. Road, Kolkata - 27

Islam 1799

43 02-05-2004

Greek Orthodox Church

2A, Library Road, Klokata - 26

Christian 1833

44 02-05-2004

Dakate Kalibari 39/1A, Purna Das Road, Kolkata - 29

Hinduism 1904

45 02-05-2004

St. Lawrence Chappel

27, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata - 19

Christian Not known

46 02-05-2004

Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsangh

119, Bidhan Nagar, Picnic Garden, Kolkata - 39

Nirankari 1947

47 02-05-2004

Guru Ravidas Mandir

20/1 Guru Ravidas Sarani (Tiljala Road), Kolkata -46

Sikhism with idol worship

1939

48 02-05-2004

Brahmo Sammilan Samaj

1A, Dr. Rajendra Road, Kolkata

Bramho 1325, 11th Magha (Bangabda)

49 09-05-2004

Mahanirban Matha

113, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata -19

Hinduism 1905

50 23-05-2004

Lower Circular Road Cemetry

184, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -

Christian 1840

51 01-06-2004

St. Stephen's Cemetry, Kantapukur

49/5 Circular Garden Reach Road, Kolkata - 23

Christian 1820


55

52 01-06-2004

Tollygunge Cemetry

3A Russa Road (South), Kolkata - 33

Christian 1942

53 01-06-2004

Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat (Sirity Smashan)

B.L. Shah Road, Kolkata -33

Hinduism Not known

54 06-06-2004

Church of Christ, the King

5, Syed Amir Ali Avenue, Kolkata - 17

Christian Not known

55 06-06-2004

Park Street Cemetery

52 South Park Street, Kolkata -14

Christian 1767

56 08-06-2004

Prabhu Jishu Girja

76, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Road

Christian 1845

57 10-11-2004

Auxillium Church

8A Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata

Christian 1974

58 20-11-2004

Church of our Lady of Dolours

147, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata -12

Christian 1810

59 26-11-2004

Thakurpukur Baptist Church

175/2 D. H. Road, Kolkta - 63

Christian 1968

60 26-11-2004

Church of the Epiphany (with Burial ground adjacent to the Church)

165/3 D. H. Road, Kolkata -63

Christian 1836

61 26-11-2004

Assembly of God Church

Keorapukur, Kabardanga Kabarsthan, Kolkata - 93

Christian 1981

62 26-11-2004

St. Paul's Church Keorapukur, 179, M. G. Road, Kolkata -82

Christian 1979

63 26-11-2004

St. Anthony's Church

R. C. Thakurani P.O., Kolkata -104

Christian 1968

64 26-11-2004

Infant Jesus Church

3, Sourin Roy Road, Kolkata -34

Christian Not Known

65 26-11-2004

St. Stephen's Church (St. Thomas School premises)

3 D. H. Road, Kolkata - 23

Christian 1870

66 26-11-2004

Sudder Street Church

15, Sudder Street, Kolkata - 16

Christian 1866

67 28-11-2004

Sri Jagannath Mandir

East Yard Gorasthan, CPT Compound, Khidderpore, Kolkata - 23

Hinduism 1948


56

68 28-11-2004

Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir

Babubazar, Bhukailash Rajbari, Kolkata - 23

Hinduism Not known

69 28-11-2004

Stella Maris Church

4, Nimak Mahal Road, Kolkata - 43

Christian 1947

70 28-11-2004

B. N. R. Masjid S. E. Railway Colony, Garden Reach, Kolkata - 43

Islam 1978

71 28-11-2004

Numania Masjid Tinwale

H-27, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

72 28-11-2004

Chhoti Masjid H-63/1 Paharpur Road, Kolkata - 24

Islam Not known

73 28-11-2004

Sahi Masjid Mammadi

I-116, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

74 29-11-2004

St. John's Church

2/2 Council House Street, Kolkata -1

Christian 1784

75 29-11-2004

Union Chappel 137, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13

Christian 1817

76 29-11-2004

Bhowanipur Congregational Church

43, Lala Lajpat Rai Sarani Sarani, Kolkata -20

Christian 1868

77 29-11-2004

St. Mary's Church

44 & 45 Elgin Road, Kolkata - 20

Christian

78 29-11-2004

Osmond Memorial Church

56 B, S. N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata -14

Christian 1868

79 29-11-2004

Central Methodist Episcopal Church

131, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13

Christian 1923

80 04-12-2004

Queen of Peace Church

209/1 N. S. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -47

Christian Not known

81 04-12-2004

Bhowanipur Cemetry

15, Debendra Lal Khan Road, Kolkata -47

Christian 1907

82 12-12-2004

St. Paul's Cathedral

J. N. Road, Kolkata -71

Christian Not known

83 13-12-2004

Shibmandir 9/1 Ramanath Majumder Street, Kolkata

Hinduism 1212 Bangabda

84 08-03-2005

Don Bosco School Chapel (Sl.109)

23, Darga Road, Kolkata -17

Christian 1958

85 14-01-2006

Nimtala Crematorium &

2, Strand Bank Road, Kolkata -700007.

Hinduism Not known


57

Burning Ghat (Nimtala Mahasmasan)

86 14-01-2006

Cutchi Menon Jamat Waqf Estate, Maniktala Masjid

248, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -6

Islam Not known

87 14-01-2006

Bagmari Burrial ground

52, Bagmari Road, Kolkata -54

Islam 18th Century (exact date not known)

88 14-01-2006

Lal Masjid 253/C, A. J. C. Bose road, Kolkata -6

Islam Not known

89 14-01-2006

Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan

20, Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata - 46

Islam Not known

90 14-01-2006

Gore Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan

32, Gobra Gorasthan Road, Kolkata -46

Islam Not known

91 24-01-2006

Shibmandir M. N. Sen Lane, Kolkata

Hinduism Not known

92 13-02-2006

Armenian Holy Church & Nazerath

2, Armenian Street, Kolkata -1

Christian 1707

93 13-02-2006

Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary

15, Portugese Church Street, Kolkata - 1

Christian Not known

94 05-03-2006

Wajid Ali Shah Mosque

P-35, Wajid Ali Shah road, Kolkata -24

Islam 1866

95 05-03-2006

Nawab Umda Mahal

P-35, Wajid Ali Shah road, Kolkata -24

Islam 1866

96 05-03-2006

Shahi Masjid 7B, Iron Gate Road, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

97 05-03-2006

Firdous Mahal Masjid

B 48, Iron Gate Road, Metiaburuz, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

98 05-03-2006

No. 1, Begg Burrial Ground

N-134, Rameswarpur Road, Koklkata -24

Islam Not known

99 05-03-2006

2 No. Gorasthan J 149, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24

Islam 1958

100 05-03-2006

3 No. Burrial Ground

J-124/1, Ram Nagar.Lane, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

101 05-03-2006


J-115/1, R. N .Lane, Kolkata -24

Islam 1919


58

102 05-03-2006


Ram Nagar Road, Kolkata -24

Islam Not known

103 05-03-2006


G-313/2, G 311, G269/1, Meher mazil, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24

Islam 1893

104 05-03-2006

Solo Aana Masjid & Burial Ground

70 A, Ekbalpur Road, Kolkata -

Islam Not known

105 15-04-2006

Yin Yee Thong Cemetry (Chineese Cemetry)

C. S. Dag No. 545 & 631; Mouza Nonadanga.

Buddhist 1885

106 15-04-2006

Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple (Chinese Buddhist Temple)

Chowbhaga, Kolkata - 105

Buddhist Not known

107 15-04-2006

Nalanda Bidyabhavan

50T/1C, Pottery Road, Kolkata - 15

Buddhist 1935

108 04-08-2006

St. Andrews church

15, B. B. D. Bag, Kolkata -

Christian Not known

109 17-02-2007

Haji Cassim Ariff Masjid

231, A. P. C. Road, Kolkata -4

Islam Not known

110 18-02-2007

Setwambar Jain Temple (Sitalnath Mandir)

Badreedas Temple Street, Kolkata

Jainism 1867

111 18-02-2007

Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir


Jainism 1924

112 18-02-2007

Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir


Jainism 1810

113 18-02-2007

Chandaprabhuji Ka Mandir


Jainism 1895

114 18-02-2007

St. John's Church (Sealdah)

308, A. P. C. Road, Kolkata -4

Christian Not known

115 18-02-2007

Seventh Day Adventist Church

36 Park Street, Kolkata-16

Christian Not known

116 04-11-2008

Nakhoda Masjid Jacquaria Street, Kolutola, Kolkata - 7

Islam 1926

117 04-11-2008

Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat

1, Strand Road, Kolkata -700001

Hinduism Not known


59

118 04-11-2008

Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat

5, Chandra Kumar Roy Lane, Kolkata -700036.

Hinduism Not known

119 05-11-2008

Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat

4,Garcha 1st Lane & 22 Garcha 2nd Lane, Kolkata – 700019

Sikhism 1909

120 05-11-2008

Gurdwara Bari Sangat

172, M. G. Road, Kolkata -7000007

Sikhism 1510

121 05-11-2008

Chota Sikh Sangat

112, Cotton Street, Kolkata-7

Sikhism Not known

122 05-11-2008

Gurdwara Sant Kutiya

Harish Mukherjee Road, Kolkata-26

Sikhism Not known

123 05-11-2008

Topsia Hindu Burial Ground (Hindu Gorosthan)

1, Topsia Road, Kolkata -46

Hinduism Not known

Table 4.3: List of knowledgeable informants used as primary sources in the present work:

Sl. No.

Name Designation Address/Site

1 Mr. Ajoy Banarjee Executive Member

Kalighat Temple Committee

2 Mr. Debu Mukherjee Sebait Kalighat Temple Committee

3 Fr. Orson Wells Parish Priest St. Teresa Avila Church

4 Jasbir Singh Head Granthi Gurudwara Jagat Sudha 5 Tanaka Bikshu Bikshu Nippon Zan, Myohoji. 6 Sri Kailash Chand Jain Secretary Sri Digambar Jain

Baramandir Trust 7 Mr. Sasanka Sekhar

Mazumder Gardener Sri Parshvanath

Digambar Jain Upvan Mandir

8 Anwar Ali Shah Matawale Prince Gulam Mohammed Waqf Estate

9 Arshad Ali Mali Tipu Sultan Mosque 10 Javed Sahab President Intazamia Committee 11 Kamal Hussain Matawale Waqf Maszid

Rahamania 12 Father Henry Crasta Parish Priest Sacred Heart Church,


60

Thakurpukur

13 Mr. Arijit Roy Administrator Oxford Mission 14 Mr. Ananta Makhal Resorce

Person Oxford Mission

15 Mr. David Nahome Secretary Beth el Synagogue 16 Mr. Hansel De' Souza Parish Priest Sacred Heart Church 17 S. M. Noorur Rahaman

Barkati Shahi Imam Kolkata

18 Rev. Subrata Fullonton Pastor Baptist Mission Church 19 Mr. Bhupal Chandra

Bandopadhyaya Priest Firingi Kali Bari

20 Mr. Medora President Calcutta Zorastrian Community & Religious Charity Fund

21 Mr. Shorab Cotwal Head Priest Atash & Adaran 22 Mr. Ferozedhatigara Care Taker Atash & Adaran 23 Mr. Belly Balsara Care Taker Tower of Silence 24 Mr. Ranjan Samal Gardener Tower of Silence 25 Mr. Amitava Mondal Secretary Sri Sri Gopal Jew and

Sri Sri Sambhunath Jew Shiv Thakur Devottar Estate

26 Mr. santi Chandra Roy Choudhuri

Desecndent of Sabarna Roy Choudhury

Sri Sri Chandi Matar Mandir

27 Mr. Rakhal Chandra Chakrabarty

Sebait Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir

28 Mr. Dipak Bhattacharya Sebait Behala Siddheswari Kali Temple

29 Tejinder Singh Pujari Behala Gurudwara 30 Harpreet Singh Head Granthi Behala Gurudwara 31 Sri Khokan Das Devotee Sri Sri Gouranga

Mandir 32 Smt. Labanya Prava Devi Trustee Sri Sri Gouranga

Mandir 33 Sri Jyotirmoy

Bandopadhyaya Purohit Anandadham

34 Mr. Debasish Mukhopadhaya

In charge Ram Thakur Ashram

35 Mr. S. K. Bhattacharya Purohit Baro Bhuter Mandir 36 Mr. Binod Bihari Roy Devotee Bijoysri Mandir 37 Swami Bireswaranda President Sri Guru Ashram 38 Mr. Arun Kr. Das President Sadharan Brahmo

Samaj


61

39 Tahanubul Hussain Imam Shahi Begum Masjid 40 Father Konstanstions Priest Greek Orthodox

Church 41 Mr. Kanti Bhusan

Bhattacharya Tritiya Purush

Dakate Kali Bari, Purna Das Road

42 Fr. Anil Mitra Head Master St. Lawrence Chapel 43 Mr. Surjit Pal President Adi Dharam Seva

Samiti (Mona Panjabi), Guru Ravidas Mandir (Dalit's)

44 Mr. Rohit Ram Member Adi Dharam Seva Samiti (Mona Panjabi), Guru Ravidas Mandir (Dalit's)

45 Mr. Arjun Singh Zonal Incharge, Kolkata

Sant Nirankari Mondal Satsangh

46 Mr. Gurdeep Singh Informant Sant Nirankari Mondal Satsangh

47 Mr. Sankar Dasgupta Secretary Mahanirban Math, Rasbehari Avenue

48 Mr. Samar Narayan Roy Manager Mahanirban Math, Rasbehari Avenue

49 Mr. D. R. Bose Addl. Secretary

Christian Burial Board

50 Fr. Jose Pellisseny Burser Auxillium Church 51 Fr. Peter Rector Church of own lady of

Dolours, Boitakkhana 52 Mr. Hira Charan

Narginavi Pastor Thakurpukur Baptist

Church 53 Mr. Tapas Mondal Pastor Thakurpukur Baptist

Church 54 Rev. Subhas Adhikary Priest Church of the Epiphany 55 Mr. Alok Chowdhury Pastor Assembly of God

Church School, Keorapukur.

56 Bahadur Security Assembly of God Church School, Keorapukur.

57 Rev. A. J. Guria Priest St. Paul's Church, Keropukur

58 Rev. Fr. Faustine Brank Priest Anthony's Church, Keorapukur.

59 Mohan Modak Informant Anthony's Church, Keorapukur.


62

60 Fr. Victor Yardi Principal St. Stephen's Church at the premise of St. Thomas School.

61 Fr. Rev. Rmasih Priest Sudder Street Church 62 Fr. D. Mello Priest Church of Christ the

King. 63 Pundit Joydev Das Priest Sri Jagannath Mandir,

Khiderpore. 64 Mr. Vasanth Parish Priest Stella Maris Church. 4,

Nimak Mahal Road (Port Area).

65 Rev. Ashoke Biswas Pastor Union Chapel.

66 Rev. V. V. Gyan Priest Bhowanipore Congregatonal Church

67 Fr. J. N. Ali Priest St. Mary's Church 68 Rev. Issac Pastor Osmond Memorial

Church 69 Rev. Avijit Biswas Pastor in

charge Central Methodist Episcopal Church

70 Rev. Joseph Staff Queen of Peace Church 71 Rev. Simmick Priest St. Paul's Cathedral. 72 Phillip William Incharge Bhowanipur Cemetery 73 Fr. Kurian Priest Prabhu Jishu Girja

74 Mr. Kshudiram Goswami Priest Shivmandir, Mahendra dutta & Sons.

75 Dr. S. K. Ahmed Ali General Secretary

Cutchi Menon Jamat Waqf Estate

76 Dr. Kamrup Jamal Sub-Registrar Bagmari Burial Ground 77 Izar Zafari Devotee Sahi Maszid, Iron Gate. 78 Mr. Haik Sookias Chairman Armenian Holy Church

& Nazareth 79 Fr. Sunil Rosario Priest Cathedral of the Most

Holy Rosary, Murgihata.

80 Pragnajyoti Mahasthabir Monk Nalanda Bidyabhavan 81 Nabdeep Singh Granthi Gurdwara Garcha Sikh

Sangat 82 Sampoorna Singh Religious

associate Gurdwara Bari Sangat


63

4.1.2 Taxonomic studies:

During field work the specimens of plants sustained in the premises of places of religious

activities and rituals were considered for taxonomic studies. Weeds were totally ignored

in the present work since the present work was intended to find out the relationship of

followers of each religion with plants was studied in the context of the species sustained

willfully by them. The plants, plant parts and products procured from outside for offering

to the God, Goddess, supernatural power, soul, spirit etc. were also ignored. Since many

of the species under study are sustained under prohibitions and inhibitions emphasis in

such cases was given on observations and notes on them instead of plucking or damaging

them for herbarium preservation. When permission was received for collection and the

species was common and adequate to afford collections, then specimens were collected

from them for herbarium preservation and taxonomic work. Standard herbarium sheets

measuring 42 x 12 cm were used for mounting specimens after proper pressing, drying

and poisoning. With each specimen a label inscribing place of collection, field number,

and certain important phenotypic characters which usually disappear on preservation, was

affixed [Plate Nos. 4.1- 4.11]. Such specimens were submitted to the Ecotaxonomy

Laboratory of the department of Botany of Burdwan University (B.U.) for preservation.

The samples (material) used for taxonomic descriptions were the twigs, stem,

leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Dry flowers collected from the specimens thus

preserved, were immersed in boiling water for a brief period for softening. In some cases,

wherever possible, fresh materials were worked out. Each material was placed on clean

glass slide and dissected. To the dissected part a few drops of aqueous glycerin solution

(10%) were added and covered with cover slips for observation under binocular

stereoscopic dissecting microscope. A brief description of each plant was prepared for

use in identification. The plants were identified accurately using pertinent literature and

checking up with authentic specimens preserved in the Central National Herbarium

(CAL) at Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, West Bengal. Nomenclature of each species

has been checked with that given in the latest publications (Hooker, 1875 -1897; Prain,

1903; Bailey, 1948; Mukherjee, 1960; Bennet, 1987; Guha Bakshi, 1984; Bose and

Chowdhury,1991; Bose et al.,1998;Murti and Panigrahi, 1999). Family citations have


64

been confirmed with Mabberley, 2008). Standard abbreviations were used as and when

required.

The terms Leguminosae, used in the text stands for Fabaceae censu lato and other terms

like Scitamineae is treated equivalent to Musaceae + Ravenalaceae + Zingiberaceae +

Heliconiaceae; Palmae has Arecaceae and Gramineae equivalent to Poaceae.

.

.


65

PLATE NO. 4.1 – Herbarium sheet ‐1


66

PLATE NO. 4.2 – Herbarium Sheet - 2


67

PLATE NO. 4.3 – Herbarium sheet - 3


68



69



70



71



72



73



74



75


5 : RESULTS

5.1 BUDDHIST MONASTERIES & CEMETERIES

5.1.1 Tenets:

Buddhism is a religion largely based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is

remembered and worshiped commonly as Lord Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in

Sanskrit and Pāli). The Lord Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian

subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.

Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam and

Hinduism. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha, is

among the oldest organizations on earth.

Buddhism, like most of the great religions of the world, is divided into a number of

different traditions. However, most traditions share a common set of fundamental beliefs.

One fundamental belief of Buddhism is often referred to as reincarnation -- the concept

that people are reborn after dying. In fact, most individuals go through many cycles of

birth, living, death and rebirth. A practicing Buddhist differentiates between the concepts

of rebirth and reincarnation. In reincarnation, the individual may recur repeatedly. In

rebirth, a person does not necessarily return to Earth as the same entity ever again. He

compares it to a leaf growing on a tree. When the withering leaf falls off, a new leaf will

eventually replace it. It is similar to the old leaf, but it is not identical to the original leaf.

5.1.2. Festivals:

The main Buddhist festival is Buddha Day / Vesak / Vaisakha, the celebration of

Buddha's birth. The days of His enlightenment and death are also observed. Followers

observe these festivals by decorating their homes and temples with lanterns made of

paper or wood. They also visit their local temples for services and teachings and giving

offerings to monks on these days.

5.1.3 Plants associated with Buddhism:

According to the Buddhist scriptures, the founder of Buddhism, Sakyamuni, always

stayed with plants in critical moments of His life: He was born under the sorrowless tree

Chapter 5: Results

77

Ashok（Saraca asoca De Wilde.). He became a Buddha under the sacred fig, i.e.,

Aswatha (Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq.) trees and He died under the Sal (Shorea

robusta A. DC.). Therefore, Buddhism has quite close relations with plants. According to

"the Birth Records of the 28th Generation of Buddha", Buddhism has altogether 28

generations of Buddhist masters; each master would rule 5000 years; and Sakyamuni is

the 28th Buddhist master.

Special woods are needed for the construction of Buddha temples, such as Teak (Tectona

grandis Linn. f.), Chukrasia velutina Roem., Gamari (Gmelina arborea Roxb.),

Paramichelia baillonii Hu., jackfruit or Kanthal (Artocarpus heterophylla Lan.) etc.

which are all upright and with hard woods, and at the same time mothproof. The wooden

carvings in the Buddhist temples, such as the statues of Buddha, holy wares and holy

animals, also must use these woods. The Buddhist lamps must use special oil extracted

from special seeds of woods, such as ironwood, i.e., Nageswar (Mesua ferrea L.) and

candle nut (Aleurites moluccana Willd.) etc. When boys desire to become monks or the

monks need to be enhanced to higher ranks, they must first take a bath in water boiled

with holy fragments of cinnamomum (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.) trees, sacred

beans and grasses, rose apple (Syzygium jambolanum DC.) and Acacia rugata Buch. –

Ham. etc. Among the plant-tributes for Buddha, there are fruits such as betelnuts (Areca

catechu L.), banana (Musa nana Lour.), Ba Jiao (Musa sapientum L.) and flowers of

water lily (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.), candock or lotus (Nymphaea lotus Aubl.), St.

Johns Lily (Crinum asiaticum Blanco. var. sinicum) and Hedychium chrysoleucum Hook.

etc., as well as leaves of Ficus religiosa etc. The tributes must also be dyed into red,

yellow and orange colors extracted separately from the roots of anatto tree (Bixa orellana

L.), Gardenia sootepense sootepensis Hutchinson. and Indian mulberry root (Morinda

officinalis How.) etc. There is a yard encircled by low walls and bamboo fences in each

Buddhist temple; their areas are different, and inside them, usually there are dozens or

hundreds of plants. Among these plants, except some fruit trees planted for the monks,

there must be the "trees of Buddha" and some usual plants used in Buddhist activities, as

well as plants where the Buddhist scriptures are written on, such as talipot palm

(Coryphyum braculifera) and paper-mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.) etc.

Chapter 5: Results

78

Though these plants could be more or less in the yards, they must include the "five

Buddhist trees and the five Buddhist flowers”. The five trees include: banyan (Ficus

religiosa Decne. Ex Miq.), council tree (Ficus altissima Blume.), talipot palm, betelnut

and plamyra palm (Borassus spp.) or coconut; and the six Buddhist flowers include water

lily, Crinum asiaticum var. sinicum, Hedychium chrysoleucum Hook., Michelia

champaca L., frangipani (Plumeria rubra L.) and hairyfruit musella (Musella lasiocarpa

C.Y. Wu.) etc.

5.1.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:

1. Site characteristics: Out of three Buddhist monastries and one cemetary of the city

studied. Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple is one having an area of about 1.5 bigha (2007 Sq

m), adjacent to which there is Yin Yee Thong Cemetery spread over an area of about 20

bighas (26766 Sq m) The other two temples which were established in 1935 cover lesser

area, of which Nippon Zen Myohoji at Dhakuria of south Kolkata is the smallest [Table

5.1.1(a)]. No water-body was found in all these religious places. Each temple has

residents ranging from 4 to 9 comprising of Bhikshus, followers and other associates.

Maximum number of regular devotees was found at Nippon Zen Myohoji. The main

festival of Buddhists is celebrated at these temples on the birthday of Lord Buddha which

is incidentally on the day of full moon of ‘Baisakha’ month. During festival days the

number of visiting devotees increases 10 - 20 times over those on other days [Table

5.1.1(b)].

2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxanomic analysis of plants sustained [Table 5.1.2(b)]

shows the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former in

Buddhist sites being 1 : 2.13 at the family level, 1 : 1.93 at the genus level and 1 : 2 at the

species level. It is also interesting to note that at Site No. 4 (Nippon Zen Myohoji

Temple), the ratio of monocots to dicots at the genus, family and species levels is almost

1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and maintained garden. Furthermore it is to note

that proportion of genera to species found in all Buddhist Monastries and Cemeteries of

Chapter 5: Results

79

Kolkata is found to be 1 : 1.02 in comparison with 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the

Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for Bengal.

The maximum number of plant species found in all four Buddhist religious places

of Kolkata is 44, out of which Yin Yee Thong Cemetery contributes the maximum of 19

species. Minimum number of species (6) was found in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Ficus

religiosa L. was found to be the most dominant species in respect of all four Buddhist

religious sites.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants : It is evident that in respect of use

categories found in all Buddhist religious sites, the decorative plants which are mainly

used as to enhance aesthetic effect dominate the scenario with a share of 54.55% [Table

5.1.3]. The next share is of fruit-bearing plants (22.73 %) and shade-giving plants

(18.18%).Those decorative plants which are utilised for fencing/hedging constitute 9.09

% in totality. Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for each

individual temple gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.1.1(a) to (e)].

(i) Decorative species like Plumera obtusa (Gulancha), Michelia champaca L. (Champa)

and Canna glauca L. (Kalabati) are found in two of the sites. As many as 13 plant species

are used to enhance aesthetic beauty in Yin Yee Thong Cemetery whereas 11 such plants

are found in Nippon Zen Myohoji.

Interestingly of the 4 plant species used for demarcating gardens, pathways etc.

inside the temple premises, it was Colocasia antiquorum Schott. (Kachu), which has been

found in two of the sites.

(ii) The shade-giving plants were found to be maximum (5) in Hsuan Tsang Buddist

Temple and minimum (1) in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Amongst such species, Ficus

religiosa L. (Aswatha) was found in most of the sites.

(iii) Out of the (10) fruit bearing species, no less than five (5) are found in Yin Yee

Thong Cemetery. The Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple was found to sustain three and rests

have only one species each.The tree of Aegle mamelos Corr. (Bael) are found in two of

the gardens.

(iv) No vegetable plants were found to be cultivated in any of the four sites.

Chapter 5: Results

80

(v) It may also be noted that about 4.55% of the plant species sustained in the four sites

which do not have utility discussed above. Typha elephantine Roxb. (Hogla), though

found only in one Buddhist site, deserves special mention since this species is unusual in

urban Gardens and Parks.

4. Association with sacred plants: The plants considered sacred by the followers of

Lord Buddha have been enumerated [Table 5.1.4] amongst which Ficus religiosa Decne.

ex Miq. (banyan) can be found in most of the temple gardens.

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A taxonomic

analysis of plant-diversity associated with Buddhist Monasteries and Cemeteries shows

that 17 dicotyledonus families having 27 generas and 28 species and 8

monocotyledonous families having 14 genera and 14 species are sustained in all Buddhist

religious sites [Table 5.1.6]. This represents 65.85% dicots and 34.15% monocots at

genera level and 66.67% dicots and 33.33% monocots at species level. Pteridophyta and

Gymnosperms each has a share of 3.70 % of total vascular plants [Fig. 5.1.2].

Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants in the sites have been illustrated to

show the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level [Fig.

5.1.3 (a) to (c)].

Of the 17 dicotyledonous families, it is Apocynaceae which has the highest number of

genera followed by Leguminosae. Maximum number of species were also noted in

Apocynaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.

Out of the 8 monocotyledonous families recorded it is Palmae which has the highest

number of genera and species, followed by Gramineae.

Only one family each of Gymnosperms and Pteridophyta could be recorded.

Chapter 5: Results

81

Table 5.1.1 (a): Details of study sites.

Sl No.

Date of visit

Name of site Esta-blished on

Address Area Key infor-mant

1. 29/05/2003 Nippon Zen, Myohoji

1935 29, Panchanantala Road, Kolkata -37

4 cottah

Tanaka Bhikshu

2. 15/04/2006 Nalanda Bidyabhavan

1935 50T/1C, Pottery Road, Kolkata – 15

10 cottah

Progya-jyoti Mahasthobir

3. 15/04/2006 Yin Yee Thong Cemetery

1985 C.S Dag No. 545 & 63, Mouza Nonadanga

20 bigha

Devotees

4. 15/ 04/2006 Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple

Chowbaga, Kolkata -105

1 bigha 10 cottah

Acchu (Priest)


Site No.

Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises

No. of regular residents within the premises

No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During

festivals 4 Nippon Zen,

Myohoji 0 06 50 200

105 Yin Yee Thong Cemetery

0 NA NA NA

106 Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple

0 9 10 100

107 Nalanda Bidyabhavan

0 4 10 50

NA = Not available.

Chapter 5: Results

82

Table 5.1.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Buddhist monasteries and

cemeteries.

Family Species Local Name

Remarks Occu-rrence(Site No.)

DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Aam S, F 107 Annonaceae Polyalthia longifolia Benth

& Hook. f. ex Hook. f. Debdaru Or 105

Apocynaceae Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Nerium odorum [Soland.] Plumeria obtusa Bert. ex A. DC. Plumeria rubra L. forma bicolor Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.

Kurchi Karabi

Gulancha

Gulancha

Tagar

Or Or Or Or Or

105 105 105, 4 4 105

Asclepidaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]

Akanda Or 106

Compositae Parthenium hysterophorus L.

Parthenium Weed 106

Cucurbitaceae Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.ex Eckl.

Tarmuj F 105

Leguminosae Bauhinia acuminata Bruce.Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. & Zeyh. Tamarindus indica L.

Kanchan Sisso

Tentul

Or S S

4 106 106

Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna champa

Fl, Or 105

Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Or 107, 4 Meliaceae Azadirahcta indica A. Juss. Neem S 106 Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.

Syzygium cumini/ Skeels.

Peyara

Jam

F S, F

105, 106 106

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 105 Rhamnaceae Zizyphus 82jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 106 Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba

Miq. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex. Lam. Mussaenda roxburghii Hook.f.

Kadam

Rangan

Mussanda

S Or Or

105 4, 107 105

Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa. Bel Or, F 105,

Chapter 5: Results

83

Citrus medica L. Murraya exotica Blanco.

Lebu

Kamini

F Or

107 4 105

Typhaceae Typha elephantina Roxb. Hogla

Eco 106

Urticaceae Ficus religiosa Decne. ex. Miq.

Aswatha S 105, 106, 4

MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Crimum asiaticum Blanco. Or 105 Araceae Philodendron lacerum

Schott. Colocasia antiquorum Schott.

Kachu

Or Ls

4 106, 107

Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or 4, 105 Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea

Boom. Ls 4

Gramineae Andropogon aciculatus Retz. Bambusa nana Roxb.

Bans

Ls Ls, Or

106 105

Palmae Attalea cohune Mart. Cocos nucifera L. Latania loddigesii Mart. Phoenix sylverstrix Roxb.

Narkol

Khejur

Or F, Or Ls Or

4 105 107 106

Pandanaceae Pandanus sanderi Hort. Sand.

Or 4

Scitamineae Musa sapientum L. Ravenala madagascariensis J. F. Gmel.

Kala Panthapada

k

F Or

4 105

GYMNOSPERM Pinaceae Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex

Lambart. Pine Or 4

PTERIDOPHYTA Polypodiaceae Nephrolepis biserrata

furcans Or 4

Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having

economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering

plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &

demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or –

Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd – Seed utilized; V

– Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed

Chapter 5: Results

84

Table 5.1.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries.

SITE NO. (4) (105) (106) (107) TOTAL No. of Plant genera 14 19 13 06 43 No. of Plant species 15 19 13 06 44 Ratio of genera to species

1 : 1.07 1 : 1 1 : 1 1 : 1 1 : 1.02

No. of Gymnosperms Species

01 0 0 0 01

No. of Monocot families

06 05 03 02 08

No. of Dicot families 06 09 08 04 17 No. of monocot at genera level

06 05 03 02 14

No. of dicot at genera level

06 13 10 04 27

No. of monocot at species level

06 05 03 02 14

No. of dicot at species level

07 14 10 04 28

Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level

1 : 1.17 1 : 2.8 1 : 3.33 1 : 2 1 : 2

Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level

1 : 1 1 : 2.6 1 : 2.67 1 : 2 1 : 1.93

Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level

1 : 1 1 : 1.8 1 : 2.67 1 : 2 1 : 2.13

Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites

Ficus religiosa L. (Aswatha)

Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species

Site No. 105 (Yin Yee Thong Cemetery) : Total 19 species

Chapter 5: Results

85

Table 5.1.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries.

SITE NO. (4) (105) (106) (107) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

1 (6.67%)

2 (10.53%)

6 (46.15%)

1 (16.67%)

8 (18.18%)

2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)

0 (0%)

1 (5.26%)

2 (15.38%)

2 (33.33%)

4 (9.09%)

(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)

11 (73.33%)

14 (73.68%)

2 (15.38%)

2 (33.33%)

24 (54.55%)

(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0

3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0

4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)

2 (13.33%)

5 (26.32%)

3 (23.08%)

2 (33.33%)

10 (22.73%)

5. No. of species used as source

of consumable seeds (% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0

6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0

7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)

0 0 2 (15.38%)

0 2 (4.55%)

Total 15 19 13 06 44

Fig.

diff

F

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

.5.1.1 (a) –(

ferent use c

Fig. 5.1.1(a)

Fig.5.1.

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1 2

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

45.00%

50.00%

1 2

(e) Percent

categories.

): SITE N

.1(c): SITE

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C

tage distrib

NO. 4

E No. 106

9

Serie

9

Serie

hapter 5: Re

86

bution of pl

es1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

es1

esults

ants of all B

Fig. 5.1

Fig

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1 2

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

1

Buddhist r

1.1(b): S

. 5.1.1(d):

2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

religious sit

ITE No. 10

SITE No. 1

8 9

Se

8 9

S

tes in

05

07

eries1

Series1

Tab

Tab

Fig. 5.1.

Lgends beauty 8- Sour

ble 5.1.4 : P b

Name of sp

1. Ficus rel

2. Michelia

3. Plumeria

ble 5.1.5: S

Vaspla

Pterido

Total

Gymno

.1 (e): USEF

s for the ch, 4- Offerinrce of inco

Prevalencebeliefs and t

pecies susta

ligiosa Dec

a champaca

a rubra L.

Statistical a

scular ants F

ophyta

osperms

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

C

FUL PLAN

harts abovengs; 5-Vegsme of Trust

of plants ctaboos.

ained as sa

cne.ex.Miq.

a L. (swarna

(frangipani

analysis of p

No. of Families

D

1

Po

1

Pi

1 2 3

hapter 5: Re

87

NTS IN ALL

STU

: 1 – Shades. yielding, 6tees; 9 – Ot

considered

cred plant

(banyan),

a champa)

)

plant wealt

Details of fam

olypodiaceae

inaceae

4 5

esults

L BUDDHIDIED

-giving, 2 –6- Fruit-beathers.

sacred or a

th.

mily Nge

e

6 7 8

IST RELIG

– fencing, 3 aring 7 – Se

associated w

Si

10

No. of enera

1

1

1

9

GIOUS SITE

– Aestheticeeds used;

with the Bu

ite Nos.

5, 106, 4

105

4

No. of species

1

1

1

Series1

ES

c

uddhist

Chapter 5: Results

88

Total 1 1

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 8

Amaryllidaceae 1 1

Araceae 2 2

Cannaceae 1 1

Commelinaceae 1 1

Gramineae 2 2

Palmae 4 4

Pandanaceae 1 1

Scitamineae 2 2

Total 14 14

b) Dicot 17

Anacardiaceae 1 1

Anonaceae 1 1

Apocynaceae 4 5

Asclepiadaceae 1 1

Compositae 1 1

Cucurbitaceae 1 1

Leguminosae 3 3

Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 1 1

Meliaceae 1 1

Myrtaceae 2 2

Passifloraceae 1 1

Rhamnaceae 1 1

Rubiaceae 3 3

Rutaceae 3 3

Typhaceae 1 1

Urticaceae 1 1

Total 27 28

Tab

Fig.Cem

Fig.

(a)

ble 5.1.6: S

Vascular p

1. Pteridop2.Gymnosp3. Angiospa) Monocob) Dicot

. 5.1.2 Percmeteries:

Legen

. 5.1.3 (a)

family –w

Summary o

plant

Nuhyta

permserms t

centage Dis

d: 1 - Fern

)–(c) Percereli

wise

Leg

1

2

C

of Plant wea

Families

mber %1 31 3

25 928 32

17 68

stribution o

ns , 2 -Gym

entage Disigious sites:

gend: 1- m

hapter 5: Re

89

alth of Bud

% Num3.703.702.592.008.00

of Vascular

mnosperm

Fig. 5.1.2

tribution o:

(b) genera

Fig. 5.1.3

monocot, 2

esults

ddhist mon

Genera

mber %1 21 2

41 9514 3427 65

r plants in B

ms and 3 -

2.

of monoco

a-wise

2- dicot.

1

2

nasteries an

% Num2.332.335.354.155.85

Buddhist M

Angiospe

ots and di

(c)

1

2

3

nd Cemeter

Species

mber % 1 2.21 2.2

42 95.414 33.328 66.6

Monasteries

erms.

icots at Bu

species-w

ries.

27 27 45 33 67

s and

uddhist

wise

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

90

Plate No. 5.1.1: Tanaka Bikshu at Nippon Zan, Myohoji, Buddha Mandir, Dhakuria, Kolkata.

Plate No. 5.1.2: YIN YEE THONG Cemetery (Site No. 106) with Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple (Site No. 105) in the background.

Chapter 5: Results

91

5.2 CHURCHES & CEMETERIES

5.2.1 Tenets:

Christianity, a monotheistic religion, is based on the life and teachings of Jesus as

presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings. Christianity regards

the Biblical canon, the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) and New Testament, as the

inspired words of God.

The mainstream Christian belief is that Jesus is the Son of God, fully divine and fully

human and the savior of humanity. Jesus' ministry, sacrificial death, and subsequent

resurrection are often referred to as the Gospel. The Gospel is the news of God, the

Father's eternal victory over evil and the promise of salvation and eternal life for all

people, through divine grace.

Christianity, beginning as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century in the Levant region of the

Middle East (modern Israel and Palestine), quickly spread to Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia

Minor and Egypt. It grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the end of the

4th century had become the official state church of the Roman Empire, replacing other

forms of religion practiced under Roman rule.

With around 2.2 billion adherents, split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant

and Orthodox, today Christianity is the world's largest religion. Among all Christians,

37.5% live in the Americas, 25.7% in Europe, 22.5% in Africa, 13.1% in Asia, 1.2% in

Oceania and 0.9% live in the Middle East. Christianity is India's third-largest religion,

with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3 per cent of India's population.

Beliefs

The core Christian faith is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and

resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered

salvation and the promise of eternal life. Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the

pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again.

According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead", he ascended to heaven, is

"seated at the right hand of the Father" and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of

Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final

establishment of the Kingdom of God. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated

Chapter 5: Results

92

by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week which

includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The Apostles' Creed remains the most popular

statement of the articles of Christian faith that are generally acceptable to most Christian

denominations.

The Ten Commandments are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship,

which play a fundamental role in Christianity like Judaism. They include instructions to

worship only God and to keep the Sabbath and prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy,

murder, theft, and adultery.

5.2.2 Festivals: Different forms of Christianity celebrate different festivals and observe

different holy days, but all forms observe (though might not celebrate it in the same way)

the following 6 holy days:

Christmas: 25th December. Marks the birth of Jesus Christ.

Epiphany: 6 January. Marks the Journey of Three Kings to worship Jesus in

Bethlehem

Good Friday: The Friday before Easter (March/April), it commemorates Jesus’

passion (suffering) on the cross.

Easter: (March/April) Marks the resurrection of Jesus from the tomb.

Ascension: Forty days after Easter, the ascension of Christ to heaven is

commemorated.

Pentecost: The seventh Sunday after Easter. Marks the descent of the Holy Spirit

upon the apostles, which began the work of the Church.

5.2.3 Plants associated with Christianity: A list of plants, found reference in the Bible,

is given below:

Name of Plants Reference

Acacia, Spirale (Acacia raddiana Savi.) Exodus 25:10

Algum Tree, red sandalwood (Pterocarpus

santalinus Blanco.), white sandalwood -

(Santalum album L.)

(2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10, 11)

Almug Tree (Pterocarpus santalinus Blanco.) 1 Kings 10:11

Chapter 5: Results

93

Aloe, Aloe socctorina Schult.f. Proverbs 7:17

Barley (Hordeum spp.) Numbers 5:15

Beans (Vicia faba) Ezekiel 4:9

Bulrush (Typha spp.) or Papyrus (Cyperus

papyrus L.)

Exodus 2:3

"Cassia" (Cassia spp.) Exodus 30, Psalm 45:8, Job

42:14

Castor Oil Tree (Jonah's Gourd) - (Ricinus

communis L.)

Jonah 4

Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani Loud.) 1 Kings 5:10, 2 Kings 19:23

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)

Blume.

Proverbs 7:17

Citron (Etrog) (Citrus medica L.)

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) Exodus 16:31

Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) Esther 1:5

Crown Daisy (Chrysanthemum sp.) Isaiah 40:6

Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) Isaiah 44:14

Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Song of Solomon 5:11; 7:7, 8,

John 12:13

Fig (Ficus carica L.) Joel 1:7

Fitches (Black Cumin) (Nigella sativa L.) Isaiah 28:23

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) Numbers 11:5

Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) Song of Solomon 1:14

Jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf) Matthew 27:3

Lily (Iris palaestina Boiss.) 1 Kings 7:22

Mustard (Brassica nigra Koch.) Matthew 13:31

Nuts/Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Song of Solomon 6:11

Oak (Quercus calliprinos Webb.) Joshua 24:26

Oleander,( Nerium oleander L.) Ecclus., xxiv, 18; xxxix, 17

Olive (Olea europaea) Judges 9:9

Onion (Allium cepa) Numbers 11:5

Chapter 5: Results

94

Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Song of Solomon 7:8

Pine Tree (Abies cilicica) 1 Kings, etc.

Pomegranate - (Punica granatum L.) Song of Solomon 7:12

Rose (Gladiolus ) "Rose of Sharon" (Song of Sol.

2:1)

Sage Three-Leafed (Salvia fruticosa Miller) Exodus 37:17

Sweet Cane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Jeremiah 6:20

Vine - Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Isaiah 5:1

Wheat – (Triticum aestivum L.) Ezra 7:22


1. Site characteristics: Churches occupy smaller areas in comparison to Cemeteries

ranging from 0.5 acre (i.e. 2024 Sq m.) to about 100 bighas (i.e. 133829 Sq m.). Oxford

Mission Church at southern fringe of the city occupies the largest area. Church of our

Lady of Dolours at Central Kolkata is the smallest [Table 5.2.1(a)]. Amongst cemeteries

under study, the Bhowanipore Cemetery and Lower Circular Road Cemetery are the

largest in terms of area-occupancy, as both have almost the same area (100 bighas). Area

wise next comes Park Street Cemetery, but this is closed for the purpose of burial. Vast

area of St. Stephen Cemetery (situated at the Kolkata Port area), though having

comparatively smaller area (about one-twentieth of the two cemeteries named above)

remains under water during high tide of the river Ganges. Almost all churches and

cemeteries under study have residents ranging from 1 person to about 16 persons. They

include Father, Gardener, Chowkidar and other religious associates. It has also been

noted that the religious places under study have regular visitors ranging from 10 to 400

whereas during festivals the number ranges from 50 to even 40000 [Table 5.2.1(b)].

Normally cemeteries do not have regular visitors unless there is specific occasion or

funeral.

Chapter 5: Results

95

2. Taxonomic documentation: It can be seen [Table 5.2.2(b)] that the dicots dominate

over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is 1 : 4.8 for the family level, 1 :

4.42 for the genus level and 1 : 4.59 for the species level. Furthermore the proportion of

genera to species found in all Christian religious study-sites of Kolkata was found to be 1

: 1.09 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4

for Bengal.

Of all Church sites studied the Oxford Mission Church (Site No. 8) houses maximum

number i.e. 76 species whereas the Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site No. 50) amongst

all cemeteries has the maximum number of plant species, i.e. 47 species. Polyalthia

longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. (Debdaru) )is found in maximum number of

Churches whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima G. Don. (Krishnachura) is found in

maximum number of cemeteries. In respect of all 39 Christian sites studied Polyalthia

longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. happens to be the most dominant species.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: The plants which enhance aesthetic

effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about 84.62% amongst all [Table 5.2.3]. Next

comes Shade-giving plants which are about 12.31% of total species recorded. Fruit-

bearing plants and vegetables constitute 9.74% and 5.64% respectively. There are only

6.67% of total plants, the parts of which are utilized particularly for offering to God

during festivals or decorating the Churches/Cemeteries. As much as 2.05% of the total

plants are utilized as fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways inside the premises

etc. Percentage distribution of plants according to their utility is graphically represented

separately for churches, cemeteries and in totality of the Christian religious sites [Fig.

5.2.1(a), 5.2.1 (b) and 5.2.1(c)].

(i) Of the 182 decorative plant species recorded, Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f.

(Debdaru) and Caesalpinia pulcherrima G. Don. (Krishnachura) are found in maximum

number of sites i.e. 27 and 25 respectively. Thuja orientalis is found in 22 sites while

Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan) is found in 22 sites followed by Vinca rosea L.

(Nayantara), Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba), Mussaenda erythrophylla ‘Rosea’ Schum.

& Thonn. (Mussanda) each in 19 sites. It is Areca catechu L. (Supari) which is sustained

in17 sites. Other plants which enhances the aesthetic beauty of the place are

Chapter 5: Results

96

Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. (Baganbilas), Borassus flabellifer L. (Tal), Jasminum

pubescens Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. (Belphool), Canna glauca L. (Kalabati) (each found in

14 sites), Murraya exotica Blanco. (Kamini) and Jacquinia ruscifolia Sesse & Moc.

(found in 13 sites), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) (found in 12 sites), Quisqualis indica

Blanco. (Madhabilata) and Dahlia Superflua Ait. (Dalia) (each found in 10 sites).

Out of 4 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside

the premises, Duranta plumeri Jacq. (Duranta) is found in 10 sites whereas Euphorbia

pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. (Lalpata) is sustained in 3 sites and Pedilanthus

tithymaloides Poit. (Rangchita) in 1 site only.

There are 13 plant species utilized as offerings at ‘Churches’ or “Cemeteries” of

which Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap) is sustained in 14 sites.

(ii) Of 24 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem) is sustained in

24 sites, Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) in 23 sites, Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. (Jarul)

in 12 sites, Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) in 9 sites and Ficus benghalensis L.

(Bot) in 8 sites.

(iii) Out of total 19 fruit-yielding plant species Psidium guayava L. (Peyara) is found in

24 sites followed by Carica papaya L. (Pepe) having occurrence in 22 sites, Cocos

nucifera L. (Narkol) in 20 sites, Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal) in18 sites and

Musa paradisiaca L. (Kola) in 16 sites.

(iv) Out of a total of 11 plant species useful as vegetables, Murraya koenigii Spreng.

(Karipata) is present in 13 sites. Other species of importance are Colocasia antiquorum

Schott. (Kachu) found in 10 sites and Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. (Sajina) found in 7

sites.

(v) There is 2 (two) plant species, viz., Sesamum indicum L. and Cajanus cajan Druce.

recorded from Christian study-site, the seeds of which are useful as source of edible

sesame (Til) oil and pulses.

(vi) Some tree-species, precious mainly for their timber quality, like Shorea robusta

Gaertn (Sal) and Swetenia mahogonny Jacq. (Mahogony) are found in 3 sites and

Tectona grandis L. f. (Teak/Segun) in 2 sites.

Chapter 5: Results

97

The obnoxious weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Parthenium), was found in

abundance in 3 cemeteries causing much concern to the authorities.

4. Association with sacred plants: List of plants considered sacred by the Christians or

referred to as the biblical plants includes 9 species [Table 5.2.4] of which Citrus

maxima Merrill. (Lebu), Nerium oleander L. ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi) and Punica

granatum L.(Dalim) are found in 11, 7 and 4 Christian sites respectively.

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: As many as 48

dicotyledonus families having 137 genera and 156 species and 10 monocotyledonous

families having 31 genera and 34 species have been recorded from all Christian study

sites [Table 5.2.6 ]. This represents 81.55% dicots and 18.45% monocots at generic level

and 82.11% dicots and 17.89% monocots at species level [Figs. 5.2.3(a), (b) & (c)].

Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms represent 4.62% and 6.15% of total vascular plants

[Fig. 5.2.2].

Out of 48 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number

of genus, followed by Anonaceae. But maximum number of species has been noted in the

family Leguminosae, followed by that of Euphorbiaceae.

Out of 10 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae has the highest number of

genus and species, followed by Araceae and Scitamineae.

There are 4 families of Gymnosperms and 3 families of Pteridophytes, each group

having the number of genus and species same as that of the respective family. It is Thuja

odorata Doi. (Jhau) of Pinaceae family which is sustained in 22 sites. The next most

prevalent gymnosperm is Cycas revolute Bedd. of the Cycadaceae family.

Chapter 5: Results

98


Sl No.

Date of visit

Name of site

Esta-blished on

Address Area Key informant

1. 26/05/2003 St. Terasa of Avila Church

1895 92, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata -14

10 cottah

Fr. Orson Wells (Parish Priest)

2. 11/06/2003 Oxford Mission

1880 Barisha , Kolkata -8

63 bigha

Rev. Biswas

3. 10/06/2003 Sacred Heart Church, Thakurpukur

1830 720, M.G. Road, Kolkata -63

2 bigha

Father Henry Crasta (Parish Priest)

4. 22/10/2003 Sacred Heart Church

1834 3, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13

10 cottah

Hansel De’Sousa (Parish Priest)

5. 27/10/2003 Baptist Mission Church

1818 42 & 43, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata -14

Half acre (2024 sqm.)

Rev. Subrata Fullonton (Pastor)

6. 02/05/2004 Greek Orthodox Church

Not available

2A, Library Road, Kolkata -26

1 bigha

Father Konstanstions

7. 02/05/2003 St. Lawrence Chapel

Not available

27, B.C. Road, Kolkata -19

3 bigha

Fr. Anil Mitra

8. 23/05/2004 Lower Circular Road Cemetery

Middle of 19th century

184, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata

100 bigha

Mr. D. R.Bose, (Secre-tary, Christian

Chapter 5: Results

99

Burial Board)

9. 01/06/2004 St. Stephen’s Cemetery

1820 49/5, C.G.R. Road, Kantapukur North Gate, Kolkata -23

5 bigha

Not available

10. 01/06/2004 Tollygunge Cemetery

Middle of 19th century

3A, Rassa Road (South), Kolkata -33

2 bigha

Mr. D.R.Bose, (Secretary, Christian Burial Board)

11. 08/03/2005 Christ the King Church

1944 5, Syed Amir Ali Avenue, Kolkata

2 bigha

Elias D’Mellow (Parish Priest)

12. 10/11/2004 Auxillium Church

1974 8A, Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata

3-4 bigha

Fr. Jose Pellissery (Burser)

13. 20/11/2004 Church of our Lady of Dolours

1810 147, B.B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata

3 acres (12144Sq m.)

Fr. Peter (Rector)

14. 26/11/2004 Thakupukur Baptist Church

1968 175/2, D.H. Road, Kolkata

1 bigha

Hira Charan Narginari (Paster)

15. 26/10/2004 Church of the Epiphany with adjacent burial

1836 165/3, D.H. Road, Kolkata -63

4 bigha

Rev. Subhas Adhikary

Chapter 5: Results

100

ground

16. 26/11/2004 Assembly of God Church School

1981 Keorapukur, Kolkata -93

4 bigha

Alok Choudhury (Paster)

17. 26/11/2004 St. Paul’s Church

1979 179, M.G. Road, Kolkata -82

4 bigha

Rev. A.J. Guria

18. 26/11/2004 St. Antony’s Church

1968 Keorapukur, Kolkata - 104

2 bigha

Rev. Fr. Faustine Brank

19. 26/11/2004 Infant Jesus Church

Not available

3, Sourin Roy Road, Kolkata -34

1 bigha

Not available

20. 26/11/2004 St. Stephen’s Church

1870 3, D.H.Road, Kolkata -23

2 bigha

Fr. Victor Yardi

21. 26/11/2004 Sudder Street Church

1866 15, Sudder Street, Kolkata-16

10 cottah

Rev. Rmasih

22. 28/11/2004 Stella Maris Church

1947 4, Nimak Mahal Road, Kolkata -43

1 bigha

Vasanth (Parish priest)

23. 29/11/2004 St. John’s Church & Job Charnock’s Mausoleum

1784 2/2, Council House Street, Kolkata- 1

3-4 acre

Rev. Rmasih (Priest)

24. 29/11/2004 Union Chapel

1817 137, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata - 13

1 bigha

Rev. Ashok Biswas (Pastor)

25. 29/11/2004 Bhowanipur

1868 43,Lalalajpat Rai Sarani,

1 Rev. V.V.

Chapter 5: Results

101

Congregational Church

Kolkata - 20 bigha Gyan

26. 29/11/2004 St. Mary’s Church

Not available

44 &45, Elgin Road, Kolkata - 20

15 cottah

Rev. John Nelson Ali

27. 29/11/2004 Osmond Memorial Church

1868 56 B, S.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata -14

12-14 cottah

Rev. Issac (Pastor)

28. 29/11/2004 Central Methodist Episcopal Church

1923 131, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13

15 cottah

Rev. Avijit Biswas (Pastor –in-Charge)

29. 04/12/2004 Queen of Peace Church

Not available

209/1, N.S.C Bose Road, Kolkata -47

1 bigha

Rev. Joseph

30. 12/12/2004 St.Paul’s Cathedral

Not available

J.N. Road, Kolkata -

10 bigha

Rev.Simmick (Priest)

31. 04/12/2004 Bhowanipur Cemetery

1907 15, Debendralal Khan Road, Kolkata -27

100 bigha

Phillip Williams

32. 06/06/2004 Park Street Cemetery

1767 52, South Park Street, Kolkata- 14

70 bigha

D.R. Bose (Secretary, Christian Burial Board)

33. 08/06/2004 Prabhu Jisu 1844 76, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai

1 Fr.

Chapter 5: Results

102

Girja Road, Kolkata -16

bigha Kurian

34. 13/02/2006 Armenian Holy Church & Nazareth

1707 2, Armenian Street, Kolkata - 1

15 cottah

Haik Sookias

35. 13/02/2006 Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary

Not available

15, Portugese Church Stret, Kolkata -1

15 cottah

Sunil Rosario

36. 04/08/2006 St. Andrews Church

Not available

15. B.B.D. Bag, Kolkata

10 cottah

Fr. Andrews Samir

37. 08/03/2005 Don Bosco School Chapel

1958 23, Darga Road, Kolkata -17

10 bigha

Fr. Jacob, Principal

38. 18/02/2007 St .John’s Church (Sealdah)

Not available

308, A.P.C. Road, Kolkata

10 bigha

Not available

39. 18/02/2007 Seventh Day Adventist Church

Not available

36, Park Street, Kolkata -16

10 cottah

Rev. V. Rao


Site No.


No. of regular residents at the premises

No. of visiting devotees (approximate)Regular During

festivals

(A) Churches 2 St. Terasa of

Avila Church 0 11 400 25000

8 Oxford Mission 4 16 150 1000 7 Sacred Heart 2 4 20 1000

Chapter 5: Results

103

Church, Thakurpukur

16 Sacred Heart Church

0 5 100 1000

18 Baptist Mission Church

0 5 200 1000

43 Greek Orthodox Church

0 2 30 1000

45 St. Lawrence Chapel

0 10 100 1000

54 Christ the King Church

0 1 200 1000

57 Auxillium Church

0 16 100 40000

58 Church of our Lady of Dolours

0 5 60 2000

59 Thakurpukur Baptist Church

0 6 100 1000

61 Assembly of God Church

0 2 100 2000

62 St. Paul’s Church

2 6 100 5000

63 St. Antony’s Church

1 4 150 500

64 Infant Jesus Church

0 3 50 1000

65 St. Stephen’s Church

0 Not available Not available

Not available

66 Sudder Street Church

0 4 70 100

69 Stella Maris Church

0 4 300 1000

74 St. John’s Church

0 2 70 1000

75 Union Chapel 0 2 50 500 76 Bhowanipur

Congregational Church

0 6 150 1000

77 St. Mary’s Church

0 2 50 500

78 Osmond Memorial Church

0 2 70 300

79 Central 0 2 50 200

Chapter 5: Results

104

Methodist Episcopal Church

80 Queen of Peace Church

0 10 100 500

82 St.Paul’s Cathedral

0 6 300 10000

56 Prabhu Jisu Girja

0 10 50 200

92 Armenian Holy Church & Nazareth

0 4 20 100

93 Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary

0 4 30 200

108 St. Andrews Church

0 0 10 100

84 Don Bosco School Chapel

0 6 100 200

114 St .John’s Church (Sealdah)

0 8 100 500

115 Seventh Day Adventist Church

0 2 10 50

(B) Cemetery 50 Lower Circular

Road Cemetery 0 4 20-30 100

51 St. Stephen’s Cemetery

Remains under water during high

tide

2 5-10 1000

52 Tollygunge Cemetery

0 2 10-20 100

60 Church of the Epiphany with adjacent burial ground

1 4 50 1000

81 Bhowanipur Cemetery

0 3 10 500

55 Park Street Cemetery

0 7 Closed for burial.

500

Chapter 5: Results

105

Table 5.2.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Churches and Cemeteries.

Family Species Local

Name

Remarks Occurre

nce (Site

No.)

DICOT

Acanthaceae Andrographis

paniculata Nees

Crossandra

undulaefolia Salisb.

Fittonia verschaffeltii E.

Coem.

Ruellia devosiana Hort.

Makoy. ex E. Morr.

Kalmegh

Crossandra

Patabahar

Patabahar

Or, M

Or

Or

Or

76

58

59

64

Amaranthaceae Celosia cristata L. Morugful or

Cock’s

comb

Or, Of

81, 50,

52,

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale

L.

Mangifera indica

Blume.

Kaju

Aam

Or

F, S

8

6, 8, 16,

18, 43,

56, 58,

62, 63,

65, 74,

75, 77,

79, 82,

92, 93,

108, 114,

81, 50,

52, 55

Chapter 5: Results

106

Moringa pterygosperma

Gaertn.

Sajina

V

8, 18, 57,

58, 62,

74,

51

Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile.

Artabotrys

odoratissimus Blume.

Polyalthia longifolia

Benth. & Hook. f. ex

Hook. f.

Ata

Kanthali

champa

Debdaru

F, Or

Or,

Or

58, 75

8, 18, 56,

64, 65,

66, 74,

75, 79,

82 50,

51, 52,

55

4, 8, 18,

43, 45,

54, 56,

58, 62,

63, 65,

66, 75,

76, 77,

79, 80,

82, 84,

93, 108,

114, 51,

52, 55,

61, 81

Apocynaceae Aedenium obesum

Roem. & Schult. var

‘Somalense’

Allamanda neriifolia

Hook.

Nerium

thick root

Allamanda

Or

Or, Of

54

43

Chapter 5: Results

107

Alstonia scholaris R. Br.

Carissa carandas L.

Hollarhena

antidysenterica Wall.

Nerium oleander L. var

‘Roseum’

Plumeria obtuse Bert.

Ex A. DC.

Tabernaemontana

coronaria R.Br.

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Flore-pleno.

Willd.

Thevetia peruviana K.

Schum.

Vinca rosea L.

Chhatim

Karamcha

Kurchi

Golapi

Karabi

Frangipani

Tagar

Double-

petal Tagar

Kolkeful

Nayantara

S, Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

8, 16, 82

8

8, 54,77

18, 54,

76, 79,

80, 82,

108.

45

8, 57, 62,

77, 82,

84, 93, 7,

50, 52,

55, 81

45, 56,77

8, 50.

2, 8, 16,

43, 54,

56, 58,

64, 76,

77, 84,

92, 93,

108, 7,

50, 52,

55, 81.

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera

Dryand.

Swet-

Akanda

Or 55

Chapter 5: Results

108

Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans Griseb. Chameli Or, Fl 74, 77

Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia

Blanco.

Jhau Or 2, 50

Chenopodiaceae Basella rubra L. Puinsak V 8, 58, 62,

76

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna

Wight & Arn.

Terminalia catappa L.

Quisqualis indica

Blanco.

Arjun

Kat badam

Madhabilata

S, Or

Or

Or, Fl

50

8, 56, 57,

82, 84

2, 18, 56,

58, 64,

66, 77,

93, 7, 55

Compositae Chrysanthemum

coronarium L.

Dahlia Superflua Ait.

Eclipta alba Hassk.

Helianthus annuus L.

Parthenium

hysterophorus L.

Tagetes patula L.

Vernonia anthelmintica

Willd.

Chandra-

mallika

Daliah

Kesut

Suryamukhi

Parthenium

Ganda

Somraj

Or, Of

Fl, Or, Of

M

Fl, Or, Of

Wd

Fl, Or, Of

Or

80

18, 63,

74, 75,

76, 82,

84, 114,

115, 61

7, 8

7, 93

50, 51,

52

8, 64, 74,

75, 76,

80, 82,

84, 114,

50

108

Chapter 5: Results

109

Wedelia calendulacea

Less.

Bhringaraj Or 50, 75,

84

Convolvulaceae

Evolvulus nummularius

L.

Ipomea purpurea Roth.

Jacquemontia

paniculata Hallier f.

Quamoclit pinnata Boj.

Bon akra

Morning

glory

Tarulata

Or

Or

Or

Or

108

108

50

54

Cornaceae Alangium lamarckii

Thw.

Ansfal F, S 8, 63

Crassulaceae Bryophyllum calycinum

Salisb.

Kalanchoe laciniata

DC.

Patharkuchi

Himsagar

Or

Or

8

16

Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica

Naud.

Cucurbita maxima

Duchesne

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.

Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.

Telakachu

Kumra

Lau

Dhundul

Or, V

Or, V

Or, V

Or,V

7, 55

80

62

82

Dipterocarpacea

e

Shorea robusta A. DC. Sal S, Or,

Eco

16, 18,

114

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L.

Acalypha hispida

Blume.

Codiaeum variegatum

Blume. Var Fire

Croton sparsiflorus

Morong.

Muktojhuri

Patabahar

Ban-tulsi

Or

Or

Or

Or

55

62

74

54

Chapter 5: Results

110

Emblica officinalis

Gaertn.

Euphorbia lactea Haw.

var ‘alba’.

Euphorbia pulcherrima

Willd. ex Klotzsch.

Euphorbia trigona Haw.

Hevea brasiliensis

Muell. Arg.

Jatropha gossypifolia L.

Pedilanthus

tithymaloides Poit.

Phyllanthus niruri

Blanco.

Amla

Lalpata

Cactus

Para rubber

Bherenda

Rangchita

Bhui amla

Ls

Or

Ls

Or

Or

Or

Ls

Wd

51

2

8, 63, 50

2

8

81

108

108

Geraniaceae Impatiens balsamina L.

Pelargonium hortorrum

L. H. Bailey. var ‘Genie

Irene’

Tropaeolum majus L.

Dopati

Garden

Nasturtium

Or, Fl, Of

Or

Or

50, 108,

115

62

76

Guttiferae Calophyllum inophyllum

L.

Sultan

champa

Or 16

Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L.

Leucas aspera Link.

Salvia coccinea

Buc’hoz. ex Etling.

Tulsi

Swetadrone

Salvia

Or

Or

Or, Of

54, 56,

77, 82,

84, 115,

55

55

8, 18

Lauraceae Cinnamomum Dalchini V 8

Chapter 5: Results

111

zeylanicum Blume.

Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd.

Albizzia lebbek Benth.

Arachis hypogaea L.

Bauhinia acuminata

Bruce.

Caesalpinia

pulcherrima G. Don.

Caesalpinia coriaria

Willd.

Cajanus cajan Druce.

Cassia fistula Herbb. Ex

Oliver.

Clitoria ternatea L.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Desmodium gyrans DC.

Babul

Sirish

Badam

Kanchan

Krishnachur

a

Radhachura

Arhar

Badarlathi

Aparajita

Sisoo

Bon charal

S, Or

S, Or

Or

S, Or

Or

Or

Sd

Or

Or, Fl

Or

Or

50, 82

8, 63, 74,

75, 82

74

7, 55, 74,

82, 108

2, 8,16,

45, 56,

57, 65,

74, 75,

76,

77,79,

80, 82,

84, 93,

108, 114,

7, 50, 52,

55, 60,

61, 81

82, 7

55, 114

8, 45,

108, 81

16, 45,

66

54, 75

8, 54, 57,

62, 74,

108, 61

108

Chapter 5: Results

112

Leucaena glauca Benth.

Mimosa pudica L.

Pithecolobium dulce

Benth.

Saraca indica L.

Tamarindus indica L.

Xylia dolabriformis

Benth.

Subabool

Lajjabati

Jilepi gaach

Asoke

Tentul

S, Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

8, 54, 74,

55

8

52, 82

16, 65,

76

8, 45, 50

43

Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa

Pers.

Lagerstroemia thoreli

Gagnep.

Punica granatum L.

Jarul (pink

flower)

Pink &

White

flower Bilati

Jarul

Dalim

S, Or

S, Or

F

8, 45, 56,

62, 65,

75, 79,

82, 7, 50,

55, 81

51

8, 43,

114, 55

Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna

Champa

Or 8, 45, 65

Malphigiaceae Malpighia glabra L. Barbdos

cherry

Or 81

Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus

Moench.

Bombax malabaricum

DC.

Gossypium herbaceum

L.

Hibiscus rosa sinensis

Dheros

Shimool

Kapas

Jaba

V

Or, Eco

Or, Eco

Or, Fl

7

8, 45,

108, 114,

52

74

2, 8, 18,

Chapter 5: Results

113

L.

Hibiscus mutabilis L.

Hibiscus schizopetalus

Hook. f.

Malvaviscus arboreus

Cav.

Sida cordifolia Forsk.

Sthal-

padma

Jhumko

Jaba

Lanka Jaba

Berala

Or, Fl,

Of

Or, Fl

Or, Fl

Or

43, 54,

56, 57,

58, 64,

65, 66,

75, 77,

82, 92,

115 7,

50, 51,

55,81

2, 56, 74,

78, 82

74

65, 77,

82

52, 81

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.

Juss.

Swietenia mahagoni

Jacq.

Neem

Mahogony

(economic)

S, Or

Eco, Or

8, 16, 18,

43, 45,

56, 58,

62, 65,

66, 74,

75, 77,

82, 84,

92, 93,

108, 114,

50, 51,

52, 55,

81

8, 62, 82

Chapter 5: Results

114

Myrtaceae Callistemon linearis

DC.

Couroupita guianensis

Aubl.

Eucalyptus globulus

Labill.

Eugenia malaccensis

Blanco.

Psidium guayava L.

Syzygium cumini Skeels.

Bottle brush

Cannon ball

Eucalyptus

Jamrul

Peyara

Jam

Or

Or

Or

F, S

F

S, F

18, 55,

81

8

50, 55,

57, 63,

65, 84

8

8, 16, 18,

43, 57,

62, 64,

66, 74,

75, 76,

77, 79,

80, 82,

84, 92,

108, 114,

50, 51,

52, 55,

60

8, 74, 92,

114, 50,

51

Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa

Heimerl.

Baganbilash

Or

2, 8,

43,54,

57, 66,

75, 77,

82, 84,

93, 50,

55, 81

Chapter 5: Results

115

Mirabilis jalapa L. Sandhyamon

i

Or 7, 50, 58,

75

Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens

Buch.- ham. ex Wall.

Nyctanthes arbortristis

L.

Belphul

Seuli

Or, Fl, Of

Or, Fl, Of

2, 8, 45,

54, 56,

58, 66,

77, 78,

79, 80,

93, 51,

55

4, 8, 58,

74, 77,

79, 92

Oxalidaceae Oxalis hedysaroides H.

B. & K.

Patabahar Or 59

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 4, 8, 16,

18, 45,

56, 57,

58, 65,

66, 74,

75, 76,

77, 79,

80, 93,

114, 7,

52, 55,

81

Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Til Sd 52

Piperaceae Peperomia scandens

Ruiz. & Pav.

Patabahar Or 59

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata T.

H. Peng. var ‘alba’

Cape lead

wort

Or 81

Polygonaceae Muehlenbeckia Or 16

Chapter 5: Results

116

platyclados Meissn.

Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Fl, Of 2, 8, 18,

58, 63,

74, 75,

76, 77,

82, 93,

114, 115,

51

Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba

Miq.

Gardenia florida L.

Hamelia patens Jacq.

Ixora coccinea Comm.

ex Lam.

Ixora parviflora Vahl.

Kadam

Gandharaj

Rangan

Sada

Or, S

Or, Fl, Of

Or

Or

Or

8, 45, 82,

84, 50,

52, 55,

60, 81

8, 54, 58,

64, 75,

76, 82,

93, 114,

50.

8, 74.

2, 8, 18,

43, 45,

56, 57,

58, 62,

63, 74,

75, 76,

77, 79,

80, 82,

84, 93,

115, 50,

52, 55,

61, 81.

43, 108

Chapter 5: Results

117

Mussaenda

erythrophylla Schum. &

Thonn. var ‘Rosea’

Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum. & Thonn. var ‘Queen sirikit’

Rangan

Mussanda

Or

Or

2, 8, 16,

18, 43,

62, 63,

74, 75,

76, 77,

79, 82,

84, 93, 7,

50, 55,

81

2, 8, 56

Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa.

Citrus decumana L.

Citrus maxima Merrill.

Murraya exotica

Blanco.

Bel

Batabi lebu

Lebu

Kamini

Or, F

F

Or , F

Or

8, 45, 63,

66, 74,

75, 77,

92, 108,

114, 115,

51, 81

8, 45, 56,

65, 74,

77, 55

8, 58, 62,

63, 74,

75, 77,

79, 80,

115, 55

8, 18, 45,

56, 76,

82, 93,

114, 115,

Chapter 5: Results

118

Murraya koenigii

Spreng.

Karipata

Or, V

50.

18, 57,

65, 74,

75,77,

82, 93,

108, 115,

7, 50, 55

Sapindaceae Litchi chinensis Sonner. Litchi F, S 8

Sapotaceae Achras sapota L.

Madhuca indica J. F.

Mimosops elengi Boj.

Sabeda

Mohua

Bakul

S, F

Or

S, Or

63

51, 74

8, 43, 45,

74, 84,

108, 50,

55

Scrophulariaceae Antirrhinum majus L. Snapdragon Or 75

Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L.

Cestrum nocturnum

Lam.

Petunia rupestris Dusen.

Solanum trilobatum L.

Lanka

Hashnahana

Petunia

Or, V

Or

Or

Or

76

7, 62

115

76, 84

Sterculiaceae Sterculia foetida L. Jungli

badam,

Kothila

Or 65, 66, 7,

81

Theophrastaceae Jacquinia ruscifolia

Sesse. & Moc.

Or 16, 43,

45, 56,

57, 74,

76, 77,

80, 84,

115, 55,

81

Tiliaceae Grewia asiatica L. Falsa F 8

Chapter 5: Results

119

Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia

L. f.

Pilea cadierei

Gagnep.& Gillaumin.

Streblus asper Lour.

Ficus benghalensis L.

Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham.

ex Roxb.

Ficus elastica Roxb. var

‘Decora’

Ficus hispida L. f.

Ficus infectoria Roxb.

Ficus glomerata Hort.

Ex Miq.

Ficus religiosa Decne.

ex Miq.

Kanthal

Sheorah

Bot

Dumur

Rubber

Kak dumur

Pakur

Jagna

dumur

Aswatha

S, F

Or

Or

S, Or

V, Or

Or

S, Or

S, Or

S, Or

S, Or

8, 16, 54,

57, 58,

65, 66,

74, 75,

76, 79,

92, 114,

50, 52,

55, 81

59

8

43, 45,

54, 74,

76, 82,

50, 55

50

8, 65, 74,

82, 84,

93, 7,

50,55

74, 82,

84, 93,

52,81

82

8, 45, 66

65, 114,

50, 51,

61, 81

Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq. Duranto Ls 45, 77,

Chapter 5: Results

120

Lantana camara L.

Premna integrifolia L.

Tectona grandis L. f.

Chotra

Gamar

Teak/Segoo

n/Sagoan

Or

Eco

Or, Eco

82, 84,

93, 50,

81

54, 84,

93, 50,

52, 55,

81

8

8, 62

MONOCOT

Amaryllidaceae Agave americana L.

Crinum asiaticum L.

Sisal

Baro-kanur

F

Or

8

7, 8, 54,

56, 57,

62, 74,

76, 80

Araceae Colocasia antiquorum

Schott.

Philodendron elegans

Hort. var ‘Emerald

Duke’

Philodendron lacerum

Schott.

Scindapsus aureus Engl.

var ‘Gold’


var ‘Marble Queen’

Kachu

Money plant

V

Or

Or

Or

Or

16, 43,

54, 58,

74, 76,

77, 50,

60, 61

16

59

2, 64

16, 43

Cannaceae Canna glauca L. var Kalabati Or 8, 18, 43,

Chapter 5: Results

121

Angusta 56, 57,

63, 65,

75, 80,

82, 108,

114, 51,

52

Commelinaceae Commelina

benghalensis Forsk.

Setcreasea purpurea

Boom.

Kanshira

Wd

Or

81

43, 54,

57, 58,

80, 84,

115, 81

Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus

Benth.

Schoenoplectus acutus

A.& D. Love.

Mutha ghas

Patpati gach

Or

Or

7, 50, 81

54

Gramineae Andropogon aciculatus

Retz.

Bambusa nana Roxb.

Chorkanta

Bans

Wd

Or, Eco

108

18, 63,

55

Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius

Cav.

Liriope muscari

[Decne.] Bailey f. var

‘Variegata’

Pleomele reflexa N. E.

Brown.

Pleomele reflexa N. E.

Brown. ‘Variegata”

Garden

plant

Or

Or

Or

Or

7, 52

59

16

63

Musaceae Heliconia humilis Jacq.

Or

59, 74,

82

Chapter 5: Results

122

Musa paradisiaca L.

Kola

F, Or

8, 18, 57,

58,

62,63,

65, 74,

77, 80,

82, 92,

50, 51,

55, 81

Palmae Areca catechu L.

Borassus flabellifer L.

Cocos nucifera L.

Supari

Tal

Narkol

Or

F, Or

Or, F

8, 43, 56,

57, 63,

64, 74,

75, 76,

79, 82,

84, 108,

7, 50, 51,

60

45, 62,

74, 75,

76, 80,

82, 93,

50, 51,

52, 55,

60, 81

8, 16, 18,

43, 57,

58, 62,

63, 65,

74, 80,

82, 84,

93, 114,

115, 51,

Chapter 5: Results

123

Dictyosperma album H.

Wendl. & Drude.

Latania loddigesi Mart.

Livistona chinensis R.

Br.

Metroxylon sagu Rottb.

Phoenix sylvestris L.

Ptychosperma

macarthurii H. Wendl.

Rhapis excels Henry ex

Rehder.

Thrinax parviflora

Maycock.

Palm

Palm

Palm

Sagu

Khejur

Palm

Palm

Palm

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

60, 81

16

79

7, 55, 81

8

8, 57, 62,

63, 65,

80, 82,

50, 51,

52, 81

18

45

2

Scitamineae Cureuma amada Roxb.

Globba bulbifera Roxb.

Ravenala

madagascariensis J. F.

Gmel.

Aamada

Kanda-

puspa

Panthopada

k

V

Or

Or

58

8

8, 45, 77,

79, 84

GYMNOSPERM

Araucariaceae Araucaria cookie de

Laubenfels. var luxurians

Or 43, 82,

115

Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia

Blanco.

Or 45

Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd. Fern palm Or 8, 45, 56,

Chapter 5: Results

124

75, 76,

84, 93

Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi.

Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex

Lambert.

Jhau

Pine

Or

Or

8, 16, 43,

54, 56,

57, 58,

62, 63,

66, 74,

75, 76,

79, 82,

84, 93,

114, 7,

50, 60,

81

2, 66

PTERIDOPHYTE

Marseliaceae Marsilea quadrifolia L. Susni Or 50

Polypodiaceae Adiantum raddianum Delta

maiden hair

Or 56, 115

Selaginellaceae Selaginella megaphylla Bisalyakara

ni

Or 8, 18

Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Cemeteries.

Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having

economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering

plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &

demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or –

Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; V – Vegetable

yielding; Wd – Weed

Chapter 5: Results

125

Table 5.2.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Churches and Cemeteries.

SITE NO. Churches Cemeteries All Sites No. of Plant genera 161 82 176 No. of Plant species

173 90 198

Ratio of genera to species

1 : 1.08 1 : 1 1 : 1.13


5 1 5


10 9 10

No. of Dicot families

44 31 48

No. of monocot at genera level

27 15 31


126 65 137


27 15 34

No. of dicot at species level

138 73 156


1 : 5.11 1 : 4.87 1 : 4.59


1 : 4.67 1 : 4.33 1 : 4.42


1 : 4.4 1 : 3.44 1 : 4.8


Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. F. (Debdaru-22 sites) ) (21 sites)

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. (Krishnachura -7 sites)

Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. (Debdaru at 27 sites)


Oxford Mission (Site No. 8) Total

76 species

Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site no.

50) Total 47 species

Site No. 8 (Oxford Mission) :

Total 76 species

Chapter 5: Results

126

Table 5.2.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Churches and Cemeteries.

SITE NO. Churches Cemeteries All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

22 (12.72%)

14 (15.56%)

24 (12.31%)


03 (1.73%)

03 (3.33%)

04 (2.05%)


149 (86.13%)

74 (82.22%)

165 (84.62%)


11 (6.36%)

09 (10.00%)

13 (6.67%)


8 (4.62%)

6 (6.67%)

11 (5.64%)


19 (10.98%)

12 (13.33%)

19 (9.74%)

6. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)

1 (0.58%)

2 (2.22%)

2 (1.03%)


0 0 0


6 (3.47%)

5 (5.56%)

9 (4.62%)

Total 173 90 195

Figs.5.2.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Churches and Cemeteries in


1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig. 5.2

Legends 5-Vegs.

Legends 5-Vegs.

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

1 2 3

2.1(a): CHU

: 1 – Shade-giyielding, 6- F

Fig. 5.

: 1 – Shade-giyielding, 6- F

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

C

URCH SITE

iving, 2 – fencFruit-bearing

.2.1(c) : All

iving, 2 – fencFruit-bearing

Series1

1 2 3

hapter 5: Re

127

ES

cing, 3 – Aest7 – Seeds use

l Christian r

cing, 3 – Aest7 – Seeds use

1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

3 4 5

esults

Fig.

thetic beauty, ed 8- Source

religious sit

thetic beauty, ed 8- Source

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

1 2

6 7 8

5.2.1(b): CE

4- Offerings te of income o

es altogethe

4- Offerings te of income o

3 4 5 6 7 8

9

EMETERIE

to deity/decorof Trustees 9

er

to deity/decorof Trustees 9

8 9

Se

Series1

ES

ration – Others.

ration – Others.

ries1

Chapter 5: Results

128

Table 5.2.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Christian beliefs and taboos.

Name of Plants considered sacred by followers of Christian or referred in the holy book ‘Bible’

Site Nos. where found

1. Nerium oleander L. var ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi)

18, 54, 76, 79, 80, 82, 108

2. Chrysanthemum coronarium L. (Chandramallika)

80

3. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. (Dalchini) 8 4. Punica granatum L. (Dalim) 8, 43, 114, 55 5. Gossypium herbaceum L. (Kapas) 74 6. Ficus cunia Ham (Dumur) 50 7. Citrus maxima Merrill. (Lebu) 8, 58, 62, 63, 74, 75,

77, 79, 80, 115, 55 8. Phoenix sylvestris L. (Khejur) 50, 51, 52, 81 9. Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex Lambert. (Pine) 2, 66

Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Cemeteries.


Vascular plants

No. of Families

Details of family No. of genera

No. of species

Pteridophyta 3

Marseliaceae 1 1

Polypodiaceae 1 1

Selaginellaceae 1 1

Total 3 3

Gymnosperms 4

Araucariaceae 1 1

Casuarinaceae 1 1

Cycadaceae 1 1

Chapter 5: Results

129

Pinaceae 2 2

Total 5 5

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 10

Amaryllidaceae 2 2

Araceae 3 5

Cannaceae 1 1

Commelinaceae 2 2

Cyperaceae 2 2

Gramineae 2 2

Liliaceae 3 4

Musaceae 2 2

Palmae 11 11

Scitamineae 3 3

Total 31 34

b) Dicot 48

Acanthaceae 4 4

Amaranthaceae 1 1

Anacardiaceae 3 3

Anonaceae 3 3

Apocynaceae 10 11

Asclepiadaceae 1 1

Chapter 5: Results

130

Bignoniaceae 1 1

Casuarinaceae 1 1

Chenopodiaceae 1 1

Combretaceae 2 3

Compositae 8 8

Convolvulaceae 4 4

Cornaceae 1 1

Crassulaceae 2 2

Cucurbitaceae 4 4

Dipterocarpaceae 1 1

Euphorbiaceae 9 12

Geraniaceae 3 3

Guttiferae 1 1

Labiateae 3 3

Lauraceae 1 1

Leguminosae 16 17

Lythraceae 2 3

Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malphigiaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 6 8

Meliaceae 2 2

Myrtaceae 6 6

Chapter 5: Results

131

Nyctaginaceae 2 2

Oleaceae 2 2

Oxalidaceae 1 1

Passifloraceae 1 1

Pedaliaceae 1 1

Piperaceae 1 1

Plumbaginaceae 1 1

Polygonaceae 1 1

Rosaceae 1 1

Rubiaceae 5 7

Rutaceae 3 5

Sapindaceae 1 1

Sapotaceae 3 3

Scrophulariaceae 1 1

Solanaceae 4 4

Sterculiaceae 1 1

Theophrastaceae 1 1

Tiliaceae 1 1

Urticaceae 4 10

Verbenaceae 4 4

Total 137 156

Chapter 5: Results

132

Table 5.2.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Churches and Cemeteries.

(a) All Christian religious sites:

Vascular plants Families

Genera

Species

Number % Number % Number %

1. Pteridophyta 3 4.62 3 1.70 3 1.52

2.Gymnosperms 4 6.15 5 2.84 5 2.53

3. Angiosperms 58 89.23 168 95.45 190 95.96

a) Monocot 10 17.24 31 18.45 34 17.89

b) Dicot 48 82.76 137 81.55 156 82.11

(b) Distribution of plants in Churches and Cemeteries:

Vascular plants

Churches Cemeteries

Family Genera Species Family Genera Species

Angiosperms 54 153 165 40 80 88

Pteridophyta 2 2 2 1 1 1

Gymnosperms 4 5 5 1 1 1

Total 60 160 172 42 82 90

Fig.

Fig

(a)

. 5.2.2: Per

Legen

5.2.3(a)- (c

family –w

centage Di

d: 1 - Fern

c): Percentareli

wise

1

2

C

stribution o

ns , 2 -Gym

age Distribigious sites:

(b)

Legend:

hapter 5: Re

133

of Vascular

mnosperm

Fig. 5.2.2

ution of mo:

genus-wiFig. 5.2.31- monoc

esults

r plants in

ms and 3 -

2

onocots an

se

cot, 2- dic

1

2

Churches

Angiospe

d dicots at

(c) spec

cot.

and Cemet

erms.

Christian

cies-wise

1

2

3

teries:

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

134

PLATE NO. 5.2.1 : St. Paul’s Cathedral church (SITE NO. 82)

Chapter 5: Results

135

PLATE NO. 5.2.2: Rev. Subrata Fullonton at Baptist Mission Church (Site NO.18)

Chapter 5: Results

136

Plate No. 5.2.3 : Epitaph in memorial of army who laid their lives in World War II at

Bhowanipur Cemetery (SITE No. 81)

PLATE NO. 5.2.4 : Shade giving and Ornamental plants at Bhowanipur Cemetery

Chapter 5: Results

137

5.3. FIRE TEMPLE & TOWER OF SILENCE

5.3.1 Tenets:

Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy founded in the eastern part of ancient

Greater Iran, based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster. India is the home of the largest

Zoroastrian population in the world. Zoroastrian communities comprise two main groups

of people: those of South Asian Zoroastrian background known as Parsis (or Parsees),

and those of Central Asian origin. In 2004, the number of Zoroastrians was estimated to

be 145,000 and 210,000. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians,

representing about 0.006% of the total population of India.

Exactly when Zoroaster lived is debated, but it was probably around 1400 BCE that he

was believed to have been born. He was born in the regime of the Bronze Age culture

with a polytheistic religion, which included animal sacrifice and the ritualistic use of

intoxicants. Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians, with their many

Gods and oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and

priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed animal sacrifices in rituals. He

taught that there is only ONE God whom he called Ahura Mazda. This composite term

consists of two Avestan (a language used during the time of Zarathushtra) words, Ahura

and Mazda. Ahura has a masculine gender while Mazda is feminine. Ahura has been

associated with ah meaning ‘being’ or ‘existence’ and angh meaning ‘life’, and this is

probably why Ahura, the life giving force, has been translated as Lord of Life. The new

word, Mazda, that Zarathutra introduced means super-intellect or supreme wisdom.

Mazda can also mean Great or Maximum Knowledge, as well as Great or Maximum

Giver. By using the term Ahura Mazda, a synthesis of a male and female name,

Zarathushtra wished to convey both the equality of the males and females before the

Creator and, also, the fact that the deity was beyond one particular sexual designation.

Many scholars have envisioned Ahura Mazda as Lord of Wisdom. According to

Zarathushtra, Ahura Mazda is the creator of life in this universe, he is omniscient, he is

super intelligent, he is the wisest and he knows everything. Zarathushtra taught that

Ahura Mazda has given every human being a Vohu Manoh (good mind) in order to help

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us follow this path of righteousness. The Human Mind is the best gift that Ahura Mazda

has bestowed upon us. With this Vohu Manoh people can not only think but can reason

and articulate and this is what makes human being so distinct from all other living species

on this planet. Zarathushtra composed the Ashem Vohu prayer, which contains 12 words

and the first and the last words are the same. Zoroastrians, usually start their prayers with

the words ‘Kshnotra Ahurai Mazdao’, which means glory be to Ahura Mazda. They

praise Ahura Mazda for creating this world, for creating the Sun that gives people light

and heat, for creating the air that people need to breathe, for creating the water that

people need to survive and for creating the animals, birds, plants, fruits and flowers that

bring joy and happiness to this earth. Zoroastrians believe that Ahura Mazda has no form,

shape or color attributed to him for which they never worship idols. To them, Ahura

Mazda is ever glowing eternal light from which emanates bounty and goodness.

In Zoroastrianism, water (apo, aban) and fire (atar, adar) are agents of ritual purity, and

the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In

Zoroastrian cosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial

elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters.

Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented

within the precinct of a fire temple. Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some

form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating

rite of the principle act of worship constitutes a "strengthening of the waters". Fire is

considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom is gained, and water is

considered the source of that wisdom.

“Fire temple” or Agni Mandir is the Zoroastrians (Parsee) place for worship and offering

prayers. The Parsees (of India) are the followers of Zorathrushtra. Their origin is in

Persia. When the Islamic armies, under the first Caliphs, invaded Persia, those who were

unwilling to get converted themselves to Islam sought refuge, first in the mountains of

Northern Iran, then the regions of Yazd and its surrounding villages. Later, in the ninth

century CE, a group sought refuge in the western coastal region of India. At present, they

have mingled with the Indians and have spread sporadically all over India including

Kolkata.

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Since the religion, in its principles and philosophy, is in close ties with the biotic and

abiotic creations of Ahura Mazda ,it is quite likely the places of religious activities even

in Kolkata would reflect the attitude of the followers towards sustenance of plants for

conveying benevolence to its environment necessitating optimization.

5.3.2. Festivals: The most important festivals of Zoroastrians include Gahambars,

Jamshedi Navroz, Khordid Sal and Zarthost No Deeso. Gahambars, the most auspicious

festival are celebrated in the honour of Sky, Waters, Earth, Plants, Cattle and Man which

are responsible for the Earthly creation. There are six Gahambars in a year and each of

these Gahambars spans for five days. The celebrations of Gahambar festival is marked by

general get together for common feastings, paying tribute to the creator of the world and

remembering ancestors.

Jamshed E Navroz is the first day of the first month of the Zoroastrian year. Parsis

follow the Fasli calendar and their New Year commences with the Vernal Equinox. Parsis

offer special prayers on the day and greet each other. They wear new clothes on the day

and welcome the guests with a sprinkling of rosewater and rice and also applying tilak.

Khordid Sal having a stipulation on the sixth day of the Parsi month, Farvardin

(sometime in August or September) when the birthday of Prophet Spitaman Zarathusatra

is celebrated symbolically by the Zoroastrians. Parsis wear new clothes clean, decorate

their houses with fragrant flowers are arranged and prepare delicious meals.

Thanksgiving prayers or Jashan is offered in the temples.. A grand feast is arranged to

mark the Occasions.

Zarthost No Deeso is an Occasion of mourning observed by the Zoroastrians (Parsis) on

Khorshed roz, Dae mah i.e., on the 11th day of 10th month of the Zoroastrian calendar (

sometimes in June) . Prayers are recited by the Zoroastrians with religious discourses

focusing on the life and work of the Prophet in the Fire Temple.

5.3.3 Plants associated with Zoroastrianism: The creation myth of Zoroastrianism

concerns plants. According to the Zoroastrian story of creation, Ahura Mazda created

Gayomard and the first bull when Angra Mainyu, whose instinct is to destroy, miscreated

demons, evil yazads, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies and

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140

invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with

suffering and death. The dying primordial man and bull emitted seeds. From the bull's

seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world, and from the man's seed, grew a

plant, the leaves of which became the first human couple Mashya and Mashyana.

Haoma, in Zoroastrianism, the sacred plant identified to be species of Ephedra and the

divine drink made from it, is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit ‘soma’. The preparation of

the drink from the plant by pounding and its consumption are the major events of

Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is also personified as a divinity. It bestows essential vital

qualities—health, fertility, husbands for maidens, even immortality. The source of the

earthly haoma plant is a shining white tree that grows on a paradisiacal mountain. The

Hoama plant is advantageous both for the body and the soul, because all other

intoxicating drinks lead to anger, but the drink prepared from Haoma plant is stated to be

joy-giving and leads to holiness, and it renders the mind of the poor exalted. Today in

‘Yazashne’ ceremony of Zoroastrians, juice is extracted from Haoma twigs.


1. Site characteristics: Out of two Zoroastrian study-sites of Kolkata, one is Fire temple

having the total area of 0.5 bigha (670 Sq m.) and the other is Tower of Silence, covering

45 acres of land (i.e.182175 Sqm.) [Table 5.3.1(a)], where traditional Zoroastrian practice

of "ritual exposure of dead’ is strictly observed. No water-body could be found at Fire

temple , but one water-body is present at Tower of Silence. Each temple has residents

ranging from 2 to 5 comprising of Priest/Caretaker (Tower of Silence), gardener and

other associates mainly to look after the daily affairs of the temple, security and

maintenance of structures and adjoining gardens. Maximum number of regular devotees

found at Fire temple is 4, whereas during major Parsee festivals, i.e., on Gahambars,

Navroj etc,. Fire temple attracts large crowd of about maximum of 100 devotees [Table

5.3.1(b)]. Believers use Tower of Silence only to perform last rites of the deceased with

their near and dear ones with an assemblage upto 70 people.

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141

2. Taxonomic documentation: It has been observed that the dicots dominate over the

monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1 : 3 for the family level, 1 : 3.07 for the

genus level and 1 : 3.13 for the species level in totality [Table 5.3.2(b)]. It is very

interesting to find that in the study-sites as many as 72 distinct plant species, out of

which only one species i.e., Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar), found common

in both the sites. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species in the

Zoroastrian religious study-sites found to be 1 : 1.08 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of

India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.

The garden maintained at the “Tower of Silence” solely contributes 51 species

whereas 20 species are contributed by the Fire temple. Pteridophytic and

Gymnospermous plants could be found only in ‘Tower of Silence’ garden.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: Those species which are mainly used to

enhance aesthetic effect or ornamentation of the site, constitute majority amongst all, i.e.,

about 77.14% in totality [Table 5.3.3]. Next comes Fruit-bearing plants (14.29 %) and

Shade-giving plants (8.57%). Other decorative plants which are used for fencing and/or

demarcating gardens, roads and pathways inside the premises etc. constitute about 2.86%

of the total species found. Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for

each individual temple gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.3.1(a)

to (c)]. Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar) is found in both the temple-gardens

plenty in number.

(i) Out of a total of 54 plant species, being used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the

premises, 33 are found in ‘Tower of Silence’ and 19 in the ‘Fire temple’..

2 plant species Eucalyptus globosus Labille.and Duranta plumier Jacq. found in the

“Tower of Silence” which are used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside

the premises, but no such plant is present at the ‘Fire temple’.

(ii) All 10 fruit- bearing plants and most of shade-giving species (5 out of 6) are found

at “Tower of Silence”. It should be noted that this garden has many tall trees to facilitate

scavenger birds to have their abode there. Amongst such trees Eucalyptus globosus, Ficus

bengalensis L., Ficus religiosa L., Azadirecta indica A. Juss, Acacia arabica

Willd.(Babul), Albizza lebbek Benth (Sirish), Saraca indica L. (Ashoke), Tamariandus

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142

indica L.(Tentul), Bombax malabaricum D. C are found in many numbers. Special to

note that within the premises of the stone surfaced tower (where the dead body is placed

for scavenger birds), which is separately demarcated with a wall within the garden of the

Tower of Silence, is found large number of trees of Eucalyptus globosus. There is no idea

of any other vegetation within that specialized compound as strictly no visitor is allowed

there.

(iii) No vegetable yielding plants were found to be cultivated in any of these religious

sites.

4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the Zoroastrians and

used while performing their rituals sustained at the study-sites has been enumerated

[Table 5.3.4]. All such plants, viz. Areca catechu (Supari), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol),

Mangifera indica L. (Aam) and Rosa centrifolia Linn. (Golap) are found only in one site,

i.e., Tower of Silence.


dicotyledonus families having 46 genera and 50 species and 7 monocotyledonous

families having 15 genera and 16 species could be identified in all Zoroastrian religious

sites. This represents 75.41% dicots and 24.59% monocots at generic level and 75.76%

dicots and 24.24% monocots at species level. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms have

share of 3.23% and 6.45% of total vascular plants respectively [Table 5.3.6].

Out of 21 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae has the largest number of genera

followed by Apocynaceae. Cactaceae and Rubiaceae simultaneously succeeds

Apocynaceae with the third highest number of genera and species. Maximum number of

species was also noted from Leguminosae family.

Out of 7 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and

species, followed by Araceae.

Only two families of Gymnosperm and one family of Pteridophyte could be recorded.

Chapter 5: Results

143


Sl

No.

Date of

visit

Name of site Esta-

blished

on

Address Area Key

infor-

mant

1 3/11/2003 Atash & Adaran

(Fire Temple)

1912 91, Metcafe

Street,

Kolkata.

0.5

Bigha

Mr.

Shorab

Cotwal.

2 30/11/2003 Tower of Silence 1912 109,

Beliaghata

Main Road,

Kolkata.

45

acres

of land

Mr.

Balsara

.


Site

No.

Study Site No. of water-

bodies within

the premises

No. of

regular

residents

No. of visiting devotees

(approximate)

Regular During festivals

20 Atash & Adaran

(Fire Temple)

0 2 3-4 75-100

21 Tower of Silence 1 5 0 50-70

Table 5.3.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Fire Temple and Tower of

Silence.

Family Species Local

Name

Remarks Occur-

rence

(Site

No.)

DICOT

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam Or, F 21

Anonaceae Artabotrys odoratissimus

Blume

Kanthali

champa

Or

21

Chapter 5: Results

144

Polyalthia longifolia Benth

& Hook. f. ex Hook. f.

Debdaru Or 21

Apocynaceae Adenium obesum Roem. &

Schult. ‘Obesum’

Allamanda neriifolia Hook.

Nerium indicum Mill.

Tabernaemontana coronaria

Willd.

Thevetia peruviana K.

Schum.

Alamanda

Karabi

Tagar

Kalkaphul

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

20

21

21

20, 21

21

Araliaceae Polyscias balfouriana L. H.

Bailey ‘Albicans’

Golpata Or 20

Cactaceae Hamatocactus

hamatacanthus F. M. Knuth.

Lemaireocereus pruinosus S.

Britton & Rose.

Opuntia rufida Engelm.

Pereskiopsis velutina Rose.

Or

Or

Or

Or

20

20

20

20

Crassulaceae Crassula arborescens Willd.

Crassula falcate Wendl.

Or

Or

20

20

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia milii Desmoul.

Euphorbia pulcherrima

Willd.ex Klotzsch ‘Starlite’.

Lalpata

Or

Or

20

21

Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd.

Albizzia lebbek Benth

Bauhinia variegata L.

Cassia fistula Herbb. ex

Oliver.


Saraca indica L.

Babul

Sirish

Kanchan

Badar-lathi

Aparajita

Ashok

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

21

21

21

21

21

21

Chapter 5: Results

145

Tamarindus indica L. Tetul S 21


Champa

Or 21

Malvaceae Bombax malabaricum D. C

Malvaviscus arboreus Cav.

Shimul

Lankajaba

Or

Or

21

21

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Neem S, Or 20

Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.


Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

Eugenia malaccensis Blanco.

Peyara

Jam

Eucalyptus

Jamrul

F

F

Ls

F

21

21

21

21


Heimerl.

Bougainvill

ea

Or 21

Oleaceae Jasminum sambac [Soland.]

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Belphul

Seuli

Or

Or

21

21

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 21

Proteaceae Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. Silver Oak Or, Dor

tol

21

Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Or 21

Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba

Miq.

Gardenia florida L.

Ixora coccinea Comm ex.

Lam.

Mussaenda erythrophylla

Schum. & Thonn. ‘Rosea’

‘Mussaenda’

Kadam

Gandharaj

Rangan

Musanda

Or

Or

Or

Or

21

21

21

21

Rutaceae Citrus decumana L.

Murraya exotica L.

Batabi lebu

Kamini

F

Or

21

21

Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. Kanthal F, S 21

Chapter 5: Results

146


Ficus hispida L.f.

Ficus religiosa Decne. ex

Miq.

Bot

Kak dumur

Aswatha

S

S

S

21

21

21

Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq.

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Duranta

Gamari

Ls

Or

21

21

MONOCOT

Amaryllidaceae Agave lopantha Schiede.

‘Coerulescens’

Or 20

Araceae Alocasia cuprea C. Koch.

hybrid

Caladium hortulanum

Birdsey. ‘Attala’

Caladium humboldtii Schott.

Dieffenbachia amoena Hort.

ex Gentill. ‘Calcutta’

Dumb cane

Or

Or

Or

Or

20

20

20

20

Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea Boom. Or 20

Gramineae Bambusa arundinacea Ait. Bans Or 21

Liliaceae Aloe brevifolia Haw.

‘Varieagata’

Cordyline terminalis

‘Firebrand’

Or

Or

20

20


Borassus flabellifur L.

Cocos nucifera L.

Latania lontaroides Gaertn.

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

Supari

Taal

Narkol

Khejur

Or

F

F

Or

Or

21

21

21

20

21

Scitamineae Musa balbisiana Colla.

Ravenala madagascariensis

J. F. Gmel.

Kola

Pantapadap

F

Or

21

21

Chapter 5: Results

147

GYMNOSPERM

Coniferaceae Araucaria cookii R. Br. Ex

Don.

New

Caledonia

Pine

(Aurocaria)

Or 21

Pinaceae Thuja odorota Doi. Or 21

PTERIDOPHYTE

Polypodiaceae Adiantum raddianum C.

Presl.

Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.)

Schott. ‘Fucans’

(Maiden

hair Fern)

Or

Or

21

21

Legend: Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having

economic importance etc. F – Fruit yielding; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &

demarcating garden, road etc.; M- Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental;

Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seeds utilized; Wd – Weed;

Table 5.3.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Fire Temple and

Tower of Silence.

SITE NO. (20) (21) All Sites

No. of Plant genera 19 48 65

No. of Plant species 20 51 70

Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.05 1 : 1.06 1 : 1.08

No. of Gymnosperms Species 0 2 2

No. of Monocot families 5 3 7

No. of Dicot families 6 17 21

No. of monocot at genera level 8 7 15

No. of dicot at genera level 11 37 46

No. of monocot at species level 9 7 16

Chapter 5: Results

148

No. of dicot at species level 11 40 50

Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 1.22 1 : 5.71 1 : 3.13

Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 1.38 1 : 5.29 1 : 3.07

Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 1.20 1 : 5.67 1 : 3.29

Name of the species which occurs at most

of the sites

Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.

(Tagar)

Name of the site on which thrives

maximum no. of species

Site No. 21

(Tower of Silence) : Total 51 species

Table 5.3.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Fire

Temple and Tower of Silence.


1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of

total species)

1

(5.00%)

5

(9.80%)

6

(8.57%)

2. Decorative:

(i) No. of species used for fencing &

demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total

species)

0 2

(3.92%)

2

(2.86%)

(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty

(% of total species)

19

(95.00%)

33

(64.71%)

54

(77.14%)

(iii) No. of species used for offering to

deities or decorating temples (% of total

species)

0 0 0

3. No. of species used as source of

consumable vegetables (% of total species)

0 0 0


consumable fruits (% of total species)

1

(5.00%)

9

(17.65%)

10

(14.29%)

5. No. of species used as source

of consumable seeds (% of total species)

0 0 0

6

i

s

7

t

s

T

Fig

in d

% d

1

6. No. of sp

ncome for B

species)

7. No. of s

than all ab

species)

Total

5.3.1 (a) - (

different us

distribution

Fig.

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

100.00

1 2 3

pecies used

Board of Tr

species use

ove, e.g. m

(c): Percent

se categorie

of plants of

5.3.1 (a)

4 5 6 7 8 9

C

d directly as

rustees etc.

ed for purp

medicinal (

tage distrib

es.

f Site No. 20

Series1

hapter 5: Re

149

s source of

(% of total

poses other

(% of total

bution of pl

0

esults

f

l

0

r

l

0

20

lants of all

% distrib

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

0

0

51

Zoroastria

bution of pla

Fig. 5.3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 2 3 4 5 6

0

0

70

an religious

ants of Site

.1 (b)

7 8 9

S

s sites

No. 21

eries1

TabZor

Legends for deity/decorati 5-Vegs. yield

ble 5.3.4 : Proastrian b

Name o

1. Areca

2. Cocos

3. Rosa

4. Mang

the charts abion ding, 6- Fruit-

Prevalenceeliefs and t

f Plants co

a catechu (S

s nucifera L

centrifolia L

gifera indic

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

C

bove: 1 – Shad

-bearing 7 – S

of plants ctaboos.

nsidered sa

Supari)

L. (Narkol)

L. (Golap)

a L. (Aam)

1 2 3

hapter 5: Re

150

Fig. 5.3.

de-giving, 2 –

Seeds used

considered

acred by Zo

4 5 6

esults

1(c)

fencing, 3 – A

8- Source of

sacred or a

oroastrians

6 7 8

Aesthetic beau

income of Tru

associated w

s No. ofNos. w

are i1 (2

1 (2

1 (2

1 (2

9

S

uty, 4- Offerin

ustees 9 – Oth

with the

f Sites (Sitewhere foundn bracket)

21) 22)

21)

21)

21)1 (22)

Series1

ngs to

hers

e d

Chapter 5: Results

151

Table 5.3.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth. Vascular Plants

concerned No. of

FamiliesDetails of

family No. of genera

No. of species

Pteridophyta 1

Polypodiaceae 2 2

Total 2 2

Gymnosperms 2

Coniferaceae 1 1

Pinaceae 1 1

Total 2 2

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 7 Amaryllidaceae 1 1

Araceae 3 4

Commelinaceae 1 1 Gramineae 1 1 Liliaceae 2 2 Palmae 5 5 Scitamineae 2 2

Total 15 16

b) Dicot 21 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 2 2 Apocynaceae 5 5 Araliaceae 1 1 Cactaceae 4 4 Crassulaceae 2 2 Euphorbiaceae 1 2 Leguminosae 7 7 Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 3 4 Nyctaginaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Proteaceae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 4 4

Rutaceae 2 2 Urticaceae 2 4 Verbenaceae 2 2 Total 46 50

Tab

Fig.

ble 5.3.6: S

Vasc

1. Pte

2.Gym

3. An

a) Mo

b) Dic

. 5.3.2: Perc

Legen

Summary o

cular Plant

eridophyta

mnosperms

ngiosperms

onocot

cot

centage Dis

nd: 1 - Fer

C

of Plant wea

FamNumber

1

2

28

7

21

stribution o

F

rns , 2 –G

hapter 5: Re

152

alth of Fir

mily % 3.23

6.45

90.32

25.00

75.00

of Vascular

Fig.5.3. 2

Gymnosper

esults

e Temple a

GenerNumber

2

2

61

15

46

r plants in

rms and 3

and Tower

ra % Nu3.08

3.08

93.85

24.59

75.41

Zoroastria

3 - Angios

of Silence.

Species umber %

2 2

2 2

66 94

16 24

50 75

an religious

sperms.

1

2

3

% 2.86

2.86

4.29

4.24

5.76

s sites:

Chapter 5: Results

153

Fig. 5.3.3 (a) – (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Zoroastrian religious sites:

(a) family-wise (b) genera-wise (c) species wise

Fig. 5.3.3

Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot.

Plate no. 5.3.2: Site No. 20- AGNI MANDIR AT METCALFE STREET

1

2

1

2

1

2

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5.4 GURDWARAS

5.4.1 Tenets:

Sikhism, the fifth-largest organized religion in the world, was founded in the fifteenth

century in Punjab on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and nine successive Sikh Gurus

after him, viz., Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru

Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Harkrishan, Guru Tegh Bahadur, Guru Gobind Singh.

This system of religious philosophy and expression have been traditionally known as the

Gurmat (literally the counsel of the Gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism believes in

equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender.

In Sikhism, God, termed Vahiguru, is shapeless, timeless, and sightless: nirankar, akaal,

and alakh. God has no gender in Sikhism.

The essence of Sikh teaching was summed up by Nanak in these words: "Realisation of

Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is truthful living". Nanak stressed that God must

be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate

to progress towards enlightenment. Guru Nanak Dev emphasized the revelation through

meditation, since its rigorous application permits the existence of communication

between the God and human beings. Nanak described God's revelation — the path to

salvation — with terms such as naam (the divine Name) and sabad (the divine Word) to

emphasise the totality of the revelation. Nanak said that one need not become a ‘sanyasi’

(saint) sacrificing one's family, to please God. He stressed ‘kirat karo’: that a Sikh

should balance work, worship, and charity, and should defend the rights of all creatures,

and in particular, fellow human beings. Sikhism believe neither in fasting nor in

pilgrimages.

Sikhs are encouraged to have a ‘chardi kala’, or optimistic, view of life. Sikh teachings

also stress the concept of sharing—‘vand chakko’—through the distribution of free food

at Sikh Gurudwaras, giving charitable donations, and working for the good of the

community and others. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of

the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the Holy Scripture entitled the

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‘Guru Granth Sahib Ji’. The text was decreed by Guru Gobind Singh Ji, the tenth guru, as

the final guru of the Sikh religion.

The Guru Granth Sahib (also known as the Adi Granth) is truly unique among the

world's great scriptures. It is considered the Supreme Spiritual Authority and Head of the

Sikh religion, rather than any living person. It is also the only scripture of it's kind which

not only contains the works of it's own religious founders but also writings of people

from other faiths. Sikhism rejects idol worship, so the Guru Granth Sahib is not

worshipped as an idol, but rather emphasis is placed on respect of the book for the

writings which appear within.

5.4.2 Sikh Festivals: The festivals of Sikhs are generally associated with their Ten

Spiritual Gurus. They are celebrated on the birth anniversary of their Gurus called

‘Gurupurab’. The main occasions when Gurupurab are held are like Guru Gobind Singh

Jayanti, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Guru Arjandev Martyrdom day, Guru Tegh Bahadur

Birthday and Martyrdom. Usually these occasion are celebrated with “Akhand Path”

(continuously reading and reciting Guru Granth Sahib from beginning to end),

illuminating the Gurudwaras and procession around the city. All the festivals of Sikh are

celebrated with unabated joy and enthusiasm. “Langar” is an indispensable part of any

Sikh festival, where they serve different kinds of delicious foods to the passer bys. Some

other important festivals which Sikhs celebrate are described below:

Holla Mohalla is an annual Sikh martial festival and is celebrated in the month of

Phalguna (March), a day after Holi. Mock martial are organized on this day.

Baisakhi is celebrated as the remembrance of the establishment of the Khalsa Sect in

1699 by Guru Gobind Singh. This festival is also known as the harvest festival in Punjab

region. The Sikh, who is traditionally associated with the vocation of farming, celebrates

this occasion as the mark of their good harvest in the season and pays thanks to the

almighty for their benevolent gifts.

Gurta Gaddi Divas is celebrated to commemorate the day when the Guru Granth Sahib

was bestowed with the title of being the eternal and final Sikh Guru by Guru Gobind

Singh, the tenth and last living Guru of Sikhs.

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Bandhi Chhor Diwas (The Celebration of Freedom): On this day Sikhs celebrate the

release from prison of their sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind, who also rescued 52 Hindu

kings held captive by Mughal Emperor Jehangir with him in the Gwalior Fort in 1619.

Traditionally the Sikhs celebrate this day by lighting their homes with lights and candles

and going to a Gurudwara to listen to Gurbani.

Lohri is a bonfire festival and is celebrated on January 13 every year to mark the

beginning of sun's journey towards Uttarayan (north). Lohri is celebrated with a lot of

zeal and fervor especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. Lohri jubilates

fertility and is celebrated with much more enthusiasm in families where a child has been

born.

5.4.3 Plants associated with Sikhism: Four most sacred trees associated with the Sikh

shrines are Beri of Dukh Bhanjani Beri, Beri of Baba Budha and Ilaiachi Ber of Sri

Harmandir Sahib and Beri of Gurudwara Ber Sahib of Sultanpur Lodhi. All these beris

(trees) are varieties of Ziziphus jujuba. The corner where the 440-year-old Ber Baba

Budha Sahib, 400-year-old Dukh Bhanjani Ber and 400-year-old Ilaichi Ber are located is

considered to be the most sacred place in Sri Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple Amritsar)

complex. It is believed that Baba Budha, the first head Granthi (priest) of Sri Harmandir

Sahib used to sit under this tree whilst supervising the construction of the Amritsar pool

which still stands in the precincts of the Golden Temple. Guru Arjan Dev Ji used to sit

under the Ilaichi Beri (a tree with very small fruit called Ber) and supervise the

construction of the Harmindar Sahib. A story of a leper cured from the dreaded disease

leprosy after having a dip into the Sarovar in the premises of the Golden temple is

associated with the Dukh Bhanjani Beri of Sri Harmandir Sahib who used to sit under the

said tree while his wife Rajni, an ardent devotee of Guru Nanakji, used to remain busy

with her work at the shrine. Guru Amar Das is said to have found 'a medicinal herb’

growing at the edge of the pool of Harmandar Sahib, which cured a skin ailment of his

master Guru Angad the 'second Nanak'.

Gurudwara Ber Sahib of Sultanpur Lodhi is built by the side of an old ber tree which is

believed to be the one under which Guru Nanak sat in meditation for 14 years 9 months

and 13 days. Guru Nanak performed his morning ablutions in the Bein river and then

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used to sit under this ber (Zizyphus jujuba) tree to meditate daily. It was believed that

during one such ablution Guru Nanak disappeared into the stream and was not seen for

two days.

Gurbani (Guru Granth Sahib) refers to various species of trees, eulogizing species, which

are useful to the world and its various beings and creatures. The Gurus inferred that it is

not the girth, size, or beautiful flowers that determine the significance of a tree but its

usefulness that makes it important. The trees that have sanctity in Sikhism include Bohr

(Ficus bengalensis), Pipli (Ficus religiosa), Jand (Prosopis spicigera), Garna (Capparis

horrida), Karir (Capparis aphylla), Phalahi (Acacia modeta), Reru (Mimosa

leucophloea), Luhura (Cordia latifolia), Tahli (Dalbergia sissoo), Imli (Tamarindus

indica), Amb (Mangifera indica), Harian velan (green creepers- Ivy), Neem (Azadirachta

indica), Ritha (Sapindus mukorosa), Kalp (Mitragina parviflora) and Ber (Zizyphus

jujuba). Some of the Gurdwaras of India are even named after these plants, e.g.,

Gurudwara Pipli Sahib at Amritsar, Gurudwara Jand Sahib at Gumti Kalan (Bhatinda),

Gurdwara Garna Sahib at Dasuya (Hoshiarpur), Gurdwara Karir Sahib at Littar

(Ludhiana), Gurudwara Reru Sahib at Nandpur (Ludhiana) and Gurudwara Neem Sahib

at Akrah (Patiala).

It should also be noted that Zizyphus jujuba has sweet fruit; Jand (Prosopis spicigera)

has leaves that are used for feeding horses; Neem (Azadirachta indica) has medicinal

value; Tahli (Dalbergia sissoo), state tree of Punjab has wood; Imli (Tamarindus indica)

has both food and medicinal value.


1. Site characteristics: Out of 6 Gurudwaras visited, the oldest, biggest and historically

important is Gurdwara Bari Sangat comprising of a six-storeyed building on about 1.5

Bighas (i.e. 2007 Sq m.) of land. It is stated that Guru Nanakji and Guru Tegh Bahadur

Sahibji visited this Gurudwaras in the year 1510 and 1668 A.D. respectively. There are

about 30 regular residents in this Gurdwara complex comprising of Granthi/ Pujari,

Guard, Sweeper, ‘Kara Prasad’ distributors and religious associates, apart from a large

number of sikh pilgrims from other states. There are about 10-100 regular visitors in

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158

these Gurudwaras daily (on Sundays and special days number of visitor increases), but

during festivals like Gurupurabs, Baisakhi etc. number of vistors rises even upto 2000

[Table 5.4.1(a) & (b)]. It is to be mentioned herein that most of the Gurudwaras visited

found to be almost covered with the concrete buildings and the entire area cemented and

having almost no open space for sustaining any vegetation. Plants were found only in two

Gurudwaras which were sustained in pots.

2. Taxonomic documentation: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the

latter to the former is 1 : 2.5 for the family level, 1 : 2 for both the genus level and species

level [Table 5.4.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to be noted that proportion of genera to species is

found to be 1 : 1 at the Gurdwara premises in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 :

2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian point of view it was

found that almost all of the plants in these sites are for decorative purpose to enhance the

aesthetic beauty of the place. Only one species was found which belongs to Fruit-bearing

and Shade- giving category [Table 5.4.3]. Not a single plant was found, whose parts

(flower, fruit, seed etc.) are offered to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the

shrine. No plant was utilised for fencing, demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the

premises or utilised as vegetables. Percentage distribution of plants in different use

categories have also been figured [Fig.5.4.1].

4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the Sikhs or found a

place of their Holy Guru Granth Sahib could not be detected at any of the site studied.

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: 5 dicotyledonous

families having 6 genera and 6 species and 2 monocotyledonous families having 3 genera

and 3 species could be identified from these sites. The dicots represent 67% and

monocots 33% of the total number of Angiosperm species. No Pteridophyte was found at

any of the sites, but 2 families of Gymnosperms having 2 genera and 2 species could be

recorded [Table 5.4.5]. Percentage distribution of vascular plants concerned has also been

represented [Fig. 5.4.2 and Fig 5.4.3 (a) & (b)].

Out of 6 dicotyledonous families, Apocynaceae has the largest number of genera

and species.

There are 2 monocotyledonous family having 3 genera and 3 species in all.

Chapter 5: Results

159


Sl No.

Date of visit



1. 28/05/2003 Gurudwara Jagat Sudhar

(Sri Guru Singh Sabha)

1920 31, Rash Behari Avenue, Kolkata - 26

8 cottah

Jasbir Singh (Head Granthi )

2. 18/02/2004 Behala Gurudwara

1943 23, D.H. Road, Kolkata -53

20 Cottah

Tejinder Singh (Pujari)

3 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat

1909 4,Garcha 1st Lane & 22 Garcha 2nd Lane, Kolkata – 700019

1 bigha (20 cottah)

Nabdeep Singh (Pujari)

4 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Bari Sangat

1510 172, M. G. Road, Kolkata -7000007

30 Cottah (approx)

Sampoorna Singh (Religious Associate)

5 05/11/2011 Chota Sikh Sangat

Not known

112, Cotton Street, Kolkata-7

7.5 cottah (approx)

Not available

6 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Sant Kutiya

Not known

Harish Mukherjee Road, Kolkata-26

3.0 cottah

Not available

Chapter 5: Results

160

Table 5.4.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:

Site No.


No. of regular residents at the temple


festivals 3 Gurudwara Jagat

Sudhar 0 20 50 1000

26 Behala Gurudwara

0 13 500 1000

119 Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat

0 5000

120 Gurdwara Bari Sangat

0 30 100 2000

121 Chota Sikh Sangat

0 1 5-10 100

122 Gurdwara Sant Kutiya

0 2-3 20 500

Table 5.4.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Gurudwaras:


Remarks Occurr-ence (Site No.)

DICOT Amaranthaceae Iresine herbstii Hook. Patabahar Or 119

Apocynaceae Allamanda neriifolia

Hook.

Vinca rosea L.

Allamanda

Nayantara

Or

Or

119

119

Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea

spinosa Heimerl.

Baganbilash Or 119

Urticaceae Ficus religiosa

Decne. Ex Miq.

Aswatha Or, S 121

Verbenaceae Duranta repeins L. Duranto Or 119

Chapter 5: Results

161

MONOCOT Palmeae Chrysalidocarpus

lutescens H. Wendl.

Latania lontaroides

H. E. Moore.

Palm

Palm

Or

Or

119

119

Scitamineae Musa paradisiacal L. Kola F, Or 121

GYMNOSPERMS Araucariaceae Araucaria cookie

Laubenfels. Var

Luxurians

Araucaria Or 119

Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi Jhau Or 119

Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed producing; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed

Table 5.4.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Gurudwaras:

SITE NO. (119) (121) Total



Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1 1:1 1:1








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162


1 : 2.5 1:1 1:2

Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 3 1:1 1:2 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 4 1:1 1:2.5 Name of the family having maximum number of species

Apocynaceae, Palmae.

Table 5.4.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Gurudwaras:

SITE NO.

All Gurdwara sites

1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

01 (9.09 %)


0


11 (100 %)


0


0


01 (9.09 %)


0


0


0

Total 11

Fig.cate

Lgendeity

T

. 5.4.1: Percegories.

nds for the chy/decoration 5-Vegs.

Table 5.4.4

Vasculconc

PteridopTotal Gymnos Total Angiospa) Mono Total b) Dicot

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

centage dis

Gur

harts above:

yielding, 6- F

4: Statistica

ar plants cerned phyta

sperms

perms ocot

t

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

00%

1

C

stribution o

rudwara site

1 – Shade-giv

Fruit-bearing 7

al analysis

No. of Families

0

2

2

5

2 3

hapter 5: Re

163

of plants of

es : Utilitari

ving, 2 – fencin

7 – Seeds used

of plant we

Detailfami

AraucariaPinaceae Palmae Scitamine

4 5 6

esults

f all Gurud

ian account

ng, 3 – Aesthe

d 8- Source

ealth.

ls of ily

aceae

eae

6 7 8

wars in dif

of plants

etic beauty, 4-

e of income o

No. of genera

0

112

213

9

fferent use

- Offerings to

of Trustees 9 –

No. of species

3

Series1

– Others

0

1 1 2

2 1 3

Tab

Fig.

Total

ble 5.4.6: S

Vascul

1. Pteri

2.Gymn

3. Angi

a) Mon

b) Dico

. 5.4.2: Perc

Legen

Summary o

lar plants

idophyta

nosperms

iosperms

nocot

ot

centage Dis

d: 1 – Pter

C

of Plant wea

Famil

Number

0

2

7

2

5

stribution o

ridophytes

hapter 5: Re

164

AmaranthApocynacNyctaginaUrticaceaeVerbenace

alth of all G

lies

% N

0.00

22.22

77.78

28.57

71.43

of Vascular

Fig. 5.4.2s, 2 -Gym

esults

haceae ceae aceae e eae

Gurudwar

Genera

Number

0

2

9

3

6

r plants in

2 mnosperms

121116

ras:

a

% Nu

0.00

18.18

81.82

33.33

66.67

all Gurudw

s and 3 - A

Species

umber

0

2

9

3

6

waras:

Angiosperm

1

2

3

1 2 1 1 1 6

s

%

0.00

18.18

81.82

33.33

66.67

ms.

Chapter 5: Results

165

Fig. 5.2.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras:

(a) family –wise (b) genera & species-wise Fig. 5.4.3 Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot. .

PLATE NO. 5.4.1: Tejinder Singh (Pujari/Granthi) at Behala Gurudwara (Site No. 26 )

1

2

1

2

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166

PLATE NO. 5.4.2: A view of Gurdwara Sant Kutiya (Site No. 122)

Chapter 5: Results

167

5.5 GURU RAVIDAS TEMPLE

5.5.1 Tenets:

Guru Ravidas is the founder Guru of the Rai-dasi’s Sect, also known as Ravidasi. Several

Hindu sects consider him as ‘Sant’ and the Sikhs consider him as Guru Ravidas Ji. Guru

Ravidas (or, Ravidass) is by far the most revered among the scheduled castes, especially

dalits of Northwest and Central India. It is popularly believed that Guru Ravidas was

born on the Maghi Purnima day in 1376 A.D. at Seer Govardhanpur a sub-urban area of

Banaras. From childhood, he was immersed in spiritual activity and soon spearheaded the

fight against discrimination based on caste and preached the idea of equality. He was

born in a poor Kutbandhla Chamar caste family. His father was a leather merchant and he

himself was a shoemaker. He was the first to motivate his followers with his teachings

that one is distinguished not by one's caste, but by one's actions and that every person has

the right to worship God and read holy texts. He opened a frontal attack against the

system of ‘untouchability’. He rejected the tradition of Brahmin mediator to reach the

Supreme Being. He also said that one need not to hide his caste or leave his low

profession to reach God. He became a model for his fellow-beings to overcome the

hierarchical barriers of Brahminical social order and to establish “Begumpura” - a state

without fear and sorrows. Guru Ravidas elevated the status of the labour by emphasizing

on the fact that honest labour is empowering. He was a socio-religious reformer, a

thinker, a theosophist, a humanist, a poet, a traveler, a pacifist and a spiritual figure

before whom even head-priests of Varanasi (Benaras) lay prostrate to pay homage. The

queen of Chittorgarh is said to have been a disciple of him (this may be connected with

Meera, who was married to the ruler of Chittorgarh). Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy

book) contains 41 verses composed by Guru Ravidas. It was complied by Arjan Dev, the

fifth guru of the Sikhs. However, after the 21st-century conflict between Ravidasias and

Sikhs, the Ravidasias split from Sikhism, forming the Ravidasia religion with a new holy

book, ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidass Ji’. Based entirely on the writings and teaching of Guru

Ravidas, it contains 240 hymns and all Ravidasias temples utilize it.

History of Religious movements of India show that Dalits (Scheduled Castes) have

embraced Adi Dharm, Buddhism and other religions to get rid of the obscure system of

Chapter 5: Results

168

untouchability as preached by the Orthodox Hindu Brahminical religious heads. The

recent Ravidasia assertion in Punjab and other parts of India spearheaded by the

followers of Guru Ravidas is to be seen in the same context. Dalits in Punjab — Sikhs

and non-Sikhs — are being encouraged to enlist Ravidasia as their religion in the 2011

census. The movement grew as a reaction to years of discrimination. Dalits, who tilled

the fields of Jat Sikhs, were not allowed inside the latter’s Gurdwaras. So small

Gurdwaras mainly for Dalits, called ‘Dera’ cropped up. Though Guru Granth Sahib, the

holy Sikh scripture, is placed in the Dera, unlike a Gurdwara, the idols of Guru Ravidass

and the late heads of the Dera Ballan are also installed in its premises and are worshipped

along with Guru Granth Sahib. In the Ravidas Deras, Ravidas is considered as Guru.

Dera Ballan is neither a Sikh institution nor are the Ravidasia Sants residing thereupon as

Sikhs. They look like Amritdhari (baptised) Sikhs. However, some of them were/are

clean-shaven. The Sants of Ravidas Deras and their followers are not necessarily Hindu

either. The Ravidasia samaj is different from both Hindu and Sikh religion. Since they are

not Sikhs, the Sikh code of conduct does not apply to them. Ravidassia Dharam, ‘Amrit

Bani Satguru Ravidass Maharaj Ji’ and ‘Qaumi Nishaan Har’ were announced on 30th

January 2010 in the presence of more than ten lakhs of devotees from India and

abroad, on the occasion of 633rd Guru Ravidass Jyanti Day at Shri Guru Ravidas Janam

Asthan Mandir, Seer Govardhanpur, Varanasi. Objective of the newly formed religion as

declared officially is to propagate the Bani and teachings of Satguru Ravidas Ji and to

respect all religions, love the mankind and lead virtuous life. Besides, the teachings and

thoughts of Maharishi Bhagwan Valmik Ji, Satguru Namdev Ji, Satguru Kabir Ji, Satguru

Trilochan Ji, Satguru Sain Ji, Satguru Sadna Ji are also propagated.

5.5.2 Festivals: Guru Ravidas Jayanti is celebrated on the birth anniversary of Guru

Ravidas. It is observed on Maghi Purnima day (January-February) every year. Guru

Ravidas Jayanti is one of the important festivals of the Sikhs also. On this occasion

devotees move in processions and dress up like the Ravidas and his disciples. Several

programs are held in his remembrance.

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169

5.5.3 Plants associated with Ravidassia religion: There is neither any document nor any

hearsay regarding association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed

by the followers of Ravidassia religion.

5.5.4. Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:

1. Site characteristics: Guru Ravidas Mandir situated at South-eastern fringe of

Kolkata at Tiljala locality, where resides a sizable population of Scheduled Caste

community with livelihood dependent on the tannery works, is spread over an area of

about 1 Bigha, i.e., 1338 Sq m. [Table 5.5.1(a)]. There are 4 regular residents in the

temple complex consisting of 1 ‘Pujari’ (Priest), 1 ‘Gnaniji’ (Knowledgeable religious

head), 1 guard and 1 sweeper. There are about 20-25 regular visitors in the temple daily.

On Sundays number of visitor increases, which during festivals like Ravidas Jayanti

(birth anniversary of Guru Ravidas) rises to as high as 1000 [Table 5.5.1( b)].


latter to the former being 1 : 9 at the family level, 1 : 13 at both the genus level and

species levels [Table 5.5.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to

species in this study-site was 1 : 1 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for

the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.

Species belonging to the Rubiaceae was found to be most dominant amongst others.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : Majority of the plants found in this site

are with decorative attributes which enhance aesthetic effect of the ambience, i.e.,

57.14%. Amongst others, fruit-bearing plants compose as much as 35.17% of the total

species.. Shade-giving trees constitute no less than 28.57% of total plants [Table 5.5.3].

No plant is found, the parts of which (flower, fruit, seed etc.) are utilised for offering to

the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine. No plant was found to be

utilised for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the premises or

utilised as vegetables. Percentage distribution of plants according to their utility is shown

in Fig. 5.5.1.

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170

(i) Out of the 8 plant species used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the site, Polyalthia

longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex. Hook. f (Debdaru), Gardenia grandiflora Lour.

(Gandharaj), Nerium indicum Mill (Karabi), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan)

and Ficus elastic Roxb. ‘Decora’ (Indian Rubber) may be named.

(ii) As many as five fruit-bearing plant species could be recorded viz., Psidium guayava

L. (Peyara), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal),

Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) and Achras sapota L. (Sabeda).

(iii) Out of a total 4 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem,) and

Saraca indica L. (Asoke) are noteworthy.

4 Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A total of 9

dicotyledonous families having 13 genera and 13 species and 1 monocotyledonous family

having with 1 genus and 1 species could be recorded which are sustained in the study-

site. The composition shows 92.86% of dicots and 7.14% monocots both at generic and

specific levels. Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be found at the site

(Table 5.5.5). Percentage distribution of vascular plants concerned has been revealed

diagrammatically [Fig. 5.5.2].

Out of the 9 dicotyledonous families, Rubiaceae has the largest number of genus,

followed by Leguminosae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in

Rubiaceae family, followed by that of Leguminosae.

There is sustenance of 1 monocotyledonous family having 1 genus and 1 species.


Sl No.

Date of visit


Address Area Key inform-ant

1. 02/05/2004 Guru Ravidas Mandir

1939 20/1, Guru Ravidas Sarani, Kolkata -46

1 bigha Chiranjit Singh

Chapter 5: Results

171


Site No.




festivals 47 Guru Ravidas

Mandir 0 4 20-25 1000

Table 5.5.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Guru Ravidas Mandir:


Remarks Occur-rence (Site No.)

DICOT

47

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica

Blume.

Aam S, F

Anonaceae Polyalthia longifolia

Benth & Hook f. ex

Hook. f.

Debdaru Or

Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L.var

Carnea

Karabi Or

Leguminosae Saraca indica L.

Xylia dolabriformis

Benth.

Asoke

Iron wood

(tree of

Burma)

Or, S

Or

Meliaceae Azadirahcta indica A.

Juss.

Neem S

Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L. Peyara F

Rubiaceae Gardenia grandiflora

Lour.

Gandharaj

Fl, Or

Chapter 5: Results

172

Ixora coccinia

Comm. ex. Lam.

Mussaenda frondosa

Blanco.

Rangan

Mussanda

Or, Fl

Or

Sapotaceae Achras sapota L. Sabeda F

Urticaceae Artocarpus

integrifolia

Linn. f.

Ficus elastic Roxb.

‘Decora’

Kanthal

Indian

rubber

F, S

Or

MONOCOT

Palmeae Cocos nucifera L. Narkol F

Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed

Table 5.5.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir:

SITE NO. (47) No. of Plant genera 14

No. of Plant species 14

Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1

No. of Gymnosperms Species 0

No. of Monocot families 01

No. of Dicot families 09

No. of monocot at genera level 01

No. of dicot at genera level 13

Chapter 5: Results

173

No. of monocot at species level 01

No. of dicot at species level 13

Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 13

Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 13

Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 9

Name of the family having maximum number of

species (in chronological order)

Rubiaceae

Table 5.5.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir:

SITE NO. (47) 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

04 (28.57%)


0


08 (57.14%)


0


0


05 (35.71%)


0


0


0

Total 14

Fig.

T

. 5.5.1: Perc

Lgends Offering8- Sourc

Table 5.5.4

Vascularconce

Pteridophy

Total

Gymnospe

Total

Angiosper

a) Monoco Total

b) Dicot

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

centage dis

different

Guru Rav

for the chargs to deity/dece of income

: Statistica

r plants erned yta

erms

rms

ot

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1

C

stribution o

t use catego

idas Mandi

rts above: 1 ecoration 5-Ve of Trustees

al analysis o

No. of Families

D

0

0

1 P

10

2 3 4

hapter 5: Re

174

of plants of

ories.

ir site : Util

– Shade-givVegs. yieldins 9 – Others

of plant we

Details of fa

Palmae

4 5 6

esults

f Guru Rav

litarian acco

ving, 2 – fencng, 6- Fruit-b

alth.

amily Nogen

6 7 8

vidas Mand

ount of plan

cing, 3 – Aesbearing 7 – S

o. of nera

Nsp

0

0

11

9

dir in

nts

sthetic beautySeeds used

No. of pecies

0

0

1 1

Series1

y, 4-

Chapter 5: Results

175

Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 1 1 Apocynaceae 1 1 Leguminosae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 3 3 Sapotaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 2

Total 13 13

Table 5.5.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Guru Ravidas Mandir:

Vascular

plants Families Genera Species

concerned Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)

1.Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

2.Gymnosperms 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

3. Angiosperms 10 100.00 14 100.00 14 100.00

a) Monocot 1 10.00 1 7.14 1 7.14

b) Dicot 9 90.00 13 92.86 13 92.86

Fig.

Fig.

. 5.5.2: Per

Legen

. 5.5.3 (a)–

(a) family

rcentage Di

d: 1 - Fern

–(c): PercenMa

y –wise

C

istribution

F

ns , 2 -Gym

ntage Distrandir:

Legend:

1

2

hapter 5: Re

176

of Vascula

Fig. 5.5.2

mnosperm

ribution of

Fig. 5.5.3

1- monoc

esults

r plants in

ms and 3 -

monocots

(b) gen

cot, 2- dic

Guru Rav

Angiospe

and dicots

nera & spe

cot.

idas Mand

erms.

s at Guru R

ecies -wis

1

2

3

1

2

dir:

Ravidas

se

Chapter 5: Results

177

5.6 JAIN TEMPLES OF KOLKATA 5.6.1 Tenets:

Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living

beings. It has as many as 6 million followers in India. Jains, in spite of religious minority,

have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in

India. They have the highest female literacy rate, 90.6% compared with the national

average of 54.16%. They follow the ‘dharma’ taught by the 24 Tirthankaras, the last of

whom was Mahavira. Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, namely Svetambara

and Digambara. Jainism has a distinct idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical

form is not worshipped, but the characteristics of the Tirthankara (virtues, qualities) are

praised and emulated. Tirthankaras are not regarded as deities, but rather as pure souls

that have awakened the divine spiritual qualities that lie dormant within each human

being.

Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar of this

declining time cycle (kalachakra). The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived

from 599 to 527 BCE. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parsva, lived from 877 to 777 BCE. The last

two Tirthankaras, Parshva and Mahavira are historical figures whose existence is

recorded.

Core beliefs:

The triple gems of Jainism—right vision or view (Samyak Darshana), right knowledge

(Samyak Gyana), and right conduct (Samyak Charitra)—provide the path for attaining

liberation from the cycles of birth and death. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment

and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the following ethical

principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. These vows are:

Ahimsa (Non-violence), Satya (Truthfulness), Asteya (Non-stealing), Brahmacharya

(Celibacy) and Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism).

Jainism considers every living being as a soul. Every soul is potentially divine, with

innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. When the soul sheds

its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite

Chapter 5: Results

178

knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (Moksha). Those who have attained moksha are

called siddhas, while those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin.

The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened

thoughts, speech, and action. Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body

consciousness) is the foundation of right view, the condition of right knowledge and the

kernel of right conduct.

5.6.2. Festivals, rituals, customs and practices: Mahavir Jayanti (The birthday of

Mahavir, the last Thirthankar), Paryushana (during late August/September commencing

on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the waning moon cycle and ending in the fourteenth

of the fortnight of the waxing moon cycle- 18 days) and Diwali (which is celebrated on

the new moon day of Kartik, usually in late October or early November) are some of the

major festivals of Jains.

‘Navkar Mantra’, also known as ‘Namaskar Mantra’, is the fundamental prayer in

Jainism and can be recited at any time. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep

respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds

followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha. There are basically two

types of prayers: (i) Dravya Puja (with symbolic offerings of material objects) and Bhav

Puja (with deep feeling and meditation). The material offerings made during the prayer

are merely symbolic and are for the benefit of the offeror. A bath should be taken before

the prayer. Saffron paste or sandal paste is applied on ring finger, earlobes, neck and the

forehead. Simple, clean washed clothes (preferably unstiched) are worn.

Jains are strict vegetarians. They avoid eating root vegetables in general, as cutting root

from a plant kills it unlike other parts of the plant (leaf, fruit, seed, etc.). Furthermore,

according to Jain texts, root vegetables contain infinite microorganisms called nigodas.

Followers of Jain dharma eat before the night falls. They filter water regularly so as to

remove any small insects that may be present and boil water prior to consumption. Jain

monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing

insects or other tiny beings. Jains are strictly forbidden to use any leather or silk products

since they are derived by killing of animals. Jains are prohibited from consuming root

vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes,

Chapter 5: Results

179

turnips, etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to

their end of life cycle. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore

contain far more micro-organisms than other vegetables. Also, the root vegetables

themselves are composed of infinite smaller organisms, hence, consuming these

vegetables would mean killing all those organisms as well. However, they consume

rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger. Eggplants, pumpkins, etc. are also not

consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is

a form of life. However, tomatoes are consumed normally as its seeds are difficult to be

killed (even at high temperatures/pressures). Mushrooms, fungus and yeasts are forbidden

because they are parasites, grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life

forms. Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of

contamination by microbes. Apart from all these, Jains also follow strict diets on eleven

"teethees" (six days in Shukla Paksha - New Moon Fortnight and five days in Krishna

Paksha - Full Moon Fortnight). They do not eat greens on these days.

5.6.3 Plants associated with Jainism: Jains believe all of their 24 Tirthankars achieved

omniscience (Keval-gyan) under some trees. Those trees are considered sacred by them

and listed below:

Name of Tirthankar Tree under which believed to attain

‘Keval Gyan’

1. Rishabha Dev Bot

2. Ajitnath Saptaparno

3. Sambhavnath Shaal

4. Abhinandannath Saral

5. Sumatinath Priyangu

6. Padmaprabha Priyangu

7. Suparshvanath Shirish

8. Chandraprabha Nag

9. Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath) Achha (Bahera)

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180

10. Sheetalnath Dhuli

11. Shrevanshanath Palash

12. Vasupujya Tendu

13. Vimalnath Patal (Kadamba)

14. Anantnath Pippal

15. Dharmanath Dadhiparno (Kenth)

16. Shantinath Nandi

17. Kunthunath Tilak

18. Aranath Aamra & Aam

19. Mallinath Kankeli (Asoke)

20. Munisuvrata Champak

21. Naminatha Bokul

22. Neminath Mesh- Shrong

23. Parshvanath Dhava

24. Mahavira (Vardhamana) Shaal


Jain temples with adjoining gardens are mainly situated in the northern part of the city.

Five Jain temples, viz., Parasnath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir, Setwambar Jain

Temple, Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir, Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir and

Chandaprabhuji ka Mandir were studied.

1. Site characteristics: Out of five Jain temple study-sites, Parasnath temple is the

largest one having area of 24163 Sq m [Table 5.6.1(a)], in which garden and water-body

constitutes approximately 15000 Sq m of area (i.e., about 62%) and the rest is the

temple. Area-wise, next is Badridas temple and then Chandra Prabhuji Ka Mandir which

is about 3000 Sq m of area, but it has least number of plant species. Much of the temple

area of this Chandra Prabhuji Ka Mandir found to be cemented and only in small areas

lining the boundary some plants had grown, but they were well maintained. Sri Jain

Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir is smallest in area but the oldest one, more than 200 years

old. Water-bodies found in all three temples having larger area than others. Each temple

Chapter 5: Results

181

has residents ranging from 2 to 10 comprising of Secretary, gardener and other associates

mainly to look after the maintenance and security of temple and adjoining gardens. There

is none to be termed as main priest or Mohunts. There were about 500 regular devotees

at Setwambar Jain temple and , but during big festivals like Mahavir Jayanti and Diwali,

both the Parasnath Digambar Jain and Swetambar Jain temple attracts large crowd of

about 5000 devotees or more [Table 5.6.1(b)].

2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxanomic analysis of plants sustained [Table 5.6.2(b)]

reveals that the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1

: 4.60 for the family level, 1 : 2.88 for the genus level and 1 : 2.64 for the species level in

totality. It is also interesting to note that at Swetambar Jain Temple, the ratio of monocot

to dicot at the genus & species level is almost 1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and

maintained garden. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species found in

all Jain religious study-sites of Kolkata found to be 1 : 1.19 in comparison to 1 : 7 for

whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.

The maximum number of plant species found in all five Jain temples of Kolkata is

87, out of which Parsanath Digambar Jain temple garden singly contributes 51 species.

Minimum number of species (07) found amongst all five temples is in Chandra Prabhuji

Ka Mandir. The Setwambar Jain Temple is having 24 genera of plants mostly of shrubs

and a few tree variety, whereas the Parsanath Digambar Jain temple had large number of

trees. Gymnospermous plants (4 in total) are found mostly in Parsanath Digambar Jain

temple garden and there is only one such species in Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir garden.

Mangifera indica Blume. and Rosa centrifolia Linn. each is found to be the most

dominant species in respect of all five Jain religious sites.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants : It has been noted that that in respect of

utility of the plants found in all Jain religious sites, the kind of decorative plants which

are mainly used as to enhance aesthetic effect or ornamentation of the site, constitute

majority amongst all, i.e., about 80.46% in totality [Table 5.6.3]. Next share is of Fruit-

bearing plants (9.2 %). Other decorative plants which are classified as (i) utilized as

offering to the deities or decorating the temples and (ii) utilised as fencing and/or

demarcating gardens, road inside the premises etc., each has share about 6.90% of the

total species sustained. Shade-giving plants constitute 2.3 % of the total species.

Chapter 5: Results

182

Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for each individual temple

gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.6.1(a) to (f)]. Rosa centrifolia

L. (Golap) is found almost in all temple-gardens in plenty of number, which not only

enhances the aesthetical beauty of the gardens but also used as offerings at the temple

during religious ceremony.

(i) Out of 70 Decorative plant species found which are used in the sites to enhance

aesthetic beauty, and Ixora coccinea Linn. (Rangan) are found in three temple-sites out

of five. 36 (thirty-six) plant species used to enhance aesthetic beauty were found in

Parsanath Digambar Jain temple whereas four (4) such plants found in Chandra Prabhuji

Ka Mandir [Table 5.6.3].

Out of 6 plant species found which are used for fencing or demarcating gardens,

roads etc. inside the premises, Duranta plumier Jacq. (Duranto) is present in most of the

sites (03).

Amongst 6 plants species, parts (flowers) of which are used as offerings during

performance of religious acts, Jasminum sambac Ait. (Belphul), Murraya exotica L.

(Kamini) and Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) dominate the floristic scenario of the

temple-gardens apart from Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap).

(ii) The shade-giving plants were found only in Parsvanath Digambar Jain temple (2 in

number). Amongst such species, Mimusops elengi Boj. (Bakul) is also considered as

sacred by the Jains.

(iii) Seven (07) fruit bearing plants have been found in Parsanath Digambar Jain temple

whereas Setwambar Jain temple, Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir and Chandra

Prabhuji Ka Mandir each has only one such variety. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bael) and

Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) are found in most of the gardens.

(iv) No vegetables or plants were found to be cultivated in any of the five Jain temples

from which consumable vegetables or seeds may be obtained for further cultivation or for

specific requirement of the temple for performing puja, bhog or aarti.

(v) It is seen that all five Jain temples utilises Paddy seeds (Oryza sativa L.), Chandan

paste (Santalum album L.), Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.) and Dry grapes

(Vitis vinifera L.) for offerings to deity or performing puja/aarti, but apart from

Chapter 5: Results

183

(Anacardium occidentale L.) these plants are not grown or cultivated in any of the

gardens of the five temples, rather those plant products are procured from outside.

4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the believers of Jain

which sustained at the study-sites have been tabulated [Table 5.6.4]. Amongst those,

Mangifera indica L. (Aam) and Rosa centrifolia Linn. (Golap) is found in most of the

temple gardens.

Most of the sacred plants of the Jains were found in Setwambar Jain temple and

Parsanath Digambar Jain (6 species in each). Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir has

also 3 such plants. It may also be noted that , a rare species, Anacardium occidentale L.

was found getting conserved at Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple.

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A taxonomic

analysis of plant-diversity associated with with Jain temples shows 23 dicotyledonus

families having 49 genera and 58 species and 5 monocotyledonous families having 17

genera and 22 species are sustained in all Jain religious sites[Table 5.6.1]. This represents

74.24% dicots and 25.76% monocots at genera level and 72.50% dicots and 27.50%

monocots at species level. Pteridophyte and Gymnosperms represent 3.03% and 12.12%

of total vascular plants respectively. Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants

along with the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level are

also graphically represented [Fig.5.2.2 and Fig. 5.2.3(a), (b) and (c)].

Out of 23 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae have the largest number of genus,

followed by Euphorbiaceae whereas maximum number of species were noted in

Euphorbiaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.

Out of 5 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genus and

species, followed by Liliaceae.

4 families of Gymnosperm and 1 family of Pteridophyta could be recorded.

Chapter 5: Results

184

Table 5.6.1 (a): Details of study sites of Jain Temples.

Sl. No.

Date of visit

Name of Site Esta-blished on


1 1st June’03 15th June’03 11th Dec’04

Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple

1821 26, Belgachia Road

24163 Sqm.

Sri Kailash Chand Jain

2 18/02/2007 20/10/2007

Setwambar Jain Temple

1867 Badridas Temple Street

4000 Sqm. (approx.)

Ms. Debi Mukherjee (Guide)

3 18/2/2007 20/10/2007

Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir


2500 sqm. (approx.)

No Informant

4 18/2/2007 11/12/2007

Sri Jain Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir


1500 sqm. (approx)

Harihar (Gardener)

5 18/2/2007 11/12/2007

Chandraprabhuji Ka Mandir


3000 sqm. (approx.)

No informant.

Note : All the sites have well maintained gardens.


Site No.




festivals 14 Sri Parsanath

Digambar Jain Temple

02 10 500 2000 – 5000

110 Setwambar Jain Temple

01 6 1000 2000-5000

111 Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir

00 3 100-200 1000

112 Sri Jain Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir

00 2 100-200 1000

113 Chandraprabhuji Ka Mandir

01 2 100-200 1000

Chapter 5: Results

185

Table 5.6.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Jain temple study-sites:

Family Species Common Name

Remarks Occurrence

DICOT Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale

L. Mangifera indica Blume.

Kaju Aam

Ra, Or Or, Sc

14 14, 110, 112, 113

Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile. Artabotrys odoratissimus Blume. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex Hook. f.

Ata Kanthali champa Debdaru

F Or Or

14 110, 112 14

Apocynaceae Nerium odorum [Soland.] Vinca rosea L. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.

Karabi Nayantara Tagar

Or Or Or

14 14 110, 113

Araliaceae Polyscias balfouriana L. H. Bailey. ‘Albicans’

Patabahar Or 111

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]

Akanda Or 112

Compositae Helianthus annuus L. Wedelia trilobata Hitchc.

Surya mukhi Kesaraj

Or, Of Wd

110 14

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg. ‘Celon’ Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg. ‘Macrophylla’ Codiaeum variegatum Blume.‘Bangalore beauty’ Codiaeum variegatum Blume. ‘Glory’ Euphorbia contorta Leach. E.medusae Thunb. E.microphylla Heyne. ex Roth. E. pilulifera L. E. pulcherrima Willd. . ex Klotzsch. Jatropha gossypifolia L.

Khokli Patabahar Patabahar Cactus Patabahar Patabahar Lal bharenda Patabahar Chota- kerni Bara-kerni Patabahar

Wd Or Or Or Or Or Wd Ls Ls Ls Ls Or

14 111 111 111 111 112 14 14 14 14 14 111

Chapter 5: Results

186

Jatropha podagrica Hook. Manihot esculenta Crantz. variegata

Or

112

Labiateae Coleus blumei Benth. ‘Red wizard’ Ocimum sanctum L.

Patabahar Tulsi

Or Con pl., Or

112 14

Leguminosae Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. Brya ebenus DC. Calliandra hystrix Griseb Cassia fistula Herbb. ex Oliver Inga dulcis Mart. Poinciana pulcherrima L.

Akasmoni Green ebony Sonajhuri Madras thorn Gold mohur

Or Or Or Or, Dr tol Or Or

14 14 14 14 14 14

Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. Cuphea hyssopifolia Griseb.

Jarul Kufia

Or Ls

14 112

Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Champa Or 111, 113 Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Jaba Or 14, 113 Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.

Syzygium cumini Skeels. Peyara Jam

F S, F

14 14

Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl.

Bougainvillea Or 14,110

Oleaceae Jasminum sambac [Soland.] Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Belphul Seuli

Or, Of Or, Of

14, 110 14, 113

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 14, 113 Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Or, Of 14, 110,

111, 113 Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba

Miq. Gardenia florida L. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. Ixora parviflora Lam. Mussaenda roxburghii Hook. f.

Kadam Gandharaj Rangan (red) Rangan (white) Musanda

Or, Sc Or, Of Or Or Or

14, 110 14, 111, 11214, 110, 11214 14

Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa. Bael Or, F 14, 110, 112

Chapter 5: Results

187

Citrus decumana L. Murraya exotica Blanco.

Batabilebu Kamini

F Or, Of

14 14

Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Boj. Bakul Or, Sc 14, 111 Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnahana Or 14 Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L.

f. Ficus elastica Roxb.

Kanthal Rabar bot

S, F Or

14 112

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum viscosum H. N.Moldenke. Duranta plumieri Jacq.

Ghetu Duranto

Or Ls

111, 112 14, 110, 112

MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Furcraea gigantia Vent. Or 14

Araceae Philodendron elegans

Hort. P. lacerum Schott. P. mamei Andre P. selloum C. Koch. Scindapsus aureus Engl.’Gold’

Money plant

Or Or Or Or Or

14 14 14 14 110

Liliaceae Cordyline terminalis’ Kunth. ‘tricolor’ C.terminalis Kunth. ‘fireband’ Chlorophytum comosum Baker. ‘vittatum’ Dracaena deremensis Engl. Yucca aloifolia L.

Spider plant

Or Or Or Or Or

110 110 110 110 111

Palmae Areca catechu L. Cocos nucifera L. Chamaedorea elegans Mart. Dictyosperma album H. Wendl. & Drude. Licuala grandis H. Wendl. Livistona rotundifolia Mart. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. P. roebelenii O’ Brien. Rhapis excelsa Henry ex Render. Washingtonia filifera

Supari Narkol Palm Princess Palm Palm Khejur Palm Palm CaliforniaPalm

Or F Or Or Or Or Or , F Or Or Or

14 14, 111 110 110 111 110, 111 14 110 110 110

Chapter 5: Results

188

(Linden) Wendl. Scitamineae Ravenala

madagascariensis J. F. Gmel.

Pantapadap Or 14

GYMNOSPERM Coniferaceae Araucaria cookie R. Br.

ex D. Don. New Caledonia Pine

Or 14

Cupressaceae

Juniperus chinensis L. var pyramidalis

Jhau

Or 14

Cycadaceae Cycas revolute Bedd. Fern palm Or 14 Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Jhau Or 111 PTERIDOPHYTEPolypodiaceae Nephrolepis biserrata

(Sw.)‘Fucans’ Polystichum setiferum (Forssk.) Woynar Pteris cretica L.

Fern Fern Fern

Or Or Or

110 110 110


Table 5.6.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Jain Temples:

SITE NO. (14) (110) (111) (112) (113) TOTAL No. of Plant genera 47 24 12 13 7 73 No. of Plant species 51 25 16 13 7 87 Ratio of genera to species

1 : 1.085 1 : 1.042 1 : 1.33 1 : 1 1 :1 1 : 1.19


03 0 01 0 0 04


04 03 02 0 0 05

No. of Dicot families 20 10 07 10 07 23 No. of monocot at genera level

6 10 3 0 0 17


37 11 9 13 07 49

No. of monocot at 9 11 4 0 0 22

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189

species level No. of dicot at species level

41 11 11 13 07 58


1 : 4.56 1 : 1 1 : 2.75 1 :2.64


1 : 6.17 1 : 1 1 : 3 1 :2.88


1 : 5 1 : 3.33 1 : 3.5 1 :4.6


Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) & Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap)


Site No. 14(Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple); Total no. of species = 51

Table 5.6.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Jain Temples: SITE NO. 14 110 111 112 113 All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

2 (3.92%)

0 0 0 0 2 (2.3%)


5 (9.80%)

1 (4.00%)

0 2 (15.38%)

0 6 (6.90%)


36 (70.59%)

24 (96.00%)

15 (87.50%)

10 (76.92%)

4 (57.14%)

70 (80.46%)

(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or

5 (9,80%)

3 (12.00%)

1 (6.25%)

1 (7.69%)

0 6 (6.90%)

Chapter 5: Results

190

decorating temples (% of total species) 3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0 0


7 (13.73%)

0 1 (6.25%)

0 1 (14.29%)

8 (9.20%)

5. No. of species used as

source of consumable seeds

(% of total species)

0 0 0 0 0 0


0 0 0 0 0 0

7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal. (% of total species)

3 (5.88%)

0 0 0 0 3 (3.45%)

Total 51 25 16 13 7 87

F

Lgenyield

Fig. 5.6.1

Fig. 5.6.1(a

Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6.1(e) :

nds for the chding, 6- Fruit-

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

100.00%

1

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

1 3

1(a) –(f): Pe

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) : SITE NO.

1(c) : SITE N

SITE NO. 11

harts above: bearing 7 – S

3 5 7 9

3 5 7 9

3 5 7 9

C

ercentage d

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14

NO. 111

3

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Series

Series1

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hapter 5: Re

191

distribution

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Fig. 5.6.

ving, 2 – fencin8- Source of

1

2

4

6

8

10

1

0

20

40

60

80

0

20

40

60

80

100

esults

n of plants o

.

Fig. 5.6.1

Fig. 5.6

.6(f) : ALL FI

ng, 3 – Aestheincome of Tru

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

00.00%

1 3

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

1 3

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

1 3

of all Jain r

1(b) : SITE NO

.1(d) : SITE N

IVE JAIN SIT

etic beauty, 4-ustees 9 – Oth

3 5 7 9

5 7 9

5 7 9

religious sit

O. 110

NO. 112

TES IN TOTA

- Offerings5-Vhers:

Series1

Series1

Series1

tes in

ALITY

Vegs.

Chapter 5: Results

192

Table 5.6.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jain beliefs and taboos.

Name of Plants considered sacred by Jains found in study-sites

No. of Sites (Site Nos. are in bracket)

1. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. [Believed to be tree under which 13th Tirthankar Vimalnath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]

2 (14, 110)

2. Artabotrys odoratissimum R.Br. [Believed to be tree under which 23rd Tirthankar Parshvanath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]

2(110, 112)

3. Michelia champaca L. [Believed to be tree under which 20th Tirthankar Munisuvrata achieved ‘Keval gyan’]

3(111, 112, 113)

4. Mimusops elangi L. [Believed to be tree under which 21st Tirthankar Naminath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]

2 (14, 111)

5. Mangifera indica L. [Believed to be tree associated with venue of 18th Tirthankar Arahnath]

4 (14, 110, 112, 113)

6. Tree/plant(s) associated with their products offered as ‘Bhog’/ ‘Puja’/ ‘Arti’;

(i) Cocos nucifera L. 2 (14, 111)

(ii) Hibiscus mutabilis L. 1 (113) (iii) Helianthus annus L. 1 (110) (iv) Jasminum sambac Ait. 3 (14,110, 113) (v) Rosa centrifolia L. 4 (14, 110, 111, 113)


Vascular plants concerned

No. of Families


No. of species

Pteridophyta 1 Polypodiaceae 3 3 Total 3 3 Gymnosperms 3

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193

Coniferaceae 1 1 Cupressaceae 1 1 Cycadaceae 1 1 Pinaceae 1 1 Total 4 4 Angiosperms 28 a) Monocot 5 Amaryllidaceae 1 1 Araceae 2 5 Liliaceae 4 5 Palmae 9 10 Scitamineae 1 1 Total 17 22 b) Dicot 23 Anacardiaceae 2 2 Anonaceae 3 3 Apocynaceae 3 3 Araliaceae 1 1 Asclepiadaceae 1 1 Compositae 2 2 Euphorbiaceae 5 13 Labiateae 2 2 Leguminosae 6 6 Lythraceae 2 2 Magnoliaceae 1 1 Malvaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 2 2 Nyctaginaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 4 5 Rutaceae 3 3 Sapotaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 2 Verbenaceae 2 2 Total 49 58

Tab

F

ble 5.6.6: S

Vascuplant

concern1. Pteridop

2.Gymnos

3. Angiosp

a) Monoco

b) Dicot

Fig.5.6.2: Pe

Legen

Summary o

lar ts ned

Nu

phyta

sperms

perms

ot

ercentage D

nd: 1 – Pteri

C

of Plant wea

Familie

umber

1

4

28

5

23

Distribution

dophyte , 2

hapter 5: Re

194

alth of Jain

s

% Nu

3.03

12.12

84.85

17.86

82.14

n of Vascul

Fig. 5.6.2

2 –Gymnosp

esults

n Temples:

Genera

umber

3

4

66

17

49

lar plants i

2

perms and 3

:

a

% Nu

4.11

5.48

90.41

25.76

74.24

in Jain Tem

3 – Angiosp

1

2

3

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umber %

3

4 4

80 9

22 2

58 7

mples:

perms

%

3.45

4.60

1.95

7.50

2.50

Chapter 5: Results

195

Fig. 5.6.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Jain Temples:

(a) family –wise (b) genera-wise (c) species-wise

Fig. 5.6.3


PLATE NO. 5.6.1: A view of Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple (Site no. 14)

1

2

1

2

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

196

5. 7 MOSQUES & BURIAL GROUNDS OF KOLKATA:

5.7.1 Tenets:

The term Muslim implies submission to “The God”. The Prophet Muhammad

experienced mystical revelations in AD 610 while meditating in a cave near Mecca in

Arabia. The monotheistic religion called Islam was thus revealed to him. He brought his

message to the Arab people and from Arabia it spread rapidly through the Middle East

and Central Asia and entered the Indus Valley, soon becoming a major world religion.

The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one god – unitary and beyond

comprehension – and that Muhammad is the prophet of God. The Qur'an is upheld as the

eternal, literal word of God . Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to

Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, and the belief in angels as God’s servants is part

of the Islamic tradition. The Islamic holy books are the records which, most Muslims

believe were dictated by the God to various prophets. Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or

chapters, which contain 6,236 ‘aayat’, or verses. The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or

“Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is

widely regarded as the finest piece of literary work in the Arabic language.

The Pillars of Islam are five basic acts considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran

presents them as the framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They

are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) alms-giving (zakah), (4) fasting

during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The

Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.

These beliefs and duties give the adherents of Islam a sense of unity and community. The

daily ritual of prayers takes place at dawn ( fazar), mid-day(dhuhr or zohar), afternoon

(asr), sunset (magrib) and evening (isha). These can be performed singly or communally

except on Friday mid-day when prayers are congregational and a sermon or khutba is

read beforehand from a pulpit or mimbar. Muslim prayers are preceded by ritual ablution

and performed facing in the direction of Mecca towards the orientation of the Ka'ba or

Home of God. The qibla in mosques gives the required orientation.

Chapter 5: Results

197

5.7.2. Festivals: Some of the major festivals celebrated by the Muslims of Kolkata are

Eid-ul-fitr, Eid-ul-zoha, Muhuram, Fate-wah-doaz-dohum and Sab-e-barat. Almost all

Islam followers observe meticulously the rituals of fasting for day-time during Ramadan

month. Mass prayer is organized at Red Road beside Fort William on the very day of Eid

in addition to the regular and special prayer service of individual mosque. Preceding the

festival of Muhuram, for some days, movement of vehicular traffic in some part of the

city has to restrict by the local administration to facilitate the devotees to organize

rehearsal for the colourful procession to be organised on the very day of Muhuram by

them.

5.7.3 Plants associated with Islam: Many fruits and fruit bearing plants have been

mentioned in the Qur’an, but it is the date-palm which finds maximum references. It has

been mentioned twenty times under the name Nakhl. The botanical name of date-palm is

Phoenix dactylifera L. and there are about 60 species of Phoenix distributed throughout

the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. In India, P.sylvestris is the most common species

found wild as well as in cultivation throughout the country. In view of the historical, and

cultural importance as well as nutritional and medicinal values, the date-palm may really

be taken as a “Favour of God” to Man and that is probably the reason for its repeated

mention in the Qur’an with reverence.

Some other references from the ‘Quran’ on centuries old man-plant relationship are as

follows -

Sura II (V.22), Allah says : “Who has made the earth your couch; and the heavens your

canopy; And sent down rain from heavens; And brought forth therewith fruits for your

sustenance; Then set not up rivals unto God which ye know (the truth)”.

Qur’an 16:11 – “With it He produces for you corn, olives, date-palms, grapes and every

kind of fruit: Verily in this is a sign for those who give thought”.

Qur’an 23: 20 – “Also a tree springing out of Mount Sinai, which produces oil, and

relish for those who use it for food”.

Qur’an 78 : 31 -32 - “Verily for the Righteous there will be a fulfillment of (The Heart’s)

desires; Gardens enclosed, and Grape vines”;

Chapter 5: Results

198

Qur’an 55 : 68 – “ In them will be fruits, and dates and pomegranates”

Qur’an 95 : 1-4 – “By the Fig and the Olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this City of

Security, - We have indeed created man in best of moulds”

Apart from these tenets of the Quran, Quranic references as cited - in SURA II V:266,

SURA VI V:99, SURA VI V: 141, SURA XIII V : 4, SURA XVI V:11, SURA XVI V :

67, SURA XVII V :91, SURA XVIII V : 32, SURA XIX V : 23, SURA XIX V : 25,

SURA XX V : 71, SURA XXIII V: 19, SURA XXVI V :148, SURA XXXVI V:34,

SURA L V :10, SURA LIV V:20, SURA LV V:11, SURA LV V:68, SURA LXIX V : 7

and SURA LXXX V :29 l indicate a close man-plant relationship in their Verses.

5.7.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: Mosques with adjoining

gardens and burial gardens dot both the northern and southern parts of the city of

Calcutta, especially areas of Maniktala, Bagmari, Park Circus, Tollygunge, Watgunge,

Metiaburz and Garden Reach. Under the cover of this work 27 Islamic religious sites

have been visited. Plant wealth as well as different aspects of man-plant relationship

associated with Islamic religious practices has been studied. Of the 27 sites, 17 sites are

mosques and the rest are burial grounds [Table 5.7.1(a)]. It is also important to mention

that most of the burial grounds have small mosques within the premises where regular

‘Azaan’ and ‘five-waqt Namaaz’ (five times prayers) are practiced. Taxonomic

enumeration of plants found in adjoining areas/gardens of mosques and burial grounds

was prepared. Study-sites have been characterized based on such numbers of water-

bodies, residents within the premises and visitors daily and on special occasions. The

utilitarian account of plants sustained in mosques and burial grounds have been dealt

with. List of plants considered sacred by the followers of Islam, those referred in their

holy book of Quran and their availablity in the study-sites was prepared with statistical

synopsis of plant wealth [Table 5.7.5 & 5.7. 6].

1. Site characteristics: Mosques occupy smaller green areas in comparison to Burial

grounds [Table 5.7.1(a)] except Maniktala Masjid (Site No.86 ) & Nakhoda Masjid (Site

No.116). It is also to be noted that even some very small mosques (Viz., Chooti Masjid –

Site no. 72) have regular attendance of about 30 devotees for ‘Namaaz’ (Prayer) where

Chapter 5: Results

199

almost no plant species exists as the whole area is cemented and there is not even any

‘potted plant’ maintained. Almost all burial grounds have a small mosque inside the

premises. As regards the position and number of residents at the mosques and burial

grounds, the former always have a residing Imam and a Mohzin, who calls the “Aazaan”

(the call for prayer). The other associates may be gardener and guards, whereas a burial

ground or a number of burial grounds under the same Waqf Estate, has essentially the

above residents of Imam, Mohzin, Gardener, Cleaner but also a Registrar and specialized

labour who are grave-diggers.

The number of visiting devotees at the site not only varies depending on whether it is a

regular or festival day, but also on whether it is a mosque or a burial ground.

‘Jummabar’ or Fridays are embraced with large number of followers of Islam at the

mosques whereas the burial grounds have visitors or persons accompanying the dead.

Large gatherings of believers are held at burial grounds during the festival of

‘Sabebarat’only, whereas large gatherings at Mosques are held on other festival days,

e.g., EId-ul- Fitr, Eid-ud-zoha etc.

In some Islamic religious sites the data relevant to site characteristics could not be

recorded by the present author for being a woman who are permitted either to enter the

site as per restriction imposed by the concerned religious authorities nor by custom. ‘Solo

Ana Masjid and burial ground’ (Site No.104) are one of such sites where women are not

allowed to enter. Being a woman, during the field work at Islamic religious sites, the

present worker had to keep her head covered with a piece of cloth all along while

collecting data of the sites or during conversations with the religious associates of the

site, as a custom to explicitly show respect to the Shrine. Photographs were prohibited in

most of the sites. Imams or key-informants present during the site visit refused to provide

any first-hand information without prior- permission from the Matowale of respective

Waqf Estates. Nevertheless, most of the concerned people extended co-operation after

getting convinced with the objective of the present work.

2. Taxonomic documentation: An analysis of the vascular plants at the study site

revealed that the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is

1 : 3.90 at the family level, 1 : 4.45 at the genus level and 1 : 5.14 at the species level

Chapter 5: Results

200

being [Table 5.7.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to species

sustained in all Islamic sites of Calcutta found to be 1 : 1.12 in comparison with 1 : 7 for


Of all the Mosque sites Prince Gulam Mohammed Mosque (Site No. 15) houses

maximum number of species whereas Solo –ana Masjid and Burial grounds (Site No.

104) amongst all burial grounds has the maximum number of plant species. Psidium

guajava L. is found in maximum number of mosques whereas Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

and Tabernaemontana coronaria R. Br. is found in maximum number of burial grounds.

Both Mangifera indica Blume. and Psidium guajava L. were found to be the most

dominant species in respect of all 27 Islamic sites.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : So far of the plants sustained in all

Islamic sites, decorative plants constitute the most important one among all others (65%).

Next comes the shade-giving and /or fruit-bearing plants which are no less than 12% of

the total species sustained. Decorative plants can be put into 3 categories, viz, (i) for

fencing and/or demarcating gardens, road inside the premises etc. (ii) for imparting

aesthetic beauty or ornamentation of the site and (iii) for offering to Almighty or

decorating the mosque. It shows that out of all decorative plants found in the Islamic

religious sites, minimum number (1.28%) of species particularly utilized for offering to

the Almighty or decorating the mosque whereas maximum number of species (i.e. 93%)

are utilized for enhancing the aesthetic effect of the site. Percentage distribution of plants

according to their utility are also graphically represented under [Fig. 5.7. 3]

(i) Out of the 109 decorative species used to enhance aesthetic beauty, Phoenix sylvestris

Roxb. (Khejur) found in 12 sites and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba), Murraya exotica

Blanco. (Kamini) and Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar) each occurred in 11

sites. Ixora coccinea L. (Rangan) were found to occur in 9 sites whereas Anthrocephalus

cadamba Miq. (Kadam) and Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. (Krishnachura) were found in

7 sites each. Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur), Thuja orientalis (Jhau), Polyalthia

longifolia Benth & Hook. f. (Debdaru), Cestrum nocturenum L. (Hasnahana) and

Nyctanthes arbotristis L. (Seuli) are found in 6 sites each. Areca catechu L. (Supari),

Celosia cristata L. (Morugful) and Quisqualis indica L. (Madhabilata) are present in 5

sites. Vinca rosea L. (Nayantara), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) and Bambusa nana

Chapter 5: Results

201

Roxb. (Bans) are found in 4 sites each, whereas Artabotrys odoratissimum R. Br.

(Kanthali Champa), Leonurus sibiricus Linn. (Raktadrone), Canna indica L. (Kalabati)

and Livistona chinensis R. Br.. (Palm) are sustained in 3 sites.

Out of 5 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside the

premises, Lawsonia inermis Lamk. (Heena) is present in 7 sites and Jatropha

gossipifolia L. (Lal Varenda) found in 3 sites.

Only one plant species Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap) is offered at ‘Mazhar’ (small mosques/

tomb of religious exponents) in 6 sites.

(ii) Of all shade-giving and/or fruit-bearing species, Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) and

Psidium guajava L. (Peyara) are found in 15 sites each. Aegle mamelos Correa. (Bel) and

Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) in 10 sites, Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Neem) in 9 sites each

and Carica papaya L. (Pepe) and Syzygium cumini Skeels.(Jam) in 8 sites each.

Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. is found in 7 sites while Borassus flabellifer L. (Tal) in 6

sites. Ficus religiosa Decne. Ex. Miq. (Aswastha) is found in 5 sites whereas Eugenia

malaccensis Blanco. (Jamrool), Musa paradisiaca L. (Kala), Punica granatum L.

(Dalim) and Zizyphus jujuba Lam. (Kul) is found in 4 sites each.

(iii) Out of a total of 12 species found which can be used as vegetables, Colocasia

antiquorum Schott. (Kachu) is present in 3 sites, Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.

(Sajina) and Murraya koenigii Spreng. (Karipata) in 2 sites each.

(iv) There is only one plant species, viz., Brassica juncea Coss.. (Sarisha /Mustard)

found in one Islamic site , seed of which can be used for economic benefit.

(v) There are certain number of very valuable plants which can be potential source of

revenue. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. (Mahogony) is one of such plants found in Gulam

Mohammed Mosque (Site No. 15), which was claimed to be planted in the gardens of the

Estate to generate revenue for bearing the repair and maintenance expenses of the

Mosques as well as the expenses incurred by the Waqf Estate for pending court cases.

Gossypium herbaceum L. (Kapas) and Papaver somniferum L. (Afim) are other two such

species found in one or two sites which have commercial importance. Inflorescence of

Mangifera indica Blume. and twig with leaves of Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. is

Chapter 5: Results

202

used to prepare medicine by a few “moulovis”, collected from the garden of Gulam

Mohammad Mosque.

Parthenium hysterophorus L.(Parthenium) a very obnoxious weed, was found in

5 out of 10 burial ground sites and Tragia involucrata L. (Bichuti), though found in a few

sites, is of concern as a weed in site no. 15.

It could be revealed through interrogation with the Key-informant at Site No. 15,

who claimed him to be the descendant of Tipu Sultan (7th generation) that one time bulk

quantity of ‘Aatar’(perfume) brought from Lucknow used to be stored in large tanks to

spray on the trees of Magnifera indica Blume. at Site No. 15 that thrived so that fruit

contained the specific scent.

4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered to be sacred by the followers of

Islam as well as those mentioned in the holy Quran have been enumerated in Table 5.7.4

of which Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. are found in 12 sites. Lawsonia inermis L. in 7 sites,

Punica granatum L. in 4 sites and Brassica nigra Koch. in 1 site.

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: Species found in

all Islamic religious study-sites have been enumerated according to their family, genera

and species. [Table 5.7.5] As many as 39 dicotyledonus families having 98 genera and

113 species and 10 monocotyledonous families having 22 genera and 22 species could

be recorded from all Islamic sites. The taxonomic analysis shows 81.67% dicots and

18.33% monocots at genus level and 83.70% dicots and 16.30% monocots at species

level. Not a single species of Pteridophyte is found in 27 sites. Gymnosperms represent

3.92% of total vascular plants [Table 5.7.6].

Out of 39 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae has the largest number of genera,

followed by Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and Compositae. Maximum number of species

were also noted in case of Leguminosae, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae.

Out of 10 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and

species, followed by Gramineae and Liliaceae.

Chapter 5: Results

203

Only 2 families of Gymnosperms, viz. Pinaceae and Cycadaceae could be recorded, each

with one genus and one species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Jhau) , which has ornamental value,

was found sustaining in 6 sites.

Table 5.7.1 (a): Details of study sites of Mosque and Burial Grounds.

Sl No.

Date of visit Name of site Esta-blished on

Address Area Key inform-ant

1. 05/06/2003 Lal dada ki Masjid

Not known

15/1, Hatibagan Road, Kolkata -14

10 cottah

Javed Sahab

2. 05/06/2003 Wakf Masjid Rahamania

1928 P-7 Surawardi Avenue, Kolkata -17

4-5 cottah

Kamal Husssain

3. 02/06/2003& 15/ 06/2003

Gulam Mohammad Mosque

1843 143, D.P.S. Road, Kolkata -33

9 bigha

Anwar Ali Shah

4. 27/10/2003 Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid

1799 185, Dharamtala Street, Kolkata

7303 ft x328 ft

S.M.Noorur Rahman Barkati (Shahi Imam, Kolkata)

5. 29/03/2004 Shahi Begum Masjid

Not known

49, D.H. Road, Kolkata - 27

1.5 bigha

Tahahubul Hussain

6. 28/11/2004 B.N.R Masjid 1978 Eastern Railway Colony, Garden

10 cottah

Not available

Chapter 5: Results

204

Reach, Kolkata - 43

7. 28/11/2004 Numania Masjid Tinwale

Not known

H-27, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24

8 cottah

Not available

8. 28/11/2004 Choti Masjid Not known

H-63/1, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24

5 cottah

Not available

9. 28/11/2004 Shahi Masjid Mammadi

Not known

I-116, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24

10 cottah

Not available

10. 14/01/2006 Maniktala Masjid

Not known

248, A.J.C Bose Road, Kolkata -6

50 bigha

Dr. S.K. Ahmed Ali

11. 14/01/2006 Lal Masjid Not known

253/C, A.J.C Bose Road,Kolkata -6

9 bigha

Not available

12. 14/01/2006 Bagmari Burial Ground

17th century

52, Bagmari Road, Kolkata - 54

152 bigha

Dr. Kamrup Jamal (Sub-Registrar)

13. 14/01/2006 Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan

Not known

20, Mahendra Ray Lane, Kolkata - 46

3 bigha

Not available

14. 14/01/2006 Gore Gobra Not 32, Gobra 1 Not

Chapter 5: Results

205

Muslim Koborsthan

known Gorosthan Road, Kolkata - 46

bigha available

15. 05/03/2006 Wajid Ali Shah Mosque

1866 P,35, Wajid Ali Shah Road, Kolkata-24

10 cottah

Not available

16. 05/03/2006 Nawab Umda Mahal

Not known

P-35, Wajid Ali Shah Road, Kolkata -24

Not available

17. 05/03/2006 Shahi Masjid Not known

7B, Iron Gate Road, Kolkata - 24

10 cottah

Izar Zafri

18. 05/03/2006 Firdous Mahal Masjid

Not known

B 48, Iron Gate Road, Metiabruz, Kolkata -24

1 bigha

Not available

19. 05/03/2006 No.1, Begg Burial Ground

Not known

N-134, Rameswarpur Road, Kolkata -24

15 cottah

Not available

20. 05/03/2006 2No.Gorosthan

1958 J 149,Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24

8 bigha

Not available

21. 05/03/2006 3No. Burial Ground

Not known

J- 124/1, R.N. Lane,

2 bigha

Not available

Chapter 5: Results

206

Kolkata -24

22. 05/03/2006 4 No. Burial Ground

1919 J- 115/1,Ramnagar Lane, Kolkata - 24

15 cottah

Not available

23. 05/03/2006 5 No. Burial Ground

Not known

Ramnagar Road, Kolkata

15 cottah

Not available

24. 05/03/2006 6 No.Burial Ground

1893 G 313/2, G 311 & G 269/1, Meher Manzil, G. R. Road, Kolkata -24

10 bigha

Not available

25. 05/03/2006 Solo-ana Masjid & Burial Ground

Not known

70 A Ekbalpur Road, Kolkata

29 bigha

Not available

26. 17/02/2007 Haji Cassim Ariff Masjid

Not known

231, A.P.C. Road, Kolkata - 4

16-17 cottah

Not available

27. 16/03/2007 Nakhoda Masjid

1926 Jacquaria Street, Kolkata -7

20 bigha

Not available

Chapter 5: Results

207


Site No.


No. of regular residents at the premises


festivals

(A) Mosques 5 Lal dada ki Masjid 0 5 600-700 5000-6000 6 Wakf Masjid

Rahamania 0 3 40-50 200-250

15 Gulam Mohammad Mosque

1 (2.5 bigha)

7 100-150 1000 and above

17 Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid

0 8 2000 5000

42 Shahi Begum Masjid 0 3 200 800 70 B.N.R Masjid 0 2 20 100 71 Numania Masjid

Tinwale 0 2 20 100

72 Choti Masjid 0 2 5-10 50 73 Shahi Masjid

Mammadi 0 2 5-10 50

86 Maniktala Masjid 4 5 100 1000 and more

88 Lal Masjid 0 2 10 100 94 Wajid Ali Shah

Mosque 0 2 10 100

95 Nawab Umda Mahal 0 2 5-10 50 96 Shahi Masjid 0 2 25 100 97 Firdous Mahal Masjid 0 2 20 100 109 Haji Cassim Ariff

Masjid 0 2 100 1000

116 Nakhoda Masjid 0 8 - 10 400 - 500 10000 (B) Burial grounds 87 Bagmari Burial

Ground 2 42 40-50 1 lakh &

above 89 Gobra Muslim

Kabarsthan 0 6 100 1000 and

above 90 Gore Gobra Muslim

Koborsthan 0 4 100 500 and

above 98 No.1, Begg Burial

Ground 0 2 5-10 100

Chapter 5: Results

208

99 2No.Gorosthan 0 20 20-30 500 100 3No. Burial Ground 0 3 20-30 300 101 4 No. Burial Ground 0 0 5-10 100 102 5 No. Burial Ground 0 0 5-10 50 103 6 No.Burial Ground 0 5 20-25 100 104 Solo-ana Masjid &

Burial Ground 1(1 bigha) 10 50-100 2000 and

above

Table 5.7.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Mosque and Burial grounds: Family Species Common

Name Remarks Occurance

(Site No.) DICOT Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata

Nees. Ruellia prostrata Pav.ex Nees. Thunbergia grandiflora Roxb.

Kalmegh Nil-lata

Or, M Or Or

101 104 104

Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Duss. Celosia cristata L.

Apang Morugful / Cock’s comb

Or Or

104 89, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Spondias dulcis Forst.f.

Aam Amra

F, S, M S, F

5, 15, 17, 42, 70, 88, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 98, 100, 101, 104 15, 88

Anonaceae Anona reticulate L. Anona squamosa Delile. Artabotrys odoratissimus Blume. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f.ex Hook. F.

Nona Ata Kanthali Champa Debdaru

F, Or F, Or Or Or

88 88, 109 86, 88, 97 15, 42, 88, 96, 87, 104

Apocynaceae Nerium oleander ‘Album’ L.

Sada Karabi Golapi

Or

99

Chapter 5: Results

209

Nerium oleander ‘Roseum’ L. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. Tabernaemontana coronaria Flore-pleno Willd. Thevetia peruviana K.Schum. Vinca rosea L.

Karabi Tagar Double-petal Tagar Kolkeful Nayantara

Or Or, M Or Or Or

42, 88 15, 42, 95, 97, 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104 15 15, 42, 89 89, 98, 99, 101

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]

Swet-Akanda

Or 100

Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum Linn.

Hatisur Or 99, 100

Capparaceae Cleome viscose L. Holdey hurhure

Or 104

Combretaceae Quisqualis indica Blanco.

Madhabilata Or, Fl 15, 95, 96, 87, 98

Cornaceae Alangium lamarckii Thw.

Ansfal F, S 15

Compositae Dahlia superflua Ait. Eclipta alba Hassk. Enhydra fluctuans Lour. Helianthus annuus Linn. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Tridax procumbens L.

Daliah Kesut Hingcha Surya mukhi Parthenium Somraj Tridaksha

Fl, Or M V Fl, Or Weed Or Or

42 99, 100, 101 104 15 99,100, 102,103, 104 104 96

Cruciferae Brassica juncea Coss. Sarisha V & Sd 98 Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica

Naud. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne. Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.

Telakachu Kumra Dhundul

Or, V Or, V Or, V

104 100 15

Chapter 5: Results

210

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta A.DC. Sal S, Or, Eco 89, 99 Euphorbiacea Euphorbia pulcherrima

plennissima ‘Starlite’ Willd.ex. Klotzsch. Euphorbia tirucalli Forsk. Euphorbia trigona Haw. Jatropha gossypifolia L. Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poit. Phyllanthus niruri Blanco. Ricinus communis L. Tragia involucrata L.

Lalpata Lanka-sij Cactus Lal-bherenda Rangchita Bhui amla Rehri Bichuti

Ls Or Or Ls Or Or Ls Wd

15, 89 96 103 15, 88, 104 104 15, 104 88 15

Labiatae Ocimum sanctum L. Leonurus sibiricus L.

Tulsi Raktadrone

Or Or

96, 98 96, 87, 99

Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd. Albizzia lebbek Benth. Arachis hypogaea L. Bauhinia variegata L. Butea monosperma Kuntze. Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don. Cassia occidentalis Hort.ex.Steud. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Mimosa pudica Linn. Pithecolobium dulce Benth. Pongamia glabra Vent.

Babul Sirish Badam Kanchan Palas Krishnachura Muktojhuri Sisu Lajjabati Jilepi gaach Karanja

S, Or S, Or S, Or Or Or Or Or S, Or Or Or Or

86, 89 15, 89 89 89, 101 87, 104 15, 88, 87, 89, 98, 101, 104 99 88 15 15 15

Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. Lagerstroemia thorelii Gagnep.

Jarul (pink flower) Bilati Jarul (Pink & White flower)

S, Or S, Or

15, 101 15

Chapter 5: Results

211

Lawsonia innermis L. Punica granatum L.

Mehendi Dalim

Or, Ls (Fencing) F

15, 86, 88, 109, 98, 100, 103 15, 88, 96, 98

Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna Champa

Or 15, 109

Malvaceae Gossypium herbaceum L.Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Sida cordifolia Forsk.

Kapas Jaba Sthal- padma Lanka Jaba Berala

Or, Eco Or, Fl Or, Fl Or, Fl Or

86, 99, 101, 103 15, 42, 86, 95, 96, 116, 89, 100, 101, 102, 104 86, 101 15, 104 103, 104

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.

Neem Mahogony

S, Or Eco

5, 17, 88, 109, 87, 89, 98, 101, 102 15, 42

Moringaceae Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.

Sajina V 15, 88

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Eugenia malaccensis Blanco. Psidium guayava L. Syzygium cumini Skeels.

Eucalyptus Jamrul Peyara Jam

Or F, S F S, F

96, 104 15, 17, 95, 109 5, 17, 42, 70, 86, 88, 94, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 99, 103, 104 15, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 98, 101

Nyctaginaceae Boerhaavia repens L. Punarnaba Or 104

Chapter 5: Results

212

Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. Mirabilis jalapa L.

Baganbilash Sandhyamoni

Or Or

100, 116 88, 109, 101

Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens Buch.-Ham.ex Wall. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Belphul Seuli

Or, Fl Or, Fl

15, 42 86, 88, 94, 89, 102

Pandanaceae Pandanus fascicularis Lam.

Keya Or 15

Papavaraceae Papaver somniferum L. Afim gaach M, Eco 15

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 42, 86, 88,94, 96, 109, 98, 100

Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiper L.

Pakurmul Or 101

Rhamnaceae Zizyphus jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 15, 87, 98, 104

Rosaceae Rosa centrifolia L. Golap Fl, Of 15, 42, 96, 116, 98, 101

Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Dentella repeus Forst. Gardenia florida L. Hamelia patens Jacq. Ixora coccinea Comm.ex Lam. Ixora parviflora Lam. Mussaenda erythrophylla ‘Rosea’ Schum. & Thonn.

Kadam Bhuipat Gandharaj Rangan Sada Rangan Mussanda

Or, S Or Or, Fl Or Or Or Or

15, 88, 87, 89, 99, 104 104 86, 96, 99, 100 15 15, 96, 97, 109, 116, 87, 89, 100, 101 15, 104 15, 98

Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa.

Bel

Or, F

5, 42, 86, 95, 96, 109,

Chapter 5: Results

213

Citrus decumana L. Citrus medica Linn. Murraya exotica Blanco. Murraya koenigii Spreng.

Batabi lebu Lebu Kamini Karipata

F Or , F Or Or, V

87, 98, 100, 101 15, 109, 98 15 15, 88, 95, 96, 109, 89, 98, 99, 100, 104 15, 88

Sapotaceae Achras sapota L. Mimusops elengi Boj.

Sabeda Bakul

S, F S, Or

109 87, 89

Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Capsicum frutescens L. Physalis minima L. Solanum trilobatum L.

Hashnahana Lanka Bon-tepari Roadside plant

Or Or, V Or Or

5, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101 96 15 99

Sterculiaceae Sterculia foetida L. Jungli badam Or 87

Urticaceae Artrocarpus integrifolia Linn. f. Streblus asper Lour. Ficus benghalensis Ficus cunia Ham Ficus elastica ‘Decora’ Ficus hispida L. f. Ficus infectoria Roxb. Ficus religiosa

Kanthal Sheorah Bot Dumur Rubber Kak dumur Pakur Aswatha

S, F Or S, Or V, Or Or S, Or S, Or S, Or

5, 17, 86, 96, 97, 109, 98 15 88, 104 15 88 87, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104 15 15, 86, 95 89, 104

Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq. Lantana camara L. Vitex negundo L.

Duranto Chotra Nishinda

Ls Or Or

15, 42 104 15

Vitaceae Vitis triphylla Hyata. Amal-lata Or 104 MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum Baro-kakur Or 15

Chapter 5: Results

214

Blanco. Araceae Colocasia antiquorum

Schott. Kachu V 88, 96, 87,

99, 104 Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or 15, 109, 29 Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis

Forsk. Kanshira Wd 104

Cyperaceae Cyperus alterniflorus R.Br.

Ghas Or 98, 104

Gramineae Bambusa nana Roxb. Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv.

Bans Kush

Or Or

88, 87, 89, 104 104

Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Hemerocallis fulva Linn.

Or Or

104 104

Scitamineae Musa paradisiaca L.

Kola F, Or 5, 86, 87, 89.

Orchidaceae

Vanda roxburghii R.Br. Vanda Or 70

Palmae Areca catechu L. Borassus flabellifer L. Caryota urens Blanco. Cocos nucifera Linn. Corypha elata Roxb. Licuala peltata Roxb. Livistona chinensis R. Br. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Pritchardia pacifica Seem.& H.Wendl.

Supari Tal Fish-tail palm Narkol Tail-pot palm Palm Palm Khejur Palm

Or F, Or Or, F Or, F Or Or Or Or Or

15, 42, 70, 109, 100 15, 86, 87, 89, 101, 104 104 5, 15, 42, 86, 88,96, 87, 89, 99, 104. 104 104 70, 96, 104. 15,42,86, 88, 109, 87, 89, 100, 101,102, 103,104. 89, 103

Chapter 5: Results

215

Rhapis excels Henry ex. Rehder. Thrinax parviflora Maycock.

Palm Palm

Or Or

15, 98 15, 87

GYMNOSPERM Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Jhau Or 15, 96, 89,

98, 99, 101 Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd. Fern palm Or 15

Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Burial Grounds.

Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; M – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving;Sc – Sacred; Sd – Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed

Table 5.7.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Mosque and Burial grounds:

SITE: (A) Mosques (B) Burial grounds

Total

No. of Sites 17 10 27 No. of Plant genera 81 90 122 No. of Plant species 90 97 137 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.11 1:1.08 1:1.12 No. of Gymnosperms Species 2 1 2 No. of Monocot families 7 9 10 No. of Dicot families 29 34 39 No. of monocot at genera level 12 20 22 No. of dicot at genera level 67 69 98 No. of monocot at species level 12 20 22 No. of dicot at species level 76 76 113 Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level

1 : 6.33 1:3.80 1 : 5.14


1 : 5.58 1 : 3.45 1 : 4.45

Chapter 5: Results

216


1 : 4.14 1 : 3.78 1 : 3.90


Psidium guayava Linn. (Peyara) (10 sites)

Phoenix Sylvestris Roxb. (Khejur) & Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) (7 sites)

Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Psidium guayava Linn.(Peyara) (all together 15 sites)


Site No. 15; Gulam

Mohammad Mosque (Total 61 species)

Site No.104; Solo-ana Masjid & Burial Ground (Total 45 species)

Site No. 15 : Total 61 species

Table 5.7.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Mosques and Burial grounds:

SITE NO. Mosque Burial Grounds

All Sites

1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

17 (18.89%)

15 (15.46%)

22 (16.06%)


5 (5.56%)

4 (4.12%)

5 (3.65%)


71 (78.89%)

78 (80.41%)

109 (79.56%)


1 (1.11%)

1 (1.03%)

1 (1.73%)


7 (7.78%)

9 (9.28%)

12 (8.76%)

4. Ncon

6. N of cspec

6. NsourTru7. Nothe(% o

Tota

Figs

in d

F

4

No. of speciesumable fru

No. of speciconsumablecies)

No. of sperce of incstees etc. (%

No. of specer than all of total speci

al

s.5.7.1 (a)-(

different us

Fig. 5.7.1(a)

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1 2

es used as suits (% of tot

ies used as se seeds (% o

ecies used come for

% of total spe

cies used foabove, e.g

ies)

(c): Percent

se categorie

): MOSQU

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C

source of tal species)

source of total

directly asBoard of

ecies) or purposes. medicinal

tage distrib

es.

UE SITES

9

Seri

hapter 5: Re

217

16 (17.78%

0 (0%)

s f

1 (1.11%

s l

4 (4.44%

90

bution of pl

Fig.

es1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

esults

%) (11

) (1

%) (

%) (4

lants of all

5.7.1(b): B

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

1 2

11 1.34%)

1 .03%)

0

(0%)

4 4.12%)

97

Mosqes an

BURIAL GR

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

18 (13.14

1 (0.73%

1

(0.73%

8 (5.84%

137

nd Burial gr

ROUND S

9

Series

4%)

%)

%)

%)

7

rounds

ITE

s1

Not

Fig. 5.7

Lgends 4- Offer 8- Sour

Table 5.7

Name

of Isla

1. Pho

2. Ficu

3. Law

4.. Bra

te: Green

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

7.1(c): Mosq

for the charrings to deity

rce of incom

7.4: Prevale Islami

of Plants

am or refer

oenix dactyl

us carjca L.

wsonia inerm

assica nigra

n coloured

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1

C

que and Bur

rts above: 1 y/decoration

me of Trustee

ence of planc religious

considered

rred in the h

lifera Linn.

. (Fig)

mis L.(Hen

a Koch. (Mu

site nos. r

2 3 4

hapter 5: Re

218

rial Ground

– Shade-giv 5-Vegs. ys 9 – Others

nts considebeliefs and

d sacred b

holy book ‘

(Date-Palm

nna)

ustard)

represent

4 5 6

esults

d sites : Utili

ving, 2 – fencyielding, 6- Fs

ered sacredd taboos.

y followers

‘Quran’

m)

Burial Gro

6 7 8

itarian acco

cing, 3 – AesFruit-bearing

d or associa

s Site Nos

found

12 [15,4

109, 87,

101, 102

104]

1 [15]

7 [15, 86

98, 100,

1 [98]

ounds.

9

ount of plant

sthetic beautyg 7 – Seeds

ated with th

s. where

42,86, 88,

89, 100,

2, 103,

6, 88, 109,

103]

Series1

ts

y, used

he

Chapter 5: Results

219


Vascular plants No. of

Families Details of family No. of genera No. of species

Pteridophyta 0

Total 0 0

Gymnosperms 2

Pinaceae 1 1

Cycadaceae 1 1

Total 2 2

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 10 Amaryllidaceae 1 1

Araceae 1 1

Cannaceae 1 1

Commelinaceae 1 1

Cyperaceae 1 1

Gramineae 2 2

Liliaceae 2 2

Scitamineae 1 1

Orchidaceae 1 1

Palmae 11 11

Total 22 22

b) Dicot 39

Acanthaceae 3 3

Amaranthaceae 2 2

Anacardiaceae 2 2

Anonaceae 3 4

Apocynaceae 4 6

Asclepiadaceae 1 1

Boraginaceae 1 1

Chapter 5: Results

220

Capparaceae 1 1

Combretaceae 1 1

Cornaceae 1 1

Compositae 6 6

Cruciferae 1 1

Cucurbitaceae 3 3


Euphorbiacea 6 8

Labiateae 2 2

Leguminoseae 11 11

Lythraceae 3 4

Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 4 5

Meliaceae 2 2

Moringaceae 1 1

Myrtaceae 4 4

Nyctaginaceae 3 3

Oleaceae 2 2

Pandanaceae 1 1

Papavaraceae 1 1

Passifloraceae 1 1

Polygonaceae 1 1

Rhamnaceae 1 1

Rosaceae 1 1

Rubiaceae 6 7

Rutaceae 3 5

Sapotaceae 2 2

Solanaceae 4 4

Sterculiaceae 1 1

Chapter 5: Results

221

Urticaceae 3 8

Verbenaceae 3 3

Vitaceae 1 1

Total 98 113

Table 5.7.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Mosques and burial grounds

(a) All Islamic religious sites:

`Vascular plants

Families

Genera

Species

Number % Number % Number % 1. Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

2.Gymnosperms 2 3.92 2 1.64 2 1.46

3. Angiosperms 49 96.08 120 98.36 135 98.54

a) Monocot 10 20.41 22 18.33 22 16.30

b) Dicot 39 79.59 98 81.67 113 83.70

(b) Distribution of plants in Mosques and Burial grounds:

Vasclar plant concerned

Mosques Burial Grounds

Family Genera Species Family Genera Species

Angiosperms 36 79 88 43 89 96

Pteridophyta 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gymnosperms 2 2 2 1 1 1 Total 38 81 90 44 90 97

Fig.gro

Fig

a) f

. 5.7.2: Perunds:

Legen

5.7.3(a)- (c

family –w

centage Di

nd: 1 – Pteri

c): Percentasite

wise

1

2

C

stribution o

idophyte ( 0

age Distribes:

(b) ge

Fi

Legend:

hapter 5: Re

222

of Vascular

Fig. 5.7.2

0 %) , 2 –Gy

ution of mo

enera-wis

ig. 5.7.3

1- monoc

esults

r plants in

2

ymnosperm

onocots an

e

cot, 2- dic

1

2

Mosques a

ms and 3 – A

d dicots at

(c) specie

cot.

and Burial

Angiosperm

Islamic rel

es-wise

1

2

3

ms

ligious

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

223

Plate No. 5.7.1: Present author with Md. Kamal Hussain, Matwale of Waqf Masjid Rahamania at Site No. 6

PLATE NO. 5.7.2: Bagmari Burial Ground (Site no. 87)

Chapter 5: Results

224

PLATE NO. 5.7.3: Canopy of trees at Site No. 87

PLATE NO. 5.7.4: Site No. 94 – Wajid Ali Shah Mosque

Chapter 5: Results

225

5.8 NIRANKARI TEMPLE

5.8.1 Tenets:

Nirankari is a reformist movement in Sikhism. There is no official record of the number

of adherents to this religion, except that in the 1891 census wherein 14,001 Hindus and

46,610 Sikhs declared themselves as 'Nirankaris'. Nirankaris trace their origin to Baba

Dyal Singh (1783-1855). Baba Dyal preached against the assimilation of other religious

traditions (particularly Hinduism) into Sikhism. Baba Dyal was particularly vociferous on

the subject of idolatry, a facet of Hinduism which was creeping into Sikh practice as a

result of the close association of the two cultures. He thus emphasized the formless

quality of Akal Purakh (nirankar or nirankari), which gave rise to the movement's name.

Baba Dayal was himself a Sahaj-dhari Sikh, (shaven) as were most (though not all) of his

followers. Baba Dyal reportedly experienced enlightenment at the early age of 18, when

he entered meditation and heard a voice saying: "Give up this ritualistic practice. You

have been commissioned to expel the darkness of ignorance. You are a true Nirankari, as

you are a believer of God as spirit, without bodily form".

His original movement was confined to the Rawalpindi area, its followers being mainly

Khatris and Aroras by caste. The movement expanded in northwest Punjab, Dayal

Singh’s native region, under the leadership of his successors Darbara Singh (1855–70)

and Ratta Ji (1870–1909). Unlike mainstream Sikhs, but like other groups closely related

to them such as the Namdharis, Nirankaris accept the authority of a living Guru (spiritual

guide) and recognized Dayal Singh and his successors as Gurus. Its members differ from

other Sikhs in their disapproval of the militant brotherhood of the Khalsa. Nirankaris

were typically traders and shopkeepers, and these occupations they were expected to

continue while focusing their attention on remembrance of the divine name.

Baba Dayal left his Nirankaris with a brief manual of instruction, called a hukam-nama

(although its form and contents are modeled on a Rahit-nama). The contents of Rahit

emphasize the teachings of Guru Nanak without mentioning the khalsa of Guru Gobind

Singh.] The essence of the Nirankari Hukam-nama is contained in the words which every

Chapter 5: Results

226

adherent is commanded to utter again and again: "dhan dhan nirankar" ("Glory be to

Nirankar").

The main practice of the Nirankari movement is the mental repetition of the mantra: dhan

dhan Nirankar ("Glory, glory to the Formless One"). They reject idolatry and ritual in

favour of personal religious practice. They do not subscribe to the orthodox Sikh view

that Adi Granth was the last and the only eternal Guru for all Sikhs.

Nirankaris do not bury or cremate their dead, instead simply throw the bodies into a

river. They believe that the death of one's human form is an event to be rejoiced and not

mourned. Drinking alcohol is prohibited, as well as smoking. They do not eat any meat.

They were against begging and emphasized the need to work for earning.

The chief contribution of the Nirankari movement is its standardization of rituals

connected with birth, marriage, and death based on the Sikh scriptures. The Nirankaris

believe that women are not impure at childbirth, that marriages and other important

events should not be arranged according to the predictions of paid astrologers, that

dowries should not be publicly displayed, and that no fee should be charged for

performing ceremonies (as is the custom for Brahmin priests). The Anand marriage

ceremony has been the most long-lasting contribution of the Nirankari movement to Sikh

culture. Initiated by Baba Darbara Singh, it has since been adopted by orthodox Sikhism

and is now the standard Sikh marriage ceremony.

5.8.2: Sant Nirankari Mission

In 1929, one segment of the movement, now known as the Sant Nirankari, disassociated

itself from mainstream Sikhism and became an independent organisation. The Sant

Nirankari Mission, also known as Universal Brotherhood Mission, is a religious or

spiritual organisation based in India. The Sant Nirankari Mission identifies itself as

"neither a new religion nor a sect of an existing religion, but an all-embracing spiritual

movement dedicated to human welfare”. Its leader, Baba Hardev Singh, provides spiritual

guidance for Nirankari devotees; the group is characterised by its focus on a living leader.

The Avtar Bani outlines the key philosophy of the Sant Nirankari Mission, and serves as

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the group's primary text, though not necessarily a holy book. The Avtar Bani contains

376 hymns which describe the qualities of Formless God (Nirankar), the important role

of spiritual dedication in attaining God-realisation, the kindness and grace of the "True

Master", the purpose of human life, the five fundamental principles, true devotion and

how a man can lead a saintly life. Gurbachan Singh was declared as the Satguru ("True

Master") by his father Avtar Singh on 3rd December 1962. At the two conferences of the

Mission in Mussorie (1965 and 1973), he made important changes to the organization and

established a code of conduct. He was assassinated on 24th April 1980, by one Ranjit

Singh, a member of the Akhand Kirtani Jatha, an orthodox sikh organisation who

considered Nirankaris as heterodox.

5.8.3 Festivals: Apart from daily kirtan and prabachan, each year on 24th April “Manav

Ekta Dibas” is celebrated on the occasion of death anniversary of Gurubachan Singhji,

who was one of the Satgurus of Sant Nirankari Mission and regarded as a Martyr after

his assasination in the year 1980.

5.8.4 Plants associated with Nirankari religion: There is neither any document nor any

hearsay regarding association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed

by the followers of Nirankari religion/Mission.

5.8.5 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: The findings having

significant bearing on man-plant relationship are mentioned below:

1. Site characteristics: The Sant Nirankari Satsang Mandal is situated at South-eastern

fringe of Kolkata covering about 5 Bighas (i.e. 6692 Sq-m.) of area. There are 4 regular

residents, of whom 2 are in-charge of the Mission, 1 Caretaker and another is an

associate. ‘Kirtan’ and ‘Prabachans’ are held there regularly. ‘Satsanghs’ are held every

Sunday. There are regular visitors ranging from 200 to 2000 (on Sundays), but during

festivals the figure rises to 3000 according to the official spokesman. [Table 5.8.1(a) &

(b)].

2. Taxonomy and distribution: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the

latter to the former is 1 : 6 at the family level, 1 : 6.5 at the genus level and 1 : 7 at the

species level [Table 5.8.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to

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228

species sustained in this study-site was found to be 1 : 1.063 in comparison with 1 : 7 for


Species of Annonaceae, Leguminosae and Rubiaceae were found to be dominating in

this religious site.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian aspect, it is evident that

majority of the plants (55.88%) found in this site are decorative plants enhancing the

aesthetic effect of the site. The fruit-bearing plants which have a share of 23.53% of the

total species is found. Shade-giving plants constitute 17.64% of total plants. Plants

utilized for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways inside the premises etc. were

found to be 2.94% of the total species. Plants utilized as vegetables also have the same

share, i.e., 2.94 % [Table 5.8.3]. No plant could be found, whose parts (leaves, flowers,

fruits seeds) are utilized for offering to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating

the shrine. Percentage distribution of plants into different use categories are also

illustrated in Fig.5.8.1.

(i) Out of the 19 plant species used in the sites to enhance aesthetic beauty, Polyalthia

longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex. Hook. f (Debdaru), Artabotrys odoratissimus

Blume.(Kanthali Champa), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj), Jasminum pubescens Buch.-

Ham. ex Wall. (Belphool), Quisqualis indica Blanco. (Madhabilata), Nerium indicum

Mill. (Karabi), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan) and Cestrum nocturnum Lam.

(Hashnahana) are remarkable.

Only 1 species i.e., Canna glauca L. v. angusta (Kalabati) was found getting used in

fencing or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the site.

(ii) Out of a total 8 fruit-bearing plant species, Psidium guajava L. (Peyara), Carica

papaya L. (Pepe), Citrus decumana L.(Batabi Lebu), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol),

Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal) and Phoenix Sylverstris Roxb. (Khejur) etc.

deserve mention.

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229

(iii) Out of a total of 6 shade-giving species recorded, Mangifera indica Blume (Aam),

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem,) Albizzia lebbek Benth (Sirish) in large numbers,

Mimusops elengi Boj. (Bakul) and Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) deserve mention.

(iv) Only 1 plant species could be found which are used as vegetable, viz. Momordica

charantia L. (Karala).

(v) An area within the premises was specifically earmarked and prepared for undertaking

cultivation of medicinal plants, especially the anti-diabetic plants to convey the

benevolence to mankind. This is one of the most remarkable aspects of man-plant

relationship borne by the Nirankaris.

4. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: The taxonomic

analysis reveals that there are 18 dicotyledonous families having 26 genera and 28

species and 3 monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species. This shows

representation by 86.67% dicots and 13.33% monocots at generic level and 87.50%

dicots and 12.50% monocots at species level. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms each

represenst 4.35% of the total vascular plants sustained [Table 5.8.5]. Percentage

distribution of vascular plants in different taxa has also been diagrammatically shown

[Fig. 5.8.2 & 5.8.3(a) to (c)].

Out of the 18 dicotyledonous families recorded, Annonaceae, Leguminosae and

Rubiaceae have the highest number of genera, followed by Cucurbitaceae. Highest

number of species has also been noted in each case of Annonaceae, Leguminosae &

Rubiaceae, followed by Cucurbitaceae.

Out of 3 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae has the highest number of genera

and species.

There is only1 family each from Gymnosperm and Pteridophyta. Incidentally both have

having one genus and one species at their disposal.

.

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230

Table 5.8.1 (a): Details of study sites of Nirankari temple.

Sl No.

Date of visit



1. 02/05/2004 & 25/12/2009

Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsang

1947 119, Bidhan Nagar, Picnic Garden, Kolkata -39

5 bigha

Arjun Singh


Site No.

Study Site

No. of water-bodies within the premises

No. of regular

residents at the temple

No. of visiting devotees (approximate)


46 Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsang

0 4 200 (Wed)-2000 (on Sundays)

3000

Table 5.8.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Nirankari temple:


Remarks Occurrence

DICOT

One

temple

(Site

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Aam S


Polyalthia longifolia Benth &

Hook. f. ex. Hook.f

Artabotrys odoratissimus

Blume.

Ata

Debdaru

Kanthali

champa

S

Or

Or

Apocynaceae Nerium indicum Mill. Karabi Or

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231

Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica Naud.

Momordica charantia

Descourt.

Telakochu

Karala

Wd

V

No. 46)

Combretaceae Quisqualis indica Blanco. Madhobila

ta

Or

Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L. Tulsi Or

Leguminosae Albizzia lebbek Benth.


Xylia dolabriformis Benth.

Sirish

Aparajita

Iron wood

(tree of

Burma)

S

Fl, Or

Or

Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Fl, Or

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Neem S

Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L. Peyara F

Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens Buch.-

Ham. ex Wall.

Belphul

Fl, Or

Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F

Rosaceae Rosa chinensis Jacq. Golap Fl, Or

Rubiaceae Gardenia florida L.

Ixora coccinea Comm. ex

Lam.

Mussaenda erythrophylla

Schum. et Thonn ‘Rosea’..

Gandharaj

Rangan

Musanda

Fl, Or

Or

Or

Rutaceae Citrus decumana L.

Citrus medica L.

Batabilebu

Lebu

F

F

Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Boj. Bakul S

Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnaha

na

Or

Urticaceae Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f.

Ficus elastic Roxb. ’Décor’

Kanthal

Rabar bot

F

Or

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232

Ficus hispida L. f.

(Rubber)

Kakdumur

S, Or

MONOCOT

Cannaceae Canna glauca L. var angusta Kalabati Ls

Palmae Cocos nucifera L.

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

Narkol

Khejur

F, Or

F, Or

Scitamineae Musa paradisiaca L.var

prospec. C. Jeffrey

Kala F

GYMNOSPERM

Cupressaceae Juniperus chinensis var

pyramidalis

Jhau

Or

PTERIDOPHYTA

Marsileaceae Masilea quadrifolia Sushni sak Wd


Table 5.8.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Nirankari Temple:

SITE NO. (46) No. of Plant genera 32 No. of Plant species 34 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.063 No. of Gymnosperms Species 01 No. of Monocot families 03 No. of Dicot families 18 No. of monocot at genera level 04 No. of dicot at genera level 26 No. of monocot at species level 04 No. of dicot at species level 28

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233

Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 7 Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 6.5 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 6 Name of the family having maximum number of species (in chronological order)

Anonaceae, Leguminosae & Rubiaceae

Table 5.8.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Nirankari Temple:

SITE NO. (46) 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

06 (17.64%)


01 (2.94%)


19 (55.88%)


0


01 (2.94%)


08 (23.53%)


0


0


02 (5.88%)

Total 34

Fig. 5.8

Lgendsbeauty, 7 – See

Table

Va

Pterid Total Gymn Total Angioa) Mo

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

8.1: Percent differe

Nirankari r

s for the ch4- Offering

eds used; 8

5.8.4: Stati

ascular placoncerned

dophyta

nosperms

osperms nocot

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1

C

tage distribent use cate

religious sit

harts abovegs to deity/d8- Source of

istical analy

ants d F

2 3 4

hapter 5: Re

234

bution of plegories.

te : Utilitari

Fig. 5.8.1

: 1 – Shadedecoration, f income of

ysis of plan

No. of Families

1M

1C

3 CP

4 5 6

esults

lants of Nir

ian account

-giving, 2 –5-Vegs. yief Trustees,

nt wealth.

Details ofamily

Marsileacea

Cupressacea

CannaceaePalmae

6 7 8

rankari Te

of plants

– fencing, 3 elding, 6- Fr

9 – Others.

of No. gene

ae

ae

9

mple in

– Aestheticruit-bearing.

of era

No. ospecie

1 1

1 1

1 2

Series1

c g

of es

1 1

1 1

1 2

Chapter 5: Results

235

Scitamineae 1 1 Total 4 4 b) Dicot 18 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 3 3 Apocynaceae 1 1 Cucurbitaceae 2 2 Combretaceae 1 1 Labiateae 1 1 Leguminosae 3 3 Malvaceae 1 1 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 1 1 Passifloraceae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 3 3 Rutaceae 1 2 Sapotaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 3 Total 26 28

Table 5.8.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Nirankari Temple:

Vascular

Plants Families Genera Species

concerned Number % Number % Number % 1. Pteridophyta 1 4.35 1 3.13 1 2.94 2.Gymnosperms 1 4.35 1 3.13 1 2.94 3. Angiosperms 21 91.30 30 93.75 32 94.12 a) Monocot 3 14.29 4 13.33 4 12.50 b) Dicot 18 85.71 26 86.67 28 87.50

Fig.

Fig

(a)

. 5.8.2: Per

Legen

g 5.8.3(a)- (

family –w

centage Di

d: 1 - Fern

(c): Percen Temple

wise

L

1

2

C

stribution o

ns , 2 -Gym

tage Distrie:

(b) gen

Legend: 1-

hapter 5: Re

236

of Vascular

mnosperm Fig. 5.8.2

bution of m

nera-wise

Fig. 5.8.3

- monocot

esults

r plants in

ms and 3 -

2

monocots an

t, 2- dicot

1

2

Nirankari

Angiospe

nd dicots a

(c) specie

.

1

2

3

Temple:

erms.

at Nirankar

es-wise

1

2

ri

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5.9 SYNAGOGUES

5.9.1 Tenets:

Judaism is the religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people. Jews compose

an ethno religious group which includes those born as Jewish and follow Judaism. In

2010, the world Jewish population was estimated to be 13.4 million, i.e., roughly 0.2% of

the total world population. About 42% of all Jews reside in Israel and nearly 42% reside

in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe. In India

Jews happen to be a religious minority.

Judaism was one of the first foreign religions to arrive in India in recorded history. The

better-established ancient communities have assimilated a large number of local

traditions through cultural diffusion. Of the total Jewish population in India, about half

live in Manipur and Mizoram and a quarter live in the city of Mumbai. Unlike many parts

of the world, Jews have historically lived in India without any instances of antisemitism

from the local majority populace, the Hindus. The Jews settled in Kodungallur

(Cranganore) on the Malabar Coast, where they traded peacefully, until 1524. Jews have

held important positions under Indian (Hindu) Princes in the past and even after

independence from British Rule, have risen to very high positions in the government,

military and industry. In addition to Jewish expatriates and recent immigrants, there are

five native Jewish communities in India, viz., (I )The Cochin Jews ( arrived in India

2,500 years ago and settled down in Kerala as traders), (2) The Bene Israel ( arrived in

the state of Maharashtra 2,100 years ago), (3) The Baghdadi Jews ( arrived in the city

Mumbai from Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, and Arab countries about 250 years ago), (4)

The Bnei Menashe ( Mizo and Kuki tribesmen in Manipur and Mizoram who claim

descent from the tribe of Manasseh) and (5)The Bene Ephraim (also called "Telugu

Jews", a small group who speak Telugu; their observance of Judaism dates to 1981).

As one of the oldest monotheistic religions originating in the Hebrew Bible (also known

as the ‘Tanakh’) and exploring in later texts such as the Talmud, Judaism is considered

by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship that God established

with the Children of Israel. Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than

3,000 years. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern Gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as

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unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with

other Gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people He created.

According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great

nation. Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship

only one God;

Core beliefs:

The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in

the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these

principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic. Thirteen Principles of Faith that

Jews have to swear are:

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator

and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make,

and will make all things.

2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that

there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was,

and is, and will be.

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body,

and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no

(physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and

the last.

5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him

alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.

6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon

him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded

him and those who followed him.

8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is

the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there

will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.

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10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the

deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the

hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15).

11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those

who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.

12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may

tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.

13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when

it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted

for ever and ever.

Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. Some traditional features of a

synagogue are:

(i) The ark where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an

ornate curtain outside or inside the ark doors);

(ii) The elevated reader's platform where the Torah is read;

(iii)The eternal light, a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the

constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem

(iv) The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the ‘hazzan’ or prayer

leader stands while praying.

A Sefer Torah is a handwritten copy of the Torah or Pentateuch, the holiest book within

Judaism. It must meet extremely strict standards of production. The Torah scroll is

mainly used in the ritual of Torah reading during Jewish services. At other times, it is

stored in the holiest spot within a synagogue, the Aron Kodesh ("Holy Ark"), which is

usually an ornate curtained-off cabinet or section of the synagogue built along the wall

that most closely faces Jerusalem, the direction Jews face when praying.

Torah reading from a sefer Torah is traditionally reserved for Monday and Thursday

mornings, as well as for Shabbat and Jewish holidays.

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5.9.2 Jewish festivals, ethics, customs and rituals: Jewish ethical practice is typically

understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness,

compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices

of charity and refraining from negative speech.

Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with

a fourth prayer (Mussaf) added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is

the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of

faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the

Torah Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad—"Hear, O

Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"

Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer,

although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult

Jews, called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male

Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish

denominations count female Jews as well.

Dietary laws: kashrut: The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in

accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as

treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping

kosher".

Jewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the

Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of

seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot,

Passover and Shavuot, are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel", or

foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to

Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple.

Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of

Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from

Egypt.

Shavuot ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the

Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it

coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Jews celebrate this festival by reading

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the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white

clothing, symbolizing purity.

Sukkot ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty

years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated

through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot that represent the temporary

shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest, and

marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven

days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for

rain and Simchat Torah, "Rejoicing of the Torah", a holiday which marks reaching the

end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated

with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are

technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.

Other than above, Jews celebrate Rosh Hashanah ("Day of Remembrance"), Yom Kippur

("Day of Atonement") Purim and Hanukkah (known as the Festival of Lights). Holiday

customs include reciting prayers, blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue,

eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as

pomegranates.

5.9.3 Plants associated with Judaism: Four different species of plants which are known

to have symbolic significance during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, a citron, a palm

branch, three myrtle twigs and two willow branches. In Leviticus 23:40, which comes

directly after a discussion of Sukkot, the Torah tells us: "On the first day you shall take

the product of hadar trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of

the brook, and you shall rejoice before Adonai your God seven days."

During Sukkot the four species are brought together in the form of an etrog and the lulav.

The etrog is a kind of citron, while the lulav is a composed of three myrtle twigs

(hadassim), two willow twigs (aravot) and a palm frond (lulav). Because the palm frond

is the largest of these plants, the myrtle and willow are wrapped around it.

The Four Species are waved together along with special blessings as part of the

synagogue service during Sukkot. They can also be waved at home or near the sukkah.

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Traditionally the Four Species are not waved on Shabbat because doing so would violate

the prohibition against carrying things during the sabbath.

Olives have made an indelible impression on the Jewish soul and on the customs and

writings of the Jewish people. According to the Bible, olives were cultivated in the land

we now call Israel even before the settlement of the Israelites. (Deuteronomy 6:11).

Olives are one of the seven “native” fruits with which the land of Israel is blessed. In

Deuteronomy 8:8, the definition of a good land is given as: such a land is one in which

there is sufficient water to sustain wheat, barley, vines (grapevines), fig trees,

pomegranates, olive oil and honey.

Jews mark the day of Tu B’Shevat by eating fruit, particularly from the kinds that are

singled out by the Torah in its praise of the bounty of the Holy Land: grapes, figs,

pomegranates, olives and dates. On this day Jews remember that “man is a tree of the

field” (Deuteronomy 20:19).



1. Site characteristics: Of the two concerned sites one is total area of 130 Sft. (12.08

Sqm.) and the other has 26.23 Cottah of land (i.e. 55.17 Sq m.). No water-body was

found in any of these sites. Each Synagogue has 4 residents comprising of caretakers and

other associates (non- Jews) mainly to look after the daily affairs of the Synagogues,

security and maintenance of structures and adjoining gardens. 4 to 5 devotees are usually

found on every Jews Holidays, but during major festivals the number rises to 25 or more

[Table 5.9.1 (a) & (b)].


latter to the former being 1 : 3.67 at the family level, 1 : 3.5 at the genric level and 1 :

3.75 at the species level [Table 5.9.2(b)]. The two religious sites of Jews of Kolkata have

a total of 20 distinct plant species out of which 17 species are contributed by Maghen

David Synagogue. Bethel Synagogue, though having very small open area, has 8 species

at its disposal. Species like Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam), Azadirachta indica A.Juss.,

Carica papaya L., Citrus decumana L., Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. are shared by both

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243

the sites. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species was found to be 1

: 1.053 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4

for West Bengal.

Gymnospermous plants Juniperus chinensis var pyramidalis could be found in

the garden of Maghen David Synagogue.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : In the synagogue studies the plants used

for ornamentation and generation of aesthetic pleasure dominate the scenario with as

many as 47.37% of the total number of species [Table 5.9.3]. The fruit-bearing and

Shade-giving plants have shares of 31.58% and 15.79% respectively. Other decorative

plants which are used for fencing and interior demarcations of passages and blocks inside

the premises contribute 5.26% of the total species found. Percentage distribution of plants

according to their utility are also graphically represented [Fig. 5.9. 3].

(i) Out of total 9 plant species being used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the premises, 7

are found in Maghen David Synagogue. Lawsonia alba Lam. (Mehendi) is found in the

Maghen David Synagogue which used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc.

inside the premises.

(ii) Out of 6 fruit- bearing plants 5 are found at Maghen David Synagogue.

(iii) There are 3 shade-giving plants in all Azadirecta indica A. Juss (Neem) and

Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) are found in both the sites.

(iv) No vegetable yielding plants were found to be sustained in these religious sites.

4. Association with sacred plants: Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate) mentioned in

several religious texts of Jews is sustained in Maghen David Synagogue [Table 5.9.4].

5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A statistical

analysis of plant-diversity associated with synagogues reveals 11 dicotyledonous families

represented by 14 genera and 15 species and 3 monocotyledonous families having

representation in form of 4 genera and 4 species [Table 5.9.6]. This represents 77.78%

dicots and 22.22% monocots at genus level and 78.95% dicots and 21.05% monocots at

species level. There is no Pteridophyte in any of the sites. Gymnosperms prevail in the

Chapter 5: Results

244

form of only one family, genus and species which constitute 6.67% of the total vascular

plants in the study sites. Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants along with

the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level are also figured

[Fig.5.2.2 and Fig. 5.2.3(a), (b) and (c)].

Out of total 11 dicotyledonous families, Annonaceae, Myrrtaceae and Lythraceae has

has two genera and two species while each of eight remaining family has a single genus.

Out of the 3 monocotyledonous families recorded, two is monogenic with single

species while Liliaceae has 2 genera and 2 species.

Table 5.9.1 (a): Details of study sites of Synagogues.

Sl No.

Date of visit

Name of site

Esta-blished on


1 14/6/2003 Bethel Synagogue

26/1 Pollock Street, Kolkata-1

130 Sft. David Nahoame (Secretary)

2 14/6/2003 Maghen David Synagogue

1884 109A Biplabi Rash Behari Bose Street, Kolkata.

26.23 Cottah

David Nahoame


Site No.

Study Site No. of water-bodies

within the premises

No. of regular

residents at the temple

No. of visiting devotees (approximate)


12 Bethel Synagogue

0 4 4-5 on Holidays

25

13 Maghen David Synagogue

0 4 4-5 on Holidays

25

Chapter 5: Results

245

Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Synagogues:


Remarks Occurr- ence (Site Nos.)

DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam S 12, 13


Artabotrys odoratissimus

Blume.

Ata

Kanthali

champa

S

Or

13

12

Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd.

Tagar Or 12

Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L. Tulsi Or 13

Lythraceae Lawsonia alba Lam.

Punica granatum L.

Mehendi

Dalim

Ls

Or

13

13

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Neem S 12, 13



Peyara

Jam

F

F

13

13

Passiflorae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 12, 13

Rubiaceae Gardenia florida L. Gandhar

aj

Or 13

Rutaceae Citrus aurantium L.

Citrus decumana L.

Lebu

Batabi

Lebu

F

F

13

12, 13

Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. Kanthal F 12

MONOCOT

Liliaceae Aloe abyssinica Lam.

Yucca aloifolia L.

Ghritaku

mari

Cactus

Or

Or

13

13

Palmae Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. Palm Or 12, 13

Scitamineae Ravenala madagascariensis

J.F Gmel.

Panthap

adap

Or 13

Chapter 5: Results

246

GYMNOSPERM

Cupressaceae Juniperus chinensis var

pyramidalis

Jhau

Or

13

Table 5.9.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Synagogues:

SITE NO. (12) (13) All Sites No. of Plant genera 08 16 19 No. of Plant species 08 17 20 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1 1 : 1.063 1 : 1.053 No. of Gymnosperms Species 0 01 01 No. of Monocot families 01 03 03 No. of Dicot families 07 09 11 No. of monocot at genera level 01 03 04 No. of dicot at genera level 07 11 14 No. of monocot at species level 01 04 04 No. of dicot at species level 07 12 15 Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level

1 : 7 1 : 3 1 : 3.75

Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 7 1 : 3.67 1 : 3.5 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 7 1 : 3 1 : 3.67 Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites

Mangifera indica Linn. (Aam), Azadirecta indica L., Carica papaya L., Citrus decumana L., Bentinckia nicobarica


Site No. 13 (Maghen David Synagogue) : Total 16

species

Chapter 5: Results

247

Table 5.9.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Synagogues

SITE NO. (12) (13) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species

02 (25.00%)

03 (18.75%)

03 (15.79%)

2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc.

0 01 (6.25%)

01 (5.26%)

(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty

03 (37.50%)

07 (43.75%)

09 (47.37%)

(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples

0 0 0

3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables

0 0 0

4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits.

03 (37.50%)

05 (31.25%)

06 (31.58%)

6. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds.

0 0 0

6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc.

0 0 0

7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal

0 0 0

Total 08 16 19

Fig.

use

Leg5-V

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

. 5.9.1(a) –(

categories

ends for theegs. yielding

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

1 3

(e): Percent

.

Fig. 5.9.1

e charts abog, 6- Fruit-be

3 5 7 9

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

C

tage distrib

(a)

ve: 1 – Shadearing 7 – Se

Series

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

45.00%

50.00%

1 2

hapter 5: Re

248

bution of pl

Fig. 5.9.1

de-giving, 2 –eeds used

s1

1

2

3

4

5

2 3 4 5 6

esults

lants of all

Fig. 5.

(c)

– fencing, 3 –8- Source of

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

1 3

7 8 9 10

Synagogue

.9.1(b)

– Aesthetic bf income of

3 5 7 9

Series

e sites in di

beauty, 4- OfTrustees 9 –

Series

s1

fferent

fferings – Others:

s1

Chapter 5: Results

249

Table 5.9.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jews beliefs and taboos.

Name of Plants considered sacred by the Jews No. of Sites (Site Nos. are in bracket)

1. Punica granatum L. (Pomegranates) 1 (13) 22)


Vascular Plants concerned

No. of Families

Details of family

No. of genera

No. of species

Pteridophyta 0 Total 0 0 Gymnosperms 1 Cupressaceae 1 1 Total 1 1 Angiosperms a) Monocot 3 Liliaceae 2 2 Palmae 1 1 Scitamineae 1 1 Total 4 4 b) Dicot 11 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 2 2 Apocynaceae 1 1 Labiateae 1 1 Lythraceae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Rubiaceae 1 1 Rutaceae 1 2 Urticaceae 1 1 Total 14 15

Table 5.9

VasPl

conc

1. Ferns

2.Gymn

3. Angio

a) Mono

b) Dicot

Fig.5.9.2

Leg

9.6: Summa

scular ants cerned

s

osperms

osperms

ocot

: Percentag

gend: 1 - F

C

ary of Plan

Famil

Number

0

1

14

3

11

ge Distribu

Ferns , 2 -G

hapter 5: Re

250

nt wealth of

lies

%

0.00

6.67

93.33

21.43

78.57

ution of Vas

Fig. 5.9.2

Gymnospe

esults

f Synagogu

Gener

Number

0

1

18

4

14

scular plan

2

erms and

ues:

ra

% N

0.00

5.26

94.74

22.22

77.78

nts in Synag

3 - Angio

1

2

3

Species

Number

0

1

19 9

4 2

15 7

gogues:

sperms.

%

0.00

5.00

5.00

1.05

8.95

Chapter 5: Results

251

Fig. 5.9.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Synagogues:


Fig. 5.9.3


Plate No. 5.9.1: A view of the Maghen David Synagogue

1

2

1

2

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

252

5.10. TEMPLES & CREMATORIUMS

5.10.1 Tenets:

Hinduism, with about one billion followers, is the world's third largest religion, after

Christianity and Islam. Hinduism is a major religion in India and according to the 2001

Census, Hinduism was followed by around 960 million adherents which is about 80.5%

of our country's population of 1.21 billion (2012 estimate).

The word "Hindu" comes from the name of the river Indus, which flows 1800 miles from

Tibet through Kashmir and Pakistan to the sea. Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions

and has no single founder, nor any prophets. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of

belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed", but is rather an umbrella term

comprising the practices of a variety of different religions originating and based on the

Vedic traditions. Hinduism includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Śrauta among numerous

other traditions. It also includes the ‘Kapalikas’ (a sect, worshiper of goddess Kali and

once used to sacrifice live human body before The deity).

Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta

(conclusion of the Veda). Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred

literature, the Vedas, mainly comprised of hyms or mantras written in the Sanskrit

language. The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE. The Vedas center

on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Homa (Yagna) ritual

(Fire-sacrifices with chanting of Vedic mantras). There are two main categories of the

Hindu scriptures. One is ‘Shruti’ (that which is heard) consists of the four Vedas and

Upanishads and other is ‘Smriti’ (that which is remembered) composed of traditional

texts, including the Dharma Shastras (legal and ethical texts), the Puranas, and the

folk/historical legends known as the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Hindus believe in a universal soul or God called ‘Bramha’. ‘Bramha’ takes on many

forms that some Hindus worship as gods or goddesses. The three most important forms of

Bramha are ‘Bramha’ (known as the Creator), ‘Vishnu’ (known as the Preserver) and

‘Shiva’ (or Siva, known as the Destroyer). Hindus believe that there is a part of Bramha

Chapter 5: Results

253

in everyone and this is called the ‘Atma’ (Soul). Hindus believe in reincarnation - a belief

that the soul is eternal and lives many lifetimes, in one body after another. The soul is

sometimes born in a human body, sometimes in an animal body and sometimes in a plant

body etc. Hindus believe that all forms of life contain a soul, and all souls have the

chance to experience life in different forms. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a

cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the

previous life was lived. ‘Karma’ is the cause of our particular destiny. Misfortunes in our

present life are the result of acts that we have committed in the past. In the same way, our

actions in our present lives will determine our fate in the lives that follow. Hindus

therefore aim to live in a way that will cause each of their lives to be better than the life

before.

For many Hindus there are four goals in human life (‘Purushartha’) : ‘Moksha’,

‘Dharma’, ‘Artha’ and ‘Karma’. The spiritual goal of a Hindu is to merge one’s soul

(‘Atma’) with the universal soul ‘Brahma’. This freedom of soul from ‘Samsara’ (rebirth)

is referred to as ‘Moksha’. ‘Dharma’ is the code for leading one's life. ‘Artha’ is the

pursuit of material gain by lawful means. ‘Karma’ is the pure acts, knowledge and

devotion through which one can reincarnate to a higher level.

The temples (or “Mandirs”) are dedicated to different Gods and Goddesses which happen

to focus the form of religious life. The building at which Hindus perform communal

worship is called ‘Mandir’ (Hindu Temple). Worshippers repeat the names of their

worshipped Gods, Goddesses, and the Mantras. Most Hindus worship (perform Puja)

every day at home and have a shrine there. A shrine can be anything from a room, a small

altar or simply pictures or statues. Devout Hindus perform daily chores at dawn after

bathing which usually includes lighting a lamp and incense, offering foodstuffs before the

images of deities and recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns,

meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc. Family members often worship

together. At the shrine, Hindus make offerings to a ‘Murti’. A ‘Murti’ is a sacred statue

of God, or a god or goddess. But these observations of rituals greatly vary among regions,

villages, and individuals.

Chapter 5: Results

254

5.10.2. Festivals: Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The festivals

typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes

Some widely observed Hindu festivals are : Maha Shivaratri, Pongal, Holi, Vasant

Panchami, Thaipusam, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Ganesh Chaturthi, Shigmo,

Dussera, Durga Puja, Diwali, Gudi Padwa, Ugadi, Bihu, Bonalu, Rath Yatra, Guru

Purnima, Raksha Bandhan, Onam, Gowri Habba, Chhath.

5.10.3 Plants associated with Hinduism: From time immemorial Hindus have

worshipped trees, tied sacred threads, held social ceremonies around them, offered water,

milk and sometimes even cow-dung as part of the rituals. Tulsi leaf (Ocimum sanctum L.)

is considered most sacred by Hindus. Every day the ground near it is covered with a layer

of cow-dung and in the evening a lamp is lit near it. It is a common custom to place a

sprig of Ocimum sanctum L. near the head of a dying person and two of its leaves on the

eyes after death. Some of the important trees and plants associated with God or Goddess

as found in the ‘Puranas’ are Aswatha (Ficus religiosa Decne.ex Miq.), Fig tree (Ficus

hispida L.f.), Chandramallika (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.), Naga Keshara (Mesua

ferrea L.), Ashoka (Saraca indica L.), Bokul (Mimusops elengi Boj.), Champaka

(Michela champaca L.), Vata (Ficus benghalensis L.), Sri-phala/Bel (Aegle marmelos

Correa.), Kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.), Phanimanasha (Opuntia dillenii Haw.)

Kusha Grass (Poa cynosuroides Retz.) and Durva Grass (Agrostis linearis Retz.) etc. In

Sanskrit, the name for the coconut palm "Kalpa vriksha", which means "the tree which

provides all the necessities of life" or "wish-fulfilling tree". The coconut tree Cocos

nucifera L. is given a special place in most Hindu households and great care is taken to

nurture the tree. To break a coconut in the beginning of any event is considered to be very

auspicious by the Hindus. A "Purnakumbha" is a pot filled with water and topped with

fresh mango leaves (Mangifera indica Blume.) and a coconut and considered to be the

"staphna" of the puja. The pot symbolizes Mother Earth, water is the life giver, coconut

the divine consciousness and the mango leaves symbolizes life. The whole

"Purnakumbha" symbolizes Goddess Lakshmi and good fortune. The Neem tree

(Azadirachta indica A.Juss.), besides having various medicinal benefits is a highly

revered tree among the Hindus. In Bengal, Neem is considered to be the tree which is the

Chapter 5: Results

255

abode of "Sitala" (the great Pox-mother goddess who can cause or cure this disease as

believed). The customary treatment of pox is therefore to rub the body with Neem leaves

while making prayers to Sitala. It is also said that the smoke of burning Neem protects

both the living and the dead from evil spirits. Leaves of Kakdumur (Ficus hispida L.f.) is

part of offerings into “Hom”, with chanting of mantras while performing puja and in

Hindu marriage and thread ceremony. Haldi ( Curcuma longa L.) is used in almost every

puja and auspicious occasion. Tamal (Garcenia xanthochymus Hook. f & T. Anderson.)

is one of the five sacred trees grown together called “Panchavati”, comprising of Bel,

Kadam, Neem, Tamal and Ashok. A vast number of Hindu women observe ‘Vratas’ ( a

kind of observance of rituals through fasting) on many occasions or Hindu festivals.

Some of such ‘Vratas’ are directly related with the worshipping of trees or offering of a

particular plant product to the respective god or goddess [Table 5.10.1].

Table 5.10.1: An account of tree species associated with Hindu festivals and rituals:

Name of the

Tree

Related

Festival or

Vrata

Time of Celebration and Rites performed

Amala (Emblica

officinalis

Gaertn.)

Amala

Ekadasi

11th day of Phalguna Shukla; Bath with

water soaked in amala fruit; eating it;

worshipping it; and worship of Radha-

Krishna.

Amra or Mango

(Mangifera

indica Blume.)

Amra-puspa

Bhaksana

Vrata

1st day of Chaitra Shukla; Eating of mango

blossoms and worship of Kamadeva.

Asoka (Saraca

indica L.)

Asoka

Pratipada

1st day of Chaitra Shukla; Only women

worship the Tree; they also observe fast,

seeking longevity.

Bakula

(Mimusops elengi

Boj.)

Bakula

Amavasya

Bakula flowers are offered to the manes,

seeking Their blessings.

Chapter 5: Results

256

Vata (Bot) or

Bargad (Ficus

benghalensis L.)

Vata Savitri

Vrata

Jaisthya purnima or amavasya day; Having

fasted for three previous days, married

women worship the Vata tree by

circumambulating, tying with the sacred

protective thread (raksa sutra), and listening

to the sacred Savitri-Satyavan story; some

women stay awake during the night and

complete the vow feeding a brahmin; in

western parts of India, devout women

observe this vow for five consecutive years

Bilva or Bel

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Bilva Tri-

ratri Vrata

On a Tuesday of Jaisthya purnima. Worship

of the Bel tree for three consecutive nights

as per Hemadri’s story depicted in the

Skanda Purana; the vow comprises bath

with water mixed with mustard seeds,

partaking of sacred ‘swattik’ food

(havisyanna), adorning the tree with two

pieces of red cloth and placing the image of

Uma-Mahesvara beneath it; ‘homa’ is

performed and 1,008 bilva leaves are

offered; Brahmins are fed.

Bilva or Bel

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Sravana

Krisna

Ekadasi

Ceremonial offering of water to the Bel tree.

Bilva or Bel

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Bhadra

Shukla

Chaturthi

Offering of trifoliate leaves of Bel to Lord

Ganesha.

Bilva or Bel

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Bilva

Nimantrana

Aswina Shukla sasthi; Summoning the tree-

goddess and worshipping the Devi.

Bilva or Bel Bilva Aswina Shukla saptami; A twig of Bel,

Chapter 5: Results

257

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Saptami bearing two fruits, is offered to Devi.

Bilva or Bel

(Aegle marmelos

Correa.)

Bilva Navami Aswina Shukla navami; Bel leaves are

offered to Siva.

Karavira or

Kaner or

Oleander

(Nerium indicum

Mill.)

Karavira

Vrata

Jaisthya Shukla prathama tithi; Kaner roots

and branches are bathed and adorned with

red cloth; offerings of seven cereals (sapta

dhanya) and fruit are made followed by

fasting; Savitri, Satyabhama and others ( in

‘Purana’) performed this when they were in

trouble.

Kadali or Kela

(Musa

paradisiaca L.)

Kadali Vrata Vaisakha, Magha or Kartika Shukla

chaturdasi. A Banana tree is planted and

nurtured till it bears fruit; wishing the

welfare of one’s family, a person should

worship the tree with flowers, fruit, etc and

circumambulate it.

Kadali or Kela

(Musa

paradisiaca L.)

Yaksa-

samantaka

Kadali Vrata

A golden Banana tree is worshipped and

offered to a brahmin on any auspicious day.

Kevada or Screw

Pine (Panadanus

odoratissimus

Blume.)

Kevada Teej Bhadra Shukla trtiya; Soliciting unbroken

married life, women offer Kevada leaves to

Lord Siva.



1. Site characteristics: As many as 23 temples, 4 ‘Guru-ashramas’, 6 crematoriums and

one burial ground of the city which are associated with the Hindu religion were surveyed

Chapter 5: Results

258

amongst which Kalighat Temple is the largest one spread over an area of about 595 bigha

(7, 96,283 Sq m), though mostly covered by structures and little of greenery [Table

5.10.2(a)]. Other temples cover comparatively much lesser area ranging from 11 chhatak

(46 Sq. m) (Firingi Kalibari) to 10.5 bigha (14052 Sq. m) (Gopal Mandir). There are

many ‘Guru-ashramas’ in and around Kolkata worshiping Hindu deities along with the

respective ‘Gurudeva’ by establishing ‘Temple/Moth/Ashrama’ under the aegis of the

concerned religious sect or trustee or the governing body. Ram Thakur Ashram, Shri

Guru Ashram and Mahanirvan Moth belong to this category with a vast green area

around their temple structure even covering upto 100 bigha (1,33,829 Sq. m.) All the

Crematoriums or Burning Ghats, places of performance of last rites, are invariably

situated beside the Hooghly River or the “Adi Ganga”, the “Holy Ganges” of India.

Water-body was found only in five temple sites out of 27 concerned. Some temples do

not have any resident at all, but where there are residents, it ranges from 1 to 20

comprising of priest, watchman, followers and other associates. All ‘Ashramas’ have

residents ranging from 16 to 50 which includes disciples of the respective ‘Guru’.

Number of regular devotees ranges from 10 (Shibmandir at South Kolkata) to 10000

(Kalighat Temple) [Table 5.10.2(b)]. There are many festivals of Hindus and therefore,

celebration of main festival at these temples varies from date to date depending upon the

deity worshiped at the concerned temple. During festival days the number of visiting

devotees increases manifold over those on other days, to the extent of about 1,00,000 at

‘Kalighat temple’ on the day of Kalipuja, Bengali New Years Day and ‘Baro Bhuter

Mandir’ on the days of fair organized during ‘Bano-Durga Puja’ on and from 1st Magha

to 7th Magha (Bengali Calendar) (i.e. around 15th of January) each year at the temple.

2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxonomic analysis of plants sustained reveals the

dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former in Hindu temple

sites being 1 : 5.63 at the family level, 1 : 5.53 at the genus level and 1 : 6.12 at the

species level [Table 5.10.3(b)]. Proportion of genera to species found in all Hindu

temples and Crematoriums studied is found to be 1 : 1.09 in comparison to 1 : 7 for


Chapter 5: Results

259

Of all Hindu temple sites studied Mahanirvan Moth (Site No. 49) houses highest number

i.e. 65 species whereas it is Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10) amongst all crematories

which has the highest number of species, i.e. 23. Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and

Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), these two species are found in maximum number of temples

whereas Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) can be found in maximum number of

Burning Ghats. In respect of all 34 Hindu religious sites studied Mangifera indica Blume.

(Aam) seems to be the most dominant species.

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: The plants which enhance aesthetic

effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about 67.48% amongst all. Next to come are the

fruit-bearing plants which constitute about 17.07% of total species recorded. Furthermore

there are 14.63% of total species, the parts of which are utilized particularly for offering

to God during festivals or considered as sacred. Shade-giving plants and vegetables

constitute 13.08% and 11.38% of the total number of species respectively. As much as

3.25% of the total plants are utilized in fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside

the premises etc.[Table 5.10.4]. These findings have also been figured for temples,

crematoriums and in totality of the Hindu religious sites [Figs. 5.10.1(a) – (c)]

(i) Of the 83 decorative plant species recorded, Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (

Tagar) and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba) are found in maximum number of sites i.e.

10 out of 34. Gardenia florida L (Gandharaj) is found in 9 sites while Murraya exotica

Blanco. (Kamini) is found in 8 sites followed by Michelia champaca L. (Champa), Rosa

centrifolia L. (Golap) each in 6 sites. Other plants to have been taken care of include

those which enhance the aesthetic beauty of the place, viz. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex

Lam. (Rangan), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Seuli), Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl.

(Baganbilash), Jasminum pubescens Buch Ham. (Belphool), Canna glauca L.

(Kalabati), Quisqualis indica Blanco (Madhabilata) and Dahlia Superflua Ait. (Dalia).

Out of 4 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the

premises, Jatropha gossypifolia L. (Bherenda) was found to be most commonly used.

Chapter 5: Results

260

There are 17 plant species utilized as offerings at Hindu temples of which Hibiscus rosa

sinensis L. (Jaba) is sustained in maximum number of sites (10). Hibiscus mutabilis L.

(Sthal-padma),

Malvaviscus arboreous (Lanka Jaba), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj), Ocimum sanctum

L. (Tulsi), Datura metel L. (Dhutura) and Butea monosperma Kuntze (Palas) are other

noteworthy species (according to usage).

(ii) Out of a total of 21 fruit-yielding species Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) and Mangifera

indica L. (Aam) are found in maximum number of sites (11). Artrocarpus integrifolia L.

f. (Kanthal), Musa paradisica L. (Kola), Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bel), Citrus decumana

L. (Batabi lebu) and Psidium guayava L. (Peyara) are also found in considerable

number of sites.

(iii) Of 16 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem), Mangifera

indica L. (Aam), Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) , Ficus benghalensis L. (Bot),

Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) and Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq.(Aswatha) are found

in most sites.

(iv) Out of a total of 14 species found useful as vegetables, Carica papaya L. (Pepe),

Colocasia antiquorum Schott. (Kachu), Murraya koenigii Spreng. (Karipata) and

Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. (Sajina) can be placed sequentially in the order of their

prevalence in the sites.

(v) No species could be recorded from the Hindu religious sites, the seeds of which were

found getting used.

(vi) Economically important species like Swietenia mahagoni L. (Mahagony) and Shorea

robusta A. Dc. (Sal) were found sustained in some of the sites. Obnoxious Parthenium

hysterophorus L. (Parthenium) was found in huge number in one ‘Ram Thakur Ashrama’

and Papaver somniferum L. (Aafim gaach), used as drug/narcotics, was found in one

Shibmandir, though open cultivation of this species is banned by the Govt.

4. Association with sacred plants: A list of 14 plants could be prepared which are

considered sacred by the Hindus [Table 5.10.5] of which Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam)

Chapter 5: Results

261

and Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) are found in most of the sites (12 and 11 sites

respectively). Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) and Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

(Neem) are found in 10 sites, Ocimum sanctum L. (Tulsi) and Musa paradisiaca L.

(Kola) in 9 sites and Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) and Aegle marmelos

Correa. (Bel) in 7 sites out of a total of 34 sites surveyed.


dicotyledonous families having 94 genera and 104 species and 8 monocotyledonous

families having 17 genera and 17 species could be recorded from all Hindu study sites

[Tables 5.10.7]. In the taxonomic census the dicots represents 84.68% and monocots

15.32% at generic level and 85.95% and 14.05% respectively at species level [Figs.

5.10.3 (a), (b) & (c)]. Gymnosperms represent 1.85% of the total vascular plants and not

a single pteridophyte was found getting willfully sustained [Fig. 5.10.2].

Out of 45 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number of

genera, followed by Apocynaceae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in

case of Leguminosae, followed by that of Apocynaceae.

Out of 8 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae and Scitamineae has the highest

number of genera and species, followed by Gramineae.

As many as 2 families of Gymnosperms (Cupressaceae and Cycadaceae) were found to

have representation in form of 2 genera and 2 species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Bilati Jhau)

was found sustained in 4 sites and Cycas revoluta Bedd. (Fern palm) could be recorded

from only one crematorium.

Table 5.10.2(a): Details of study sites of Hindu religious activities.

Sl No.

Date of visit

Name of the site

Esta-blished on


1. 22/05/2003 Kalighat Temple

N. A. 9, Bhagabati Lane, Kolkata

595 bigha

Debu Mukherjee (Sebait)

Chapter 5: Results

262

2. 11/06/2003 Karunamoyee Mandir

N. A. 32, M.G. Road, Kolkata -82

1 bigha

N. A.

3. 14/06/2003 Keoratala Mahaswasan

N. A. 113, Tollygunge Circular Road, Kolkata -26

1.5 bigha

N. A.

4. 14/06/2003 Atharo Bari Nibashi Mohima Chandra Ray Chowdhury Swasan Mandir

1852 113/1, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata

7 cottah

Ashit Bhattacharjya

5. 03/11/2003 Firingi Kali Bari

905 (Bengali year)

244, B.B. Ganguly Street,Kolkata

11 chhatak

Bhopal Chandra Bandyopadhyay

6. 18/02/2004 Gopal Mandir 1252 Bengali

93 & 93 B, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata – 33

10.5 bigha

Amitava Mondal and Madhabilata Mondal

7. 18/02/2004 Chandi Matar Mandir

1953 (renovated)

21, K.K. Ray Chaudhuri Road, Barisha , Kolkata – 8

3 bigha

Santi Chandra Roychowdhury

8. 18/02/2004 Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir

1612 1B, Watgunge Street, Kolkata – 23

5-6 cottah

Rakhal Chandra Chakraborty (Sebait)

9. 18/02/2004 Behala Siddeswari Kali Mandir

1170 Behala, Kolkata.

3-4 cottah

Dipak Bhattacharjee

10. 18/02/ 2004

Sri Ghanteshwar Mahadeb Mandir

N. A. 274 A, B.B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata – 12

10 Cottah

N. A.

11. 18/02/2004 Ram Mandir N. A. Central Avenue

30 Cottah

N. A.

Chapter 5: Results

263

12. 02/03/2004 Sri Sri Gourango Mandir

1952 12, Gourango Mandir Road, Kolkata - 86

11 cottah

Khokon Das (Gardner)

13. 02/03/2004 Basona Kalibari

N. A. Basana Kalibari, Garia, Kolkata -86

6 cottah

Probhat Kumar Bandyopadhyay

14. 02/03/2004 Anandadham 1355 bengali

Joramandir, Kolkata - 84

7 cottah

Jyotirmoy Bandhyopadhyay (Purohit)

15. 02/03/2004 Rathtala Durgamandir

1966 265, N.S.C. Bose Road, Kolkata - 47

3 cottah

Ramanath Dey Sarkar

16. 02/03/2004 Adi Maha Swasneswar Mandir

N. A. Boral Road, Garia, Kolkata-84.

1 bigha

N. A.

17. 07/03/2004 Ram Thakur Ashram

1942 38, Central Road, Kolkata - 32

1.5 bigha

Debasish Mukhopadhyay (Purohit)

18. 07/03/2004 Bijoygarh Thakur bari

N. A. Bijoygarh Thakurbati Kolkata -32

20 cottah

N. A.

19. 07/03/2004 Baro Bhuter Mandir

1358 bengali

Bijoygarh, Kolkata -32

1 cottah 10 chatak

S.K.Bhattacharya (Purohit)

20. 07/03/2004 Bijoysree Mandir

1357 bengali

2/56A,Sri Colony, Kolkata -92

10 cottah

Binod Behari Roy

21. 07/03/2004 Ram Thakur Ashram

1970 E1/A, Baghajatin Station Road, Kolkata -86

1 bigha

Sukharanjan Chakraborty

22. 07/03/2004 Sri Guru Ashram

1960 11/2, Durga Prasanna Paramhansa Road, Naktala, Kolkata -47

3 bigha

Swami Bireshwarananda

23. 13/03/2004 Nakuleshwar 1600 9, Bhagabati 2 Ajoy

Chapter 5: Results

264

Mandir Lane, Kolkata -26

cottah Banerjee

24. 02/05/2003 Dakate Kali Bari

1903 39/1, Purna Das Road, Kolkata -29

10 cottah

Kanti Bhusan Bhattacharjee

25. 09/05/2004 Mahanirban Math

1900 113, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata -19

100 bigha

Sankar Das Gupta (Secterary)

26. 01/06/2004 Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat (Sirity Smasan)

N. A. B. L. Saha Road, Kolkata -700033

1 Bigha

N. A.

27. 28/11/2004 Sri Jagannath Mandir

1948 East Yard Gorosthan, CPT Compound, Khidderpore, Kolkata - 23

1 bigha

Pandit Jaydev Das

28 28/11/2004 Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir

N. A. Babubazar, Bhukailash Rajbari, Kolkata -23

6 bigha

Ghosal Parivar

29. 13/12/2004 Shibmandir 1212 (Bengali Year)

9/1 Ramanath Majumder Street, Kolkata

2 cottah

Khudiram Goswami (Priest)

30 14/01/2006 Nimtala Crematorium & Burning Ghat

N. A. 2, Strand Bank Road, Kolkata -700007.

7-8 cottah

N. A.

31 24/01/2006 Shibmandir N. A. M.N.Sen Lane, Kolkata

10 cottah

N. A.

32 04/11/2008 Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat (Bagbazar Smasan)

N. A. 1, Strand Road, Kolkata -700001

15 cottah

N. A.

33 04/11/2008 Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat

N. A. 5, Chandra Kumar Roy Lane, Kolkata -36.

1 bigha

N.A.

Chapter 5: Results

265

(Ramakrishna Mahasmasan)

34 05/11/2008 Topsia Hindu Burial Ground

N. A. 1, Topsia Road, Kolkata -46

1 bigha

N. A.

Table 5.10.2(b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.

Site No.

Study Site No. of water-bodies within

the premises

No. of regular

residents in the

premises


festivals

(A) Temples 1 Kalighat Temple 01 05-10 10000 100000 9 Karunamoyee

Mandir 0 03 20-30 100-200

11 Atharo Bari Nibashi Mohima Chandra Ray Chowdhury Swasan Mandir

0 5 members

of one family

10-15 1000

19 Firingi Kali Bari 0 08 1000 10000 22 Gopal Mandir 0 01 20-30 1000 23 Chandi Matar

Mandir 01 One

family 10-20 1000

24 Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir

0

05 500-1000 3000

25 Behala Siddheswari Kali Mandir

0 0 100 500-600

27 Sri Ghanteshwar Mahadeb Mandir

0 0 30-40 1000

28 Ram Mandir 0 01 100-150 1000 29 Sri Sri Gourango

Mandir 0 05 50-70 200-300

30 Basona Kalibari 0 01 20-25 1000 31 Anandadham 0 02 10-15 200 33 Rathtala

Durgamandir 0 One

family 10 1000

34 Ram Thakur Ashram (Jadavpur)

0 32 1000 5000

Chapter 5: Results

266

35 Bijoygarh Thakurbari

0 01 50 200

36 Baro Bhuter Mandir

0 0 100-200 100000

37 Bijoysree Mandir 0 05 10-20 500 38 Ram Thakur

Ashram (Baghajatin)

0 08 50 300-400

39 Sri Guru Ashram 0 50 200 500 40 Nakuleshwar

Mandir 01 04 10000 100000

44 Dakate Kali Bari 0 One family

50 1000

49 Mahanirban Math 01 20 800-900 100000 67 Sri Jagannath

Mandir 0 04 150-200 1000-1500

68 Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir

01 One family

10 1000

83 Shibmandir (of North Kolkata)

0 0 20-25 1000

91 Shibmandir (of South Kolkata)

0 0 10 500

(B) Crematoriums 10 Keoratala

Mahaswasan 0 16 100-200 5000-7000

32 Adi Maha Swasneswar Mandir

0 One family

20 1000

53 Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat

0 One family

10-20 100

85 Nimtala Crematorium & Burning Ghat

0 03 25 500

117 Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat

0 03 10-20 50-100

118 Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat

0 03 10-20 50-100

123 Topsia Hindu Burial Ground

0 N. A. 0-3 20-50

NA = Not available.

Chapter 5: Results

267

Table 5.10.2 (a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Hindu religious sites.


Remarks Occurrence (Site No.)

DICOT Acanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees.

Andrographis

paniculata Nees.

Basak

Kalmegh

Or, M

Or, M

34, 49,

123

49, 123

Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica

Blume.

Aam F, S, Of 9, 11, 29,

30, 31,

34, 38,

39, 44,

49, 67,

123

Anonaceae Annona reticulata

Linn.

Annona squamosa

Delile.

Artabortrys

odoratissimus Blume.

Polyalthia longifolia

Benth & Hook. f. ex

Hook. f.

Nona

Ata

Kanthali

Champa

Debdaru

F

F

Or

Or

34

44

10, 11,

49

10, 11,

32, 34,

41, 49,

67

Apocynaceae Aednium obesum

Roem. & Schult.var

obesum

Allamonda neriifolia

Hook.

Dwarf

Karabi

Allamanda

Or

Or

91

34

Chapter 5: Results

268

Carissa carandas L.

Nerium oleander L.

var album

Nerium oleander L.

var roseum

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd.

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd. cv.

Flore-pleno

Thevatia puruviana

K. Schum.

Vinca rosea L.

Karamcha

Sada

Karabi

Golapi

Karabi

Tagar

Double

Petal Tagar

Kolkeful

Nayantara

F

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

Or

49, 123

31, 91

29, 49

10, 11,

29, 30,

31, 32,

34, 38,

44, 49,

123

49

11, 34,

39,

49,123

10, 49,

123

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera

[Dryand.]

Swet-

Akanda

Or, Of 37, 123

Bignoniaceae Tecoma graudis

Kranzl.

Sonapatti Or 91

Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum

L.

Hatisur Or 34, 49,

123

Cactaceae Opuntia dillenii Haw. Phanimana

sa

Sc, Or 30, 32,

49, 123

Chenopodiaceae Basella rubra L. Puinsak V 9, 123

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna

Wight & Arn.

Arjun

S, Or

30, 34

Chapter 5: Results

269

Quisqualis indica

Blanco.

Madhabilat

a

Or, Fl 10, 33,

49

Compositae Chrysanthemum

coronarium L.

Dahlia Superflua Ait.

Eclipta prostrata L.

Helianthus annuus L.

Parthenium

hysterophorus L.

Tagets patula L.

Wedelia

calendulaceae Less.

Chandrama

llika

Daliah

Kesuth

Surya

mukhi

Parthenium

Ganda

Bhringaraj

Or

Fl, Or

Or

Fl, Or

Weed

Fl, Or

Or

9

34, 38

49, 123

9, 10, 34

91,123

9, 31, 39,

49, 91

34, 49,

123

Convolaceae Ipomea batatas Poir. Ranga Alu V 10

Cornaceae Alengium lamarckii

Thw.

Ansfal F, S 11

Crassulaceae Bryophyllum

calycinum Salib.

Patharkuch

i

Or 31

Cruciferae Raphanus sativus L. Mula V 38

Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima

Duchesne.

Kumra V

49

Dilleniaceae Dillenia indica

Blanco.

Chalta V 34

Dipterocarpacea

e

Shorea robusta A. Dc. Sal S, Or,

Eco

11

Euphorbiaceae Emblica officinalis

Gaertu.

Euphorbia

pulcherrima Willd. ex

Klotzsch.

Amloki

Lalpata

F, S

Or

39

91

Chapter 5: Results

270

Euphorbia trigona

Haw.

Jatropha gossypifolia

L.

Bherenda

Or

Ls

34

10, 11,

34, 123

Guttiferae Garcinia

xanthochymus Hook.

F. & T. Anderson.

Tamal Sc, Or, S 39

Labiateae Leornurus sibiricus L.

Salvia splendens Ker –

Gawl.

Ocimum sanctum L.

Raktadrone

Salvia

Tulsi

Or

Or

Sc, Of

32, 123

34

9, 29, 30,

33, 34,

35, 38,

39, 123

Lauraceae Cinnamomum tamala

T. Nees & Eberm.

Cinnamomum

zeylanicum Blume.

Tejpata

Dalchini

V

V

34, 49

49

Leguminosae Albizzia lebbek Benth.

Bauhinia acuminata

Bruce.

Butea monosperma

Kuntze.

Caesalpinia

pulcherrima G.Don.

Cassia fistula Horbb.

ex Oliver.

Clitora ternatea L.

Delonix regia Rafin.

Sirish

Kanchan

Palas

Krishnachu

ra

Badarlathi

Aparajita

S, Or

Or

Or, Of

Or

Or

Or, Of

Or

34

38, 49

34

9, 10, 34,

49, 91,

123

37

31, 32,

49

49

Chapter 5: Results

271

Erythrina indica Lam.

Pisum sativum L.

Saraca Indica L.

Tamarindus indica L.

Palitamada

r

Matar

Asoke

Tentul

Or

Or, Sd

Or, Sc

S, Or

31, 123

30

31, 34,

39

30, 34

Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Dalim F, Or 39, 49


Champa

Or 9, 10, 29,

34, 38,

49

Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis

L.

Hibiscus mutabilis L.

Malvaviscus

arboreous

Jaba

Sthal-

padma

Lanka Jaba

Or, Of

Or, Of

Or, Of

9, 30, 32,

33, 34,

38, 39,

44, 49,

91,123

9, 31, 32,

49

30

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.

Juss.

Swietenia mahagoni

L.

Neem

Mahogony

S, Or, Sc

Or, Eco

11, 30,

32, 34,

38, 39,

44, 49,

67,123

9,123

Myrtaceae Couroupita guianensis

Aubl.

Eucalyptus globulus

Labill.

Psidium guayava L.

Cannon

ball

Eucalyptus

Peyara

Or

Or

F

34, 39,49

29

11, 31,

49,123

Chapter 5: Results

272

Syzygium malaccense

Merrill & Perry.

Jamrul

F, S

39,

49,123

Moringaceae Moringa

pterygosperma Gaertn.

Sajina V 32,

49,123


Heimerl.

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Baganbilas

h

Sandhyamo

ni

Or

Or

32, 34,

91

31, 49,

123

Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens

Buch. –Ham.ex Wall.

Nyctanthes arbor-

tristis L.

Belphul

Seuli

Or, Of

Or, Of

9, 49

11, 32,

38, 39,

49

Papavaraceae Papaver somniferum

L.

Afim gaach M, Eco 34

Passiflorae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 9, 31, 34,

35, 39,

49,123

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 33, 123

Rosaceae Rosa centrifolia L. Golap Or 9, 10, 32,

34, 49,

91

Rubiaceae Anthocephalus

cadamba Miq.

Gardenia florida L

Kadam

Gandharaj

S, Or &

Sc

Or, Of

10, 32,

34, 44,

67,68

91,123

9, 29, 31,

33, 34,

38, 39,

49, 91

Chapter 5: Results

273

Hamelia patens Jacq.

Ixora coccinea Comm.

ex Lam.

Mussaenda

erythrophylla Schum.

& Thonn. ‘Rosea’

Rangan

Mussanda

Or

Or

Or

10

34, 44,

49, 91

10, 49

Rutaceae Aegle marmelos

Correa.

Citrus decumana L.

Citrus medica L.

Murraya exotica

Blanco.

Murraya koenigii

Spreng.

Bel

Batabi

Lebu

Lebu

Kamini

Karipata

Sc, F

F

F

Or

Or, V

11, 30,

34, 38,

39, 49,

67

30, 32,

38, 39,

49

9, 38, 39,

49, 123

10, 29,

30, 31,

32, 34,

39, 49

10, 11,

30, 31,

49

Santalaceae Santalum album L. Swet

Chandan

Or, Of,

Con pl

49

Sapindaceae Litchi chinensis

Sonner.

Litchi F, S 49

Sapotaceae Mimosops elangi Boj. Bakul S, Or 29

Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens

L.

Cestrum nocturnum

Lam.

Lanka

Hashnahan

a

V

Or

10, 30,

49

11, 49

Chapter 5: Results

274

Datura metel L.

Petunia integrifolia

Schinz & Thellung.

Solanum melongena

L.

Dhutura

Petunia

Begun

Or, Of

Or

V

91, 123

34

49, 123

Sterculiaceae Pterospermum

acerifolium Benth.

Kanak

Champa

Or 34

Urticaceae Artrocarpus

integrifolia Linn. f.


Ficus hispida L. f.

Ficus religiosa Decne.

ex Miq.

Kanthal

Bot

Kakdumur

Aswatha

S, F

S, Sc

F, Sc

S, Sc

11, 29,

30, 31,

32, 34,

39, 49

1, 30, 32,

34, 36,

44, 123

11, 34,

44, 49,

91, 123

1, 10, 32,

36, 53,

67, 68,

117, 118,

123

Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri

Jacq.

Lantana camara L.

Duranto

Chotra

Ls

Or

9, 10, 49,

91

34, 123

Violaceae Viola tricolor L. Pansy

(Eng.)

Or 34

MONOCOT

Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum

Linn.

Baro-kakur Or 29

Araceae Colocasia antiquorum Kachu V 11, 30,

Chapter 5: Results

275

Schott.

Pistia stratiotes L.

Toka-pana

Or

34, 38,

49, 123

123

Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or, Ls 10, 123

Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea

Boom.

Pata-bahar Or 49

Gramineae Bambusa nana Roxb.

Saccharum

officinarum L.

Bans

Ankh

Or, Of

F

10, 49

49

Liliaceae Asparagus racemosus

Willd.

Satomuli Or 30


Borassus flabellifer L.

Cocos nucifera L.

Livistona chinensis R.

Br.

Phoenix sylvestris

Roxb.

Supari

Tal

Narkol

Palm

Khejur

Or, Ls,

Of

F, Or

F, Sc, Of

Or

Or, F

11, 30,

31, 34,

38, 39,

44, 123

123

9, 11, 29,

30, 31,

34, 38,

39, 44,

49, 68

11, 49,

67

29, 32,

49, 123

Scitamineae Curcuma longa L.

Globba bulbifera

Roxb.

Musa paradisiaca L.

Holud

Kanda-

puspa

Kola

V, Sc, Of

Or

F, Sc, Of

30, 49

34

11, 30,

33, 37,

38, 49,

Chapter 5: Results

276

Ravenala

madagascariensis J. F.

Gmel.

Panthopada

k

Or

67, 123

9, 10, 49,

91

GYMNOSPERM

Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd.

Fern palm

Or

10

Cupressaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Bilati Jhau Or 32, 38,

49, 91

Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Crematoriums including Burrial Ground.

Legend: Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr tol – Drought tolerant; F – Fruit yielding; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc.; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; Sc – Sacred; S – Shade giving; Sd- Seeds utilized; Wd – Weed; Eco – Plant having economic importance etc.

Table 5.10.3(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Hindu Temples and Crematoriums.

SITE NO. Temples Crematoriums All Sites



Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.094 1 : 1.077 1 : 1.09


1 2 2



No. of monocot at genera level

14 8 17

No. of dicots at generic level 91 42 94


14 8 17

No. of dicots at species level 101 46 104 Ratio of monocot to dicots at species level

1 : 7.21 1 : 5.75 1 : 6.12

Chapter 5: Results

277

Ratio of monocot to dicots at generic level

1 : 6.5 1 : 5.25 1 : 5.53

Ratio of monocot to dicots at family level

1 : 6.29 1 : 5.2 1 : 5.63


Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) )sites)

Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha -5)

Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol)sites


Site No. 49 : Total

species(65)

Site No. 10 (23) Site No. 32 (20)

Site No. 49 : Total

species(65)


Hindu Temples and Crematoriums.

SITE NO. Temples Crema-

toriums

All Sites

1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of

total species)

16

(13.79%)

11

(19.64%)

16

(13.01%)

2. Decorative:

(i) No. of species used for fencing &

demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total

species)

3

(2.59%)

3

(5.36%)

4

(3.25%)

(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic

beauty (% of total species)

79

(68.10%)

38

(67.86%)

83

(67.48%)

(iii) No. of species used for offering to

deities or decorating temples (% of total

species)

18

(15.52%)

6

(10.71%)

18

(14.63%)


consumable vegetables (% of total species)

13

(11.21%)

7

(12.50%)

14

(11.38%)


consumable fruits (% of total species)

21

(18.10%)

6

(10.71%)

21

(17.07%)

Fig.

crem

Fi

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

5. No. of sp

of consum

6. No. of s

of income

total species

7. No. of s

than all ab

species)

Total

. 5.10.1 (a)

matoriums

ig. 5.10.1 (a

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

1 2

pecies used

mable seeds (

species use

for Board o

s)

species used

bove, e.g. m

– (c): Perc

s in differen

a): TEMPL

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C

d as source

(% of total sp

ed directly a

of Trustees

d for purpo

medicinal (%

entage dist

nt use categ

LE SITES

Series

hapter 5: Re

278

pecies)

as source

etc. (% of

oses other

% of total

tribution of

gories.

Fig

s1

esults

0

0

2

(1.72%)

116

f plants of a

. 5.10.1(b):

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

1 2

0

0

0

56

all Hindu t

CREMAT

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0

0

2

(1.63%

123

temples and

TORIUM S

9

Series

%)

d

ITES

s1

Fig. 5.10.

Lgend: 1 5-Vegs.

Table 5

Na

1. F

2.

3.

4. An

5.

6.

7. A

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 (c): USEF

1 – Shade-giviyielding, 6- F

5.10.5: Prev the Hindu

ame of spec

Ficus religi

Mangifera

Opuntia dil

Garcinia nderson. (Ta

Ocimum sa

Saraca Indi

Azadirachta

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

1

C

FUL PLANT

ing, 2 – fencinFruit-bearing

valence of pu beliefs an

cies sustain

iosa Decne.

indica Blum

llenii Haw.(

xanthochymamal)

anctum L. (T

ica L. (Asok

a indica A.

2 3

hapter 5: Re

279

TS IN ALL

ng, 3 – Aesthe7 – Seeds use

plants consnd taboos.

ned as sacre

. ex Miq. (A

me. (Aam)

(Phanimaan

mus Hook

Tulsi)

ke)

Juss. (Neem

4 5 6

esults

L HINDU R

etic beauty, 4-ed 8- Source

sidered sac

ed plant

Aswatha)

nasa)

k. F. & T

m)

7 8

RELIGIOUS

- Offerings e of income o

red or asso

Sit

1, 10, 3267, 68, 1123

9, 11, 2934, 38, 367, 123

30, 32, 4

T. 39

9, 29, 3035, 38, 3

31, 34, 3

11, 30, 3

9

S SITES ST

of Trustees 9

ociated with

te Nos.

2, 36, 53, 117, 118,

9, 30, 31, 39, 44, 49,

49

0, 33, 34, 39, 123

39

32, 34, 38,

Series1

TUDIED

– Others.

h

Chapter 5: Results

280

39, 44, 49, 67, 123

8. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) 10, 32, 34, 44, 67,68 91, 123

9. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bel) 11, 30, 34, 38, 39, 49, 67

10. Ficus benghalensis L. (Bot) 1, 30, 32, 34, 36, 44, 123

11. Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) 11, 34, 44, 49, 91, 123

12. Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) 9, 11, 29, 30, 31, 34, 38, 39, 44, 49, 68

13. Curcuma longa L.(Holud) 30, 49

14. Musa paradisiaca L. (Kola) 11, 30, 33, 37, 38, 49, 67, 123

Note: Green colored site nos. represent Crematorium


Vascular plants No. of Families


No. of species

Pteridophyta 0 0 0

Total 0 0

Gymnosperms 2

Cycadaceae 1 1

Cupressaceae 1 1

Total 2 2

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 8

Amaryllidaceae 1 1

Areaceae 2 2

Cannaceae 1 1

Commelinaceae 1 1

Gramineae 2 2

Chapter 5: Results

281

Liliaceae 1 1

Palmae 5 5

Scitamineae 4 4

Total 17 17

b) Dicot 45

Acanthaceae 2 2

Anacardiaceae 1 1

Anonaceae 3 4

Apocynaceae 7 9

Asclepiadaceae 1 1

Bignoniaceae 1 1

Boraginaceae 1 1

Cactaceae 1 1

Chenopodiaceae 1 1

Combretaceae 2 2

Compositae 7 7

Convolaceae 1 1

Cornaceae 1 1

Crassulaceae 1 1

Cruciferae 1 1

Cucurbitaceae 1 1

Dilleniaceae 1 1


Euphorbiaceae 3 4

Guttiferae 1 1

Labiateae 3 3

Lauraceae 1 2

Leguminosae 11 11

Lythraceae 1 1

Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 2 3

Meliaceae 2 2

Myrtaceae 4 4

Moringaceae 1 1

Nyctaginaceae 2 2

Oleaceae 2 2

Chapter 5: Results

282

Papavaraceae 1 1

Passiflorae 1 1

Rhamnaceae 1 1

Rosaceae 1 1

Rubiaceae 5 5

Rutaceae 3 5

Santalaceae 1 1

Sapindaceae 1 1

Sapotaceae 1 1

Solanaceae 5 5

Sterculiaceae 1 1

Urticaceae 2 4

Verbenaceae 2 2

Violaceae 1 1

Total 94 104

Table 5.10.7: Summary of Plant wealth of Hindu Temples and Crematorium.

Vascular

plants

Families

Genera

Species

Number % Number % Number %

1. Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

2.Gymnosperms 1 1.85 2 1.77 2 1.63

3. Angiosperms 53 98.15 111 98.23 121 98.37

a) Monocot 8 15.09 17 15.32 17 14.05

b) Dicot 45 84.91 94 84.68 104 85.95

Fig.Cre

Fig.

. 5.10.2 : Peematoriums

Legen

. 5.10.3 : Pe

(a) family

ercentage Ds:

d: 1 - Pter

ercentage D

y –wise

C

Distribution

ridophyta

Distribution

(b)

Legend:

1

2

hapter 5: Re

283

n of Vascul

, 2 -Gymn

Fig. 5.10.

n of monoc

) genera-w

Fig. 5.10.

1- monoc

esults

lar plants i

nosperms

.2

cots and dic

wise

.3

cot, 2- dic

1

2

in Hindu T

and 3 - An

cots at Hin

(c) spec

cot.

Temples and

ngiosperm

du religiou

cies-wise

1

2

3

d

ms.

us sites:

1

2

Chapter 5: Results

284

PLATE NO. 5.10.1: Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir (Site No. 24)

Chapter 5: Results

285

PLATE NO. 5.10.2: Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10)

PLATE NO. 5.10.3: Devotees at a Shib Mandir of North Kolkata (Site no. 83)

Chapter 5: Results

286

5.11 UPASANALAYAS OF BRAHMOS

5.11.1. Tenets:

Ram Mohan Roy initiated the Brahmo Sabha (Association of Brahmins) along with

Dwarkanath Tagore in 1828. The objective of this association was to publicize the true

Vedanta which had been corrupted by Buddhist and Brahmanical influences. On 20th day

of August, 1828 the first assembly of the Brahmo Sabha (progenitor of the Brahmo

Samaj) was held at the North Calcutta house of the ‘Feringhee’ Kamal Bose. The Sabha

met every Wednesday at Kamal Bose’s house in Chitpur and later moved to their own

premises at Chitpur Road in 1830 (purchased by the Dwarkanath Tagore). These

meetings were open to all Brahmins and there was no formal organisation or theology as

such. On 8 th January, 1830 influential progressive members of the closely related Kulin

Brahmin clan of Tagore (Thakur) and Roy (Vandopadhyaya), the zameendar families

mutually executed the Trust deed of Brahmo Sabha for the first Adi Brahmo Samaj

(place of worship) on Chitpore Road (now Rabindra Sarani), Kolkata with Pandit Ram

Chandra Vidyabagish as first resident superintendent. On 23rd January 1830 or 11th

Magha, the Adi Brahmo premises were publicly inaugurated (with about 500 Brahmins

and 1 Englishman present). With Rammohun's departure for England in 1830, the affairs

of Brahmo Sabha were effectively managed by Trustees Dwarkanath Tagore and Pandit

Ram Chandra Vidyabagish, with Dwarkanath instructing his ‘diwan’ to manage affairs.

Weekly services were held consonant with the Trust directive, consisting of three

successive parts: recitation of the Vedas by Telugu Brahmins in the closed apartment

exclusively before the Brahmin members of the congregation, reading and exposition of

the Upanishads for the general audience, and singing of hymns. By the time of

Rammohun's death in 1833 near Bristol (UK), attendance at the Sabha declined and the

Telugu Brahmins revived idolatry. The Zameendars, being preoccupied in business, had

little time for affairs of Sabha and flame of the Sabha was almost extinguished. On 6th

October, 1839 Debendranath Tagore, son of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore, established the

Tattwabodhini Sabha. Initially confined to immediate members of the Tagore family, in

two years it diffused over 500 members. In 1840 Debendranath published a Bangla

translation of ‘Katha Upanishad’. On 7th Pous 1765 Shaka (1843) Debendranath Tagore

Chapter 5: Results

287

and twenty other Tattwabodhini stalwarts were formally invited by Pandit Vidyabagish

into the Trust of Brahmo Sabha. From this day forth, the Tattwabodhini Sabha dedicated

itself to promoting Rammohan Roy's creed. In 1859, the most respected and beloved

Secretary of the Tattwabodhini Sabha Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar resigned from the

Brahmo Sabha in the face of Debendranath's vacillation. Hemendranath Tagore, the third

son of Debendranath, then a boy barely 15 years in age, and the favourite pupil of

Vidyasgar, was commonly acclaimed as Debendranath's successor to head the

Tattwabodhini. In the course of time he would have become the Maha Acharya (the Great

Teacher). Disgusted by politics within the Tagore family and the support to K.C.Sen's

faction by his own brother Satyendranath Tagore, Hemendranath took the bold decisions

to expand his Sabha beyond Calcutta. His close associate Pandit Nobin Chandra Roy was

tasked to spread Brahmoism in Upper India and rescue Christian converts to the fold of

the national religion. With a predominantly monotheistic populace following Islam and

Sikhism it was perceived as fertile soil for execution of Rammohun's message. The

Tattwabodhini decreed that the uncorrupted faith of the original 1830 Trust Deed would

be known there as the Adi Dharm to distinguish it from the distorted versions of the

squabbling factions of Calcutta. The steps taken by Hemendranath Tagore was to institute

in 1860 a suit before the Supreme Court to restore the title "Brahmo Samaj" to his

faction. After losing in this suit in 1861, Keshub Sen's faction altered the name of their

Samaj from "The Brahmo Samaj of India" to "Navabidhan (or the New Dispensation)".

With victory in this suit and the promulgation of his Brahmo Anusthan (Code of

Brahmaic doctrine and practice) in 1861, Hemendranath's Samaj-ists are henceforth

known as the "Anusthanic" Brahmos (or Brahmos who follow the Code). The other

factions were designated as "Ananusthanic" Brahmos (or those who do not follow the

Code). On May 5, 2004 the Supreme Court of India, by order of the Chief Justice,

dismissed the Government of West Bengal's 30 year litigation to get Brahmos classified

as Hindus. The matter had previously been heard by an 11 Judge Constitution Bench of

the Court (the second largest bench in the Court's history). As of 2007 the statutory

minimum age for Brahmos to marry is 25(M)/21(F) versus 21(M)/18(F) for Hindus.

The Brahmo religion stands for the following tenets :

Chapter 5: Results

288

Followers shall love Him and do His will and worship the one Absolute

Prambrahma, the Creator, Preserver, Destroyer who is the giver of all good in this

world and the next who is All knowing, All pervading, Formless and Beneficent

Followers shall not adore any created thing, thinking it to be the supreme one

Followers should perform good deeds - and it is through these good deeds one can

serve God

He is the One, alone and Absolute – Ekamevadityam

The Samaj is to be meeting ground for all sects for the worship of the one true

God

No object of worship or a set of men shall be reviled or contemptuously spoken of

or alluded to in any way

No graven image statue or sculpture carving painting picture portrait or the

likeness of anything shall be admitted within

No object animate or inanimate that has been or is or shall become or be

recognised as an object of worship

No sacrifice offering oblation of any kind or thing shall ever be permitted

Promote charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and strengthen the bonds of

union between men of all religions and creed

The book entitled “Manual of Brahmo rituals and devotions” was written by Sitanath

Tattabhusan and was first published in 1924 with its second edition in1971 by the

Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in the year 1971. It contains the procedure to be adopted for

rituals of (i) Deeksha – initiation into Brahmoism (ii) Jatakarma or birth ceremony (iii)

Namkaran & Annaprasana – Naming and Rice giving ceremony to the new born (iv)

Vivaha – Marriage ceremony (v) Badhubaran –Welcoming the newly married bride (vi)

Anteysthi – funeral (vii) Shradha –Requiem.

In all fields of social reform, including abolition of the caste system and of the dowry

system, emancipation of women, and improving the educational system, the Brahmo

Samaj reflected the ideologies of the Bengal Renaissance. It also supported social reform

movements of people not directly attached to the Samaj, such as Pandit Iswar Chandra

Vidyasagar’s movement which promoted widow re-marriage.

Chapter 5: Results

289

5.11.2. Festivals : Brahmos observe the following main festivals amongst others:

Maghotsav: The main festival of Brahmos is celebrated on 11th Magha of each year

according to Bengali calender to mark the anniversary of Brahmo Samaj. The celebration

commemorates the inaugeration of the first Brahmo Sabha by Raja Rammohun Roy on

23rd January 1830, which was the 11th Magha according to the Bengali calender. It is

celebrated by prayers and singing of devotional hymns. In Kolkata, which is now the

main seat of Brahmoism, week long celebrations are carried out in the three principal

Samajes. Traditional Food viz. Khichudi, mixed vegetable and chutney is also provided

and distributed among the poor on this special day of celebration.

Bhadrotsav is another important festival of the Brahmos which commemorates the 6th

Bhadra of 1234 (according to Bengali calender ) or 20th August 1828, the day the first

Brahmo Samaj was opened by Raja Rammohun Roy with Tarachand Chakrabarty as its

first Secretary.

In addition to these festivals, the Samajees observe special days according to the state

that they are in. The Brahmos of Kolkata also celebrate Bengali New Years Day, Birth

and death anniversary of Raja Rammohun Roy, Keshub Chandra Sen, Rabindranath

Tagore, Shivnath Sastri. Besides, Brahmo Sammilani Samaj also celebrates Nabanna or

Harvest festival of Bengal. Keeping with the tradition of universalism the birth

anniversary of Buddha, Jesus Christ are also celebrated by them.

5.11.3. Plants associated with Brahmo religion: There is no document found relating to

association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed by the followers of

Brahmo religion.



1. Site characteristics: Two Brahmo Upasanalayas of Kolkata under study [Table5.11.1

(a)] cover about 3 and 7 cottah (i.e. 200 and 474 Sqm) of area. There are 5-7 regular

residents in one of the Upasanalayas, consisting of 1 ‘Acharya’ (Head of the religious

sect), 2 caretakers and 3-4 orphans and the other had only one caretaker at the time of site

Chapter 5: Results

290

survey. About 15-20 visitors daily assemble in the Upasanalayas for prayers and

discourses while during festivals like Maghotsav and Bhadrotsav, No. of visitors rise to

as high as 500 [Table 5.11.1(b)]. One orphanage having an area of 4000 sq ft “Sadhan

Ashram” is stated to be patronized and maintained by “Sadharan Brahmo Samaj”.

Brahmo Sammilan Samaj also publishes a monthly magazine named “Brahmo Sammilan

Barta” from Kolkata.

2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxonomic analysis of the concerned plants reveals that

the dicots dominate over the monocots, the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 4.67

at the family level, 1 : 3.6 at the genus and 1 : 3 at the species levels [Table 5.11.2(b)].

Furthermore, proportion of genera to species in two study-sites in all was found to be

1:1.043 in comparison to 1:7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4

for West Bengal.

Out of two Brahmo Upasanalayas studied, Brahmo Sammilan Samaj has the maximum

number of species (17 out of 23).

3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian point of view it appears

that majority of the plants recorded i.e., 87.50% are decorative plants which enhance

aesthetic effect of the site. To come next are the fruit-bearing plants which are about

16.67% of the total species. Shade-giving plants constitute 4.16% of total plants [Table

5.11.3]. No plant is particularly found, whose parts (flower, fruit, seed etc.) are utilized

for offering to the deity/God during festivals or decorating the shrine. No plant was also

found getting utilized for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the

premises or utilized as vegetables. Percentage-distribution of plants in each use-category

for each temple garden have also been diagrammatically recorded [Fig.5.11.1(a) to (c)].

Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) is found in plenty in both the temple-

gardens.

(i) 21 out of 24 species are used in the sites to enhance aesthetic beauty. In this regard

mention may be made of Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f.ex Hook.f. (Debdaru),

Allamanda cathartica L., (Allamanda), Holarrhena anidysenterica Wall., Plumeria rubra

L., Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar), Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba),

Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. (Bougainvillea), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam.

Chapter 5: Results

291

(Rangan) Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Seuli) and Cestrum nocturnum Lam. (Hashnahana)

amongst others. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex Hook.f (Debdaru) and

Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) are common to both Upasanalayas.

(ii) There are a total of 4 fruit-bearing plant species viz. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bael),

Mangifera indica Blume (Aam), Psidium guajava L. (Peyara), and Achras sapota L.

(Sabeda), of which first two are found in both the study sites.

(iii) Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) is the only shade-giving species found in both the

sites.


dicotyledonous families having 18 genera and 18 species and 3 monocotyledonous

families having 5 genera and 6 species could be recorded from the two sites. This

composition shows contribution from 78.26% dicots and 21.74% monocots at generic

and 75% dicots and 25% monocots at species level. Neither any Pteridophyte nor any

Gymnosperm could be recorded at any of the sites [Table 5.11.6]. Percentage

distribution of monocots and dicots at family, generic and species levels has also been

diagrammatically documented [Fig.5.11.3 (a) to (c)]

Out of 14 the dicotyledonous families documented, Apocynaceae has the highest number

of genera and species, followed by Myrtaceae.

There are 3 monocotyledonous families, of which Palmae has the highest number of

genera and species.

Chapter 5: Results

292


Sl. No.

Date of visit



1. 02/05/2004 Brahmo Sammilon Samaj

Beng. 1325

1A, Dr. Rajendra Road, Kolkata - 20

3 Cottah

Not available

2. 20/03/2004 Sadharon Brahmo Samaj

1878 21, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata -6

5100 Sq. ft

Arun Kr. Das (President)


Site No.



No. of visiting devotees (approximate)Regular During

festivals

41 Sadharon Brahmo Samaj (Brahmo Mandir)

0 5 - 7 15-20 (On Sundays)

500

48 Brahmo Sammilon Samaj

0 1 100

Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:


Remarks Occur-rence (Site No.)

DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam S, F 48, 41

Anonaceae Polyalthia longifolia Debdaru Or 48, 41

Chapter 5: Results

293

Benth & Hook.f. ex Hook.

f.

Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica L.

Holarrhena

anidysenterica Wall.

Plumeria rubra L.

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd.

Allamonda

Kurchi

Gorurchampa

Tagar

Or

Or

Or, Fl

Fl , Or

48

48

48

48, 41

Geraniaceae Pelargonium hortorum L.

H. Bailey.

Or 48

Leguminoseae Bauhinia parviflora Vahl. Kanchan Or 48

Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Champa Fl, Or 48

Malpighiaceae Hiptage madhablota

Gaertn.

Or 41

Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Or 48


Syzygium malaccense

Merril & Perry

Peyara

Jamrool

F

F

41

48


Heimerl.

Bougainvill

ea

Or 41

Oleaceae Nyctanthes arbortristis L. Seuli Fl, Or 41

Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea Comm. ex.

Lam.

Rangan Or 48

Rutaceae Aegle mamelos Correa. Bel F, Or 48

Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnahana Or 41

MONOCOT

Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum Blanco. Lily Or 41

Araceae Scindapsus aureus Engl.

Gold.


Money plant

Money plant

Or

Or

48

48

Chapter 5: Results

294

Marble queen

Palmae Cocos nucifera L.

Mascarena lagenicaulis

L.H . Bailey

Phoenix roebelinii O’

Brien.

Palm

Palm

Or

Or

Or

48

41

48

Table 5.11.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:




Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.062 1 : 1 1 : 1.043









1 : 3.25 1 : 4 1 : 3


1 : 4.33 1 : 4 1 : 3.6


1 : 5 1 : 4 1 : 4.67


Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam), Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f. ex Hook. f., (Debdaru) and Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar)


Site No. 48

(Brahmo Sammilan Samaj) : Total 17 species

Chapter 5: Results

295

Table 5.11.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:

SITE NO. (48) (41) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)

01 (5.88%)

01 (10%)

01 (4.16%)


0 0

0


15 (88.24%)

08 (80%)

21 (87.50%)


0 0 0


0 0 0

4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruit (% of total species)

03 (17.65%)

02 (20%)

04 (16.67%)


0 0 0


0 0 0


0 0 0

Total 17 10 24

Fig in d

L 5

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

9.11.1 (a) –different us

(a)

(c) All B

Lgends for th-Vegs. yieldin

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

90.00%

1 2

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

–(c): Percense categorie

Site No.48

Brahmo Up

e charts abovng, 6- Fruit-be

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

1 2

C

ntage distres:

pasanalaya s

Fig. 5

ve: 1 – Shade-earing 7 – See

9

Serie

3 4

hapter 5: Re

296

ribution of p

sites: Utilita

5.11.2

-giving, 2 – feeds used 8-

es1

5 6 7

esults

plants of al

(b) S

arian accoun

encing, 3 – Ae Source of in

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

80.00%

1

8 9

ll Upasana

Site No.41

nt of plants

esthetic beautyncome of Trust

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Series1

layas of Br

y, 4- Offeringstees 9 – Othe

9

Seri

rahmos

s ers

ies1

Chapter 5: Results

297


Vascular plants concerned

No. of Families


No. of species

Pteridophyta 0

Total 0 0

Gymnosperms 0 0

Total 0 0

Angiosperms

a) Monocot 3

Amaryllidaceae 1 1

Araceae 1 2

Palmae 3 3

Total 5 6

b) Dicot 14

Anacardiaceae 1 1

Anonaceae 1 1

Apocynaceae 4 4

Caesalpiniaceae 1 1

Geraniaceae 1 1

Magnoliaceae 1 1

Malpighiaceae 1 1

Malvaceae 1 1

Myrtaceae 2 2

Nyctaginaceae 1 1

Oleaceae 1 1

Rubiaceae 1 1

Rutaceae 1 1

Solanaceae 1 1

Total 18 18

Table 5.1

Vascularconcerne

1. Pterid

2.Gymno

3. Angio

a) Mon

b) Dico

Fig 5.11.

L

11.5: Summ

r plants ed

N

dophyta

osperms

osperms

nocot

ot

2: Percent of Brahm

Legend: 1 -

C

mary of Pla

Familie

Number

0

0

17

3

14

age Distribmos:

F

- Ferns , 2

hapter 5: Re

298

ant wealth o

es

(%) Nu

0.00

0.00

100.00

17.65

82.35

bution of V

Fig. 5.11.22 -Gymnos

esults

of Upasana

Genera

umber (

0 0

0 0

23 10

5 2

18 78

ascular pla

2 sperms an

alayas of B

(%) Num

0.00 0

0.00 0

00.00 2

1.74 6

8.26 1

ants in Upa

nd 3 - Ang

1

2

3

Brahmos:

Species

mber (%

0 0.0

0 0.0

24 100

6 25.0

18 75.0

asanalayas

giosperms.

%)

00

00

.00

00

00

Chapter 5: Results

299

Fig. 5.11.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Upasanalayas of Brahmos:


Fig. 5.11.3


Plate No. 5.11.1: A glimpse of one of the Brahmo Upasanalayas

1

2

1

2

1

2

6 : DISCUSSION

6.1. Religion and science

Religion was picked up very judiciously by the wise men of every community in the past

to communicate the message and convey the blessings of science to the common people

of contemporary and future generations. The message mainly has concern with the nature

and her creations which technically meant the ecosystem to which the community

belonged. The then naturalists, more precisely the earth-scientists who through their

dedications could discover many perspectives of the natural phenomena, processes and

activities having pertinence to origin and sustenance of life, nature’s economy and they

could work out ways and means to ensure health and ecological welfare which was rather

difficult and impossible in the initial stages of discovery to convince and elucidate the

general mass. So it was the religion which was realized to be the best and most stable

solvent to dissolve the faith and confidence of men in science. Religious practices,

services, rituals, taboos etc. were formulated for practical application of the knowledge

thus gained. The different religions in course of time induced the sense of gratitude and

salutation to the creator of nature, developed human ethics, social attributes, attitudes and

culture to survive in traditions over generations. Many of the indigenously developed

religions started flourishing through two phases of growth: the dynamic phase of

dispersal to other places and the static phase of dispersion or distribution at other places.

Certain places attracted the followers of different religions and continue to do so to attain

a state of heterogeneity of tenets and philosophies ultimately leading to the state of

secularity and development of a culture of great esteem which has acquired such virtues

to have earned cordial acceptance acquired perpetuality and developed the sense of

tolerance, mutual respect, fraternity and symbiosis. Calcutta, contemporarily Kolkata, in

course of time has turned out to be in true sense of the term a hub of diverse religions

with a synthetic culture and traditions the principal tenet of which is the sense of

humanity. Here the followers of each religion have been preserving their own tenets and

traditions as much as possible and adapting to the local situation and provisions. The

ethics as well as the man-man, man-animal and man-plant relationship developed by each

Chapter 6: Discussion

301

religion are likely to have persisted in the cultural traditions of the followers settled in

Kolkata and get reflected in their activities especially in the places of their religious

activities. Since study of all aspects of direct man-plant relationship is familiar as

‘ethnobotany’ the term has been linked with the title of the present work. Since Calcutta

is a very large city showing signs of the modern life style it is rather not very usual to

find linkage of the term ethnobotany with Calcutta. Since ethnobotany has been growing

fast and is no more restricted to the study of the relationship of the aborigines or the

primitive human communities with plants. Since ethnobotany is in principle concerned

with the study and documentation of the age long relationship of man with plants and the

impact of plants on their history, culture, traditions , knowledge and wisdom it can

justify its relevance to urban situations. Religion for being very conservative is certain to

preserve and exercise certain aspects of its tenets related to man-plant relationship. In

view of this the places of religious activities of no less than 11 religions in Calcutta were

picked up to communicate the ethnobotanical messages remaining so long preserved in

them in the metropolis. The name Calcutta has been retained in the present work as it

seemed to the author to be more expressive than Kolkata about its history, heritage and

global familiarity. The present ethnobotanical document, new of its kind, not only

conveys the religious messages to improve the man-plant relationships and attitude

towards them for optimization of the environment deranged with the heavy load of

pollution, population, health hazards and restlessness. Moreover the present study also

puts into record the contribution of each places of religious activity towards the floristic

scenario of a great city like Calcutta nee Kolkata.

6.2.India-vis-a vis Calcutta: Religious traditions

Parallelism between the diversity in religious traditions of India, a country of great

heritage of antiquity, and that of Calcutta, a city just over 300years of age, is worth

mentioning. India is the country wherefrom four of the world's major religious traditions;

namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism had their origin. Religion has always

been an important part of the country's culture perpetuating through ages maintaining

unity in diversity through religious tolerance are both established in the country by law


302

and custom. A vast majority of Indians associate themselves with a religion. According to

the 2001 Census, Hinduism is the majority religion with 80.5% of the population of

India. Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism

(0.4%) are the other minor religions followed by the people of India. Zoroastrianism and

Judaism also have an ancient history in India and each has several thousand Indian

adherents. India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism and

Bahá'í Faith anywhere in the world. (Smith 2008; Chary,2009). Many other world

religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality.

The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold

the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith (with activities

subject to reasonable restrictions for the sake of morality, law and order, etc.)[Source:

The Constitution of India Art. 25-28] The Constitution of India also declares the right to

freedom of religion as a fundamental right.

The scenario of religious traditions and heterogeneity of population composition brings

Calcutta to such a state of existence so as to reflect India in a miniature form. Calcutta

was established as early as 1690 to function as the administrative centre of the Indian

subcontinent. Calcutta ,the city of talent and passion, officially also called Kolkata, soon

started to be intellectual hub of the country .The mixed Indian and European population

of Calcutta gave rise to a secular outlook which continues even today. The religious

places in the city reaffirm the synthetic religious nature of its residents. It is not

uncommon to see temples and mosques existing collaterally in the same compound. The

present day religious places in Kolkata often reflect the remains of the faith, wisdom and

culture of indigenous origin as well as those brought from near and faraway lands. Truly

like a cosmopolitan city it shows a blend of different religions and reflects socio-cultural

and other perspectives of life including religions and customs. The major religions of the

city are Hinduism (73 %), Muslims (23 %), Christians (2 %) and the rest are Buddhists

and Jains. These values are not far removed from those recorded for India

Kolkata was known as Calcutta up to 2001 but it was changed by West Bengal

Government.


303

6.3.The present contemplation:

The historical, cultural, architectural and botanical aspects of the religious spots in

Kolkata have a vast coverage. This work reveals certain important aspects of the

ethnobotanical implications of the diversified religious practices associated with

Buddhist Monasteries, Churches and Cemeteries, Fire Temples and Tower of Silence of

Zoroastrians, Gurudwaras, Gurudwara of Mona Punjabi, Jain Temples, Mosques and

Burial Grounds, Nirankari Temple, Synagogue, Temples and Burning Ghats of Hindus,

Upasanalayas of Brahmos which have been functioning for more than 50 years within the

metropolitan city of Calcutta. There are some family deities, especially in the Hindu joint

families of north Kolkata which have not been considered in this study. There have been

a few discrepancies in records of historical events, personages and places in the city

which have not caused any hindrance to the fulfillment of the objective of the present

work. However participatory appraisal of the knowledgeable persons involved with the

administration of the monuments, personal interview of the religious heads or persons

performing regularly the rites at the place, have been given much importance although

in some cases their views were found to be restricted to their own limited experiences

lacking exposure to the new vistas of science. The findings of the present work recorded

in Chapter 5 are discussed in the following on a religion wise basis.

6.3.1.Buddhism

Ahimsa / Non violence forms the basic principle of Buddhism. Buddhist temple gardens

are serene, clean, decorated and well maintained. Just as the Sermons of Buddha which

preach for the systematic life style of His followers, decoration and orientation of the

plants in the temple gardens of the monasteries also seem to follow this silent message.

The garden is generally nurtured in the care of the followers or devotees who explicitly

look into the cleanliness and the aesthetic beauty of the open space. This creates a

peaceful ambience with the chanting of prayers and the beating of drums. Regular

weeding, pruning and watering and a touch of care is seen in all the temple gardens with

separate persons engaged for the purpose. Tanaka Bhikshu of Nippon Zan, Myohoji

emphasized that the religion symbolizes enlightenment and purity of mind and heart. Just


304

as Buddha obtained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa Decne.ex Miq.)

and the white lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) growing in unclean water, but keeping

itself pure and spotless, man is also asked to maintain similar purity in this polluted

world. Plants symbolize tolerance and similar values are drawn from plant life to be

inculcated and reflected into human life and nature, such is the interpretations of the

teachings of the Buddha through the religious heads. The author is impressed with the

concept of development of such values in man which forms the basic roots of man-plant

relationship being embedded to mankind through the teachings of the religion. Since the

religion has spread all over the world and climatic conditions do not support the growth

of similar species in the tropics, sub-tropics, and temperate zones, plant species

considered sacred for followers in the Northern parts of the world is not similar to those

in South Asian countries. But plants associated with the birth, enlightenment, life time

activities and death of Buddha are believed strongly to be sacred to Buddhist all over the

world and all sects of Buddhism spread and practiced, in any part of the world stick to the

sacredness of trees in their belief, their values and regular life activities. Nalanda

Bidyabavan has a small garden with few plants thriving in the front open space.

Pragyajyoti Mahasthabir informed that along with regular prayers and the teachings of

Buddha, this autonomous Buddhist organization teaches Pali. According to Acchu, Priest

of Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple, the architectural structures of the monasteries are such

that the tombs and extension of terraces are pointing to the sky which indicates the

vastness of the religion spread to all parts of the world. Even the cemetery tombs with

epitaphs are very differently designed in comparison to tombs of other religious beliefs.

The single Buddhist cemetery visited, has large area of open land almost free from weeds

with a few medium sized shrubs, and covered with green velvety grass. The cemetery has

a high boundary wall and a peaceful atmosphere prevails within. This lone Buddhist

cemetery in the city is adjacent to Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple, which has continuous

flow of devotees specially on occasions, still a lonely place where among the graves

thrive only green grass and to add to the sanctity of the air, flows in the morning and

evening chanting of prayers along with the sonorous beating of drums from the adjacent

Monastery. This burial ground has special significance as it is unique of its kind in


305

Kolkata in respect to architectural designs, greenery, peace and tranquility even in the

busy and noisy metropolis.

6.3.2.Christianity

33 Churches and 6 Cemeteries have been visited and observations intricate to man-plant

relationship in respect to belief, rituals performed and plants thriving in the gardens have

been recorded. Prior to any observations discussed, it is to be noted that all chapels,

churches, missions and cemeteries had acquired large areas in respect to construction of

monuments with adjacent open spaces on all sides, in the most sophisticated areas, in the

heart of the city.

This may be interpreted in terms of the long British rule from 1757 to the middle of the

20th century when the East India Company consolidated its position at Calcutta. A

“white” township flourished at Calcutta and the city derived its very special flavor of

unrestrained opulence, indolence and a certain genteel culture of the Bengali gentry. The

rule was initially under a Governor General, first of whom was Warren Hastings in 1772,

followed by other illustrious administrators. Gracious mansions, churches, chapels and

missions sprang up during this period along with the splendor of its gardens.

Most churches and cemeteries studied express the artistic excellence of British architects

who were deeply influenced by the Renaissance and Palladian styles of Rome and north

Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Luxurious gardens thrive in almost all the church

premises visited, mostly ornamental plants and a few shade bearing trees dot the small to

large gardens of the churches. To the north of the intersection of a busy crossing in the

heart of the city is St. John’s Church. Its distinction lies in its graceful architecture,

modeled by Lt. James Agg and its grounds bear numerous monuments relevant to the

history of the city. The shady mango tree Mangifera indica Blume. and the decorative

dicotyledonous shrubs holding the identity cards of Tecoma gaudichaudi DC., Bauhinia

acuminata Bruce., Codiaeum variegatum Blume. cv. Fire, Hibiscus schizopetalus

Hook.f., Malvaviscus arboreus Cav., Gardenia florida L., Ixora coccinea Comm.ex

Lam., Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum.& Thonn. var rosea and monocotyledonous

Heliconia humilis Jacq. and the gymnosperm Thuja odorata Doi. beautify the garden

and to the south, the spire of St. John’s, made of Chunar sandstone, rises in front. The


306

church holds Sunday regular services and the congregation is mainly Indian, but

relatively thin, as most residential areas are at somewhat of a distance.

The Church of Holy Nazareth (originally made of wood in that location) was built in

1707. This got burnt down after some years and was re-built in brick and mortar in 1724.

In the hustle and bustle of the Old China Bazar Street, the church is like an oasis of

peace. There are several old mango (Mangifera indica Blume.) and jamun trees

(Syzygium cumini Skeels.) in the compound and a large number of graves with ornate

tomb-stones. Many of the inscriptions are in Cyrillic and therefore cannot be easily read.

An inscription in English reads the tomb of Rezabeebeh, wife of late Charitable Sookias

who departed from this world on 11th July 1630 AD. Mr Haik Sookias, Chairman, spoke

on behalf of the Church Committee that if this date is true then this is the oldest Christian

grave in Kolkata. It could otherwise be that Rezabeebeh died elsewhere and was

subsequently re-interred here. Portraits and photographs of Armenian gentry and more

details about the community, crowd the walls of the church.

Set in a small compound , the Cathedral of the Holy Rosary, was the first Catholic place

of worship in Calcutta, having being set up in 1747. Fr. Sunil Rosario guided the present

author around the Church. Interestingly, nearly thirty wooden panels made from wood of

Shorea robusta A.DC. depicting the various stages of the Passion of Christ and stages of

the Cross, grace the walls of the chapel. These do bear spending a little time to appreciate

the devotion and artistry built into the panels. There is another beautiful freestanding

wooden statuary made from wood of Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. of Mary bringing Jesus

down from the Cross.

At the base of Sealdah fly-over, and past few shops of Boitakhana bazar, is the Church of

Our Lady of Dolours. It was established in 1809 for the indigent Catholic community of

that area, especially the Goan and other native Catholics. It is a simple yet imposing

structure, with flat Doric pillars. The garden sustains 25 species of vascular plants taken

care by a gardener. Of the 25 species, 19 are of dicotyledons, 5 of monocotyledons and 1

of gymnosperms. There is regular Sunday service and Mass.

The St Paul’s Cathedral is set within huge grounds bounded by a 6ft boundary wall with a

large number of ancient trees. One interesting tree is that of Pithecolobium dulce Benth.

which is found here and only in another cemetery.


307

As many as 92 species of plants are sustained in Oxford Mission, which is on 63 bigha of

land with 4 water bodies. The estate manager David Mondal guided the author to Ananta

Makal, the Head gardener of the Mission. A few fruit yielding plants have been detected

here which are not commonly found, at least not found in any of the Christian sites

studied. These are Anacardium occidentale L., Alangium lamarckii Thw., Carissa

carandas L., Grewia asiatica L. , Litchi chinensis Sonner. and Agave americana L.

Another tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume,the bark of which is used as condiment

could be detected at this site. The Mission has its garden on either side of Diamond

Harbor Road and the Mission has also an orphanage in the premises. Of all Christian sites

studied, Oxford Mission sustains the highest number of plant species.

The Christian Cemeteries have extensive grounds, with a few stately trees. Almost all the

cemeteries have boundary walls and well maintained premises. The noteworthy feature is

that most of the cemeteries have vegetation composed by seasonal flowers or small

flowering herbaceous plants which bloom colorfully around the graves. Numerous people

visit the cemeteries either for burial or to offer prayers, flowers and fragrant fumes from

incense sticks to the departed souls of their loved ones. It becomes evident from this, that

the way of showing respect even in death is through offering of flowers. This is an

expression of the direct relationship that a Christian maintains with plants in different

events of his life including death. Mr. D. R. Bose, Addl. Secretary, Christian Burial

Board also informed that relatives of some of the dead, make regular payments to the

gardeners, to keep clean and make the area weed free and also to plant small flowering

plants around the grave of their loved ones. In general, the cemeteries are well looked

after as far as gardening is concerned. Removal of weeds, planting and caring of

ornamental herbs and shrubs come under the regular work of the gardeners engaged in

the cemeteries. A few stone pamphlets with carvings on them speak of noble men and

their gallant deeds with a tear of remembrance laced with flowers around the cenotaphs.

It is observed that large number of species, viz. Celosia cristata L., Vinca rosea L.,

Quisqualis indica Blanco., Wedelia calendulacea Less., Sida cordifolia Forsk., Jasminum

pubescens Buch.-Ham. Ex Wall., Lantana camara L., Crinum asiaticum Blanco., Canna

glauca L. var angusta, Tagetes patula L. ornament and thrive lustrously among the

mortal remains of the departed souls. Among the shade giving trees Mangifera indica


308

Blume., Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don,, Cassia fistula Herbb. ex Oliver., Azadirachta

indica A.Juss. and ornamentals like Polyalthia longifolia Benth.& Hook.f.ex Hook.f.,

Acalypha indica L., Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch., Lagerstroemia speciosa

Pers. deserve mention. Even in eternal abode man contributes as biomass to the soil on

which thrive plants having specific utility. Each and every cemetery is kept silent and

somber and every step forward enthralls the visitor with the spirit of the dead, that creeps

between the lush green grass and embraces the breeze, that whispers to the leaves

swaying them to frequently nod to establish their invisible presence. Almost all the

cemeteries have network of pathways and branches there from which meander to reach

the graves. The Bhowanipur Cemetery has a separate enclosure to preserve the mortal

remains of the immortal soldiers of the World War II. The Park Street Cemetery, which

opened in 1767 and closed in 1790, does not presently allow any burial. Here the graves

are marked by obelisks of varying heights and sizes, or by domes or by simple caskets or

tablets. The notable grave is that of Maj. Gen. Sir Charles Stuart (1758-1828) in the form

of a small Hindu temple in black granite, with a “shikhara” and lotus motif. Recently it

has been reported that Parthenium hysterophorus L. is causing menace in Tollygunge

Cemetery and even uprooting and burning the whole plant have failed to control the

growth of the weed.

Numerous acres of cemetery land remain in the heart of the city of Kolkata thus

contributing open space, which would never get encroached by realtors and continue to

give the same soothing ambience to the locality for centuries to come. The cemeteries

which sleep in silence and in fond remembrance, have substantial environmental

contribution even in the busiest areas of the city.

6.3.3. Zoroastrians

An early British trading post in Western India was Surat. The Parsees migrated from

Persia and soon made familiarity with the British business in Surat, which made it

possible for them to grow rapidly into a major commercial force. Henceforth they moved

in good number from Surat to Kolkata to locate new avenues in trading. If industry

coupled with enterprise is a virtue, then the Parsees settlers in Kolkata had a surfeit of it.

They traded in shipping, textiles, jute, confectioneries and in broking trades of all sorts.

Mr. Medora of Calcutta Zoroastrian Community and Religious Charity Fund informed


309

the present author that the early Parsee immigrants to India mainly for trade, had

committed to the then Hindu King Judo for permission to trading only and not to spread

their religion. As such no Fire Temple in India allows the entry of devotees from other

religious beliefs, whereas Fire Temples all over the world do not observe such

obligations.

The Zoroastrians of Kolkata visit the Fire Temple of Metcalfe Street to offer prayers. The

other temple at Ezra Street is abandoned and presently entrance is forbidden. For just a

visit to the Tower of Silence (a place for disposal of dead bodies for feed to scavenger

birds) one has to seek written permission from Calcutta Zoroastrian Community and

Religious Charity Fund. Mr. Shorab Cotwal, Panthaki / Head Priest of Fire Temple

“Atash & Adaran”, was cordial and shared every information needed by the present

author. Although the temple location is in one of the busiest commercial parts of the city

and there is no garden within the temple premises but the construction of the temple is

architecturally interesting with ironic pillars in front and a wide arch on the front facade.

The main entrance has concrete flooring and the sides are lined with potted plants. There

is a shrub Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. at the corner of the entrance and further

inside a tree Azadirachta indica A.Juss. and a palm Latania lontaroides (Geartn.). The

potted plants are well maintained and these plants require less of watering. The Head

Priest confirms that he himself looked after the plants and the temple is visited by 3-4

persons daily. Since the number of Parsees in Kolkata has considerably decreased, with

the present number being 750, marriage occasions and death rituals are seldom. He

further adds that Fire symbolizes “Purity” and it is in constant burning with a liberal

supply of wood on the first floor of the temple. A supplier is engaged to supply this

firewood 3 times a year and the wood is preserved with special care. Earlier it was

obligatory to burn Sandal wood (Santalum album L.) but with times such a ritual has

changed. As a non-Parsee the author was not allowed upstairs to see the burning fire. All

flowers are considered auspicious but special emphasis was given on Rose (Rosa sp.)

which is considered sacred, informed the Priest. Clean, well maintained temple premise,

with no garden but still an attachment to greenery in the form of potted plants is an

overall idea developed during visit to this single accessible Fire Temple of the city.


310

With high boundary walls on Beliaghata Main Road is the Tower of Silence “Adash &

Adaran” enclosing an area of 45 acres. In-Charge Mr. Balsara and the gardener Ranjan

Sawal, guided the author within the huge compound. Wide roads (for the convenience of

the Paul bearers or ‘Kamdar’ as they are called) lead to the main area where the corpse

are carried and laid for feeding birds. This core area is again within a high boundary wall

and no one except ‘Kamdars” are allowed in. Above the wall could be seen waving of

branches of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. The long and huge height attaining trees are

sustained here, may be to attract birds. The author was informed about tiers of flat

concrete within this boundary so as to place the dead bodies. The leftovers of the corpse

after feed of the birds is collected once a year by specialized cleaners who flew to the city

from Mumbai and these bones etc are buried in the garden compound. The garden

sustains large number of shade giving trees having huge canopy, e.g. Mangifera indica

Blume., Bombax malabaricum DC., Saraca indica L., Tamarindus indica L., Azadirachta

indica A.Juss., Acacia arabica Willd., Albizzia lebbek Benth, Ficus benghalensis L., F.

religiosa Decne.ex Miq., Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. and Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.

and shrubs with abundant flowering and fruiting,viz. Allamanda neriifolia Hook.,

Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd., Thevetia peruviana K.Schum, Euphorbia

pulcherrima Willd.exKlotzsch., Psidium guayava L., Carica papaya L., Ixora coccinea

Comm ex.Lam. and Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum.& Thonn. More or less clean

garden with good spacing between trees was the observation. A planned and well

maintained garden with never a cluster of many trees and shrubs at one place was seen.

The gardener said that the trees house good number of birds and one can hear their

incessant chirping in the evenings. A few stone pamphlets with epitaphs are also seen

under the shades of trees. These noble men had expired away from homeland and their

mortal remains in the form of ashes were brought and buried here. These epitaphs,

exhorted the author to pause and ponder for a while. The huge area, its absolute silence

except for the sound of falling of leaves, resourceful vegetation, the home of scavenger

birds capture the essence of energy transformations in biological cycles and the scientific

rationale behind such humble sacrifice of self in death, which this religion believes and

sermonizes.


311

6.3.4. Sikhism

Sikhism is the youngest religion of the world. Like any other religion it conveys the

message of love, peace, social harmony and tolerance. The first Sikh Guru Nanak states

in the the Guru Granth Sahib, - about vegetation, and described it as living and expressed

with pain : “Look, and see how the sugar-cane is cut down. After cutting away its

branches, its feet are bound together in bundles, and then placed between the wooden

rollers and crushed. What punishment is inflicted upon it ! Its juice is extracted and

placed in the cauldron, as it is heated, it groans and cries out. And then the crushed cane

is collected and burnt in fire below.” Simile is drawn between the sugar cane (Saccharum

officinarum L.) and human life experiencing pain. By this Nanak, emphasizes how much

of pain is tolerated by the cane to extract sugar from it. He has asked his disciples to be

ready to bear the same amount of pain to extract their goodness for the benefit of the

human society. Guru Nanak’s love for nature and His contributions in the Guru Granth

Sahib, create the link of man to plants which when realized, and its significance

embedded as values within, take one to sublime heights.

Out of the 6 Gurdwaras visited, Gurdwara Bari Sikh Sangat is the oldest, biggest and

historically most important. Located in a very congested area of Barabazar (the main

trading centre), the Sangat is a six storied building without any garden and not even a

potted plant is seen. A very amicable religious associate Sampoorna Singhji offered

“kara prasad” (halwa) and spoke in praise of Guru Nanakji and Guru Tegh Bahadur

Sahibji who visited the Gurudwara in 1510 A.D and 1668 A.D. The other 5 Gurdwaras

visited, only Gurudwara Garcha Sikh Sangat had a few potted plants all of which are

tropical garden plants. There is no gardener to maintain the plants but staff of an adjacent

garage take care to water the pots, informed Pujari Nabdeep Singhji. The main object of

sustaining these plants is for the beautification of the Sangat. There is some open space in

the gateway of this Gurdwara but as such there is no option for maintaining a garden

here, since a vehicle servicing garage almost merges with the premises of the Gurdwara

and vehicles move in and out though the same gate as used by the Shrine. The religious

heads of Gurdwaras informed that there is no such obligation of offering flowers to the

Guru Granth Sahib. They accept the fact that due to lack of space, no garden could be

maintained within the Gurdwaras in Kolkata but Gurdwaras in other cities do have


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gardens. All the Gurdwaras have covered open areas for serving food to the devotees

which is called “langar”. Worship is mainly in the form of “kirtans” and “bachan” or the

continuous reading of the Guru Granth Sahib “akhandpath” which take a time of 3 days.

Gurdwaras are guarded and use of any form of intoxicants within the premises is strictly

forbidden. Head Granthi Jasbir Singh of Gurdwara Jagat Sudha spoke of Sikh Gurus who

thought of aspects of environmental degradation as early as the 17 century. Head Granthi

Nabdeep Singh of Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat spoke of intolerance, hated and

terrorism in today’s world and conveyed that peace, social harmony and toleration among

different communities can be maintained by Guru’s message to retain peace of mind

through prayer in everyday life. Tejinder Singh, Pujari of Behala Gurudwara spoke of the

martyrdom of Sri Guru Arjan Devji, who had completed the construction of Sri

Harminder Sahib (Golden Temple, Amritsar) and contributed 2218 hymns in 30 Ragas in

the Guru Granth Sahib. Since Sri Guru Arjan Devji embraced martyrdom in the hands of

medieval barbarism and state tyranny, he stands to be the symbol of tolerance to all Sikhs

and his message of forbearance and his hymns in praise of God is conveyed and practiced

in everyday life.

6.3.5. Ravidssia

Located in the tannery area of Tiljala, Guru Ravidas Temple locally known as the temple

of the Dalits, is the single temple in Kolkata established by the followers of Guru

Ravidass in 1939. This is a combination of Mandir and Gurdwara, since idols or murtis of

Guru Ravidass as well as Guru Granth Sahib are worshipped together. Under the

management of Adi Dharm Seva Samity with Surjit Pal as the President and Chiranjit

Singh as Secretary, those practicing this religion Ravidassia, call themselves Mona

Punjabis. The phrase ‘beauty in simplicity’ is applicable to this temple. Clean premises

and well maintained garden with few trees spaciously planted is the mark of this little

known religious landmark. A few trees are either shade giving or fruit yielding or both.

Mangifera indica Blume., Achras sapota L. and Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. are both

shade giving and fruit yielding. Most are ornamentals,viz. Polyalthia longifolia Benth. &

Hook f.ex Hook.f. present in large numbers, Nerium odorum Soland., Xylia dolabriformis

Benth., Gardenia grandiflora Lour., Ixora coccinea Comm.ex.Lam. and Mussaenda


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frondosa Blanco. In the absence of Pujari, Rohit Ram, a member of the Adi Dharm

Samity, sitting in the temple premises was spoken to later joined in Surjit Pal, President

of the Samity. The informants confirmed that regular devotees to the temple counts to 20

– 25 while the number shoots to 1000 on Maghi Purnima, on the birth date of Guru

Ravidass. Mostly trees and flowering shrubs are seen in the temple garden. Unlike

Hindus, no practice of offering flowers to the Shrine and Guru Granth Sahib is retained,

in the same adornment as the Sikhs at the central hall of worship of the temple. Plain

cemented floors, well ventilated temple premise and airy garden are the special points to

be mentioned about this temple site. The religion preaches the Bani and teachings of

Satguru Ravidassji which advocates respect to all religions, to love mankind and to lead a

virtuous life.

6.3.6. Jainism

Jains are strictly vegetarians for their adherence to the practice of non-violence and motto

of peaceful co-operative co-existence. Certain trees have been associated with the

achievement of absolute knowledge (kevalgyan) of Jain Tirthankars. Under these trees

the Tirthankars have obtained Enlightenment and they are considered sacred in Jainism

but the trees themselves do not have any part in assisting of facilitating in achievement of

Kevalgyan.

Named after the 23rd Tirthankar, the Parsanath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir is set away

from Belgachia Road, on the eastern side of the city’s northern five point junction –

Shyambazar. The temple construction in sand-mortar has considerable stucco work,

depicting trees and motifs of flowers, fruits and designs. The plan map of the temple was

prepared by Mr. Brown – the architect of Victoria Memorial and the architecture almost

replicates the intricate work of Dilwara temple of Mount Abu. As the name suggests, the

temple is to be within a miniature forest and it has a fairly large and laid-out compound,

and a knowledgeable gardener Sasanka Shekhar Majumder. The present author visited

the temple in a summer afternoon and found water sprinklers in use for the trimmed grass

lawns. A not so commonly growing plant Anacardium occidentale L., a well cared plant

Ocimum sanctum L., a drought tolerant plant Cassia fistula Herbb.ex Oliver. and such

sacred plants as Anthocephalus cadamba Miq., Mimusops elengi Boj. and Mangifera

indica Blume. were found sustained in the temple garden. A resourceful vegetation


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thrives in the garden of Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple, of which two-third are

ornamental, planted for the aesthetic pleasure of the devotees and tourists. Flowers

which are procured from the temple garden for use in puja / arti etc. include the names of

Jasminum sambac Soland., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Rosa centifolia L., Gardenia

florida L., and Murraya exotica Blanco. most of which are with white colored flowers

since they consider white to be auspicious and Jain priests and devotees are essentially

clad in white. The phrase that perfectly matches with this temple is “Cleanliness is next to

Godliness”. Here in a pious environment, the nurtured green grassy gardens with a

number of fountains, gets rejuvenated.

Almost all the plants thriving in the other four Jain temples, all located at Badridas

Temple Street, are of ornamental category. The Parsanath Digambar Jain temple, as the

name suggests, is of the Digambar sect while the other four temples are of the Swetambar

sect. Most decorated of these and one of the tourist attractions of Kolkata is Swetambar

Jain Temple which is set on a high plinth and has intricate carvings on the pillars and

gateways. The interior partitions are filigree work in sand-mortar. The compound is large

with a number of elegant statues. Shrubs dominate over trees in this temple garden.

Several genera of ferns and palm find prominent positions. A very decorative temple

garden with ground rooted as well as potted plants attracts visitors enormously. Duranta

plumierii Jacq. is systematically planted to separate the garden from the pathways. A

perfect watering system also exists with numerous outlets for proper care and

maintenance of plants. Trees considered sacred by Jains found in the premises are

Anthocephalus chinensis Lam., Artabotrys odoratissimum R.Br., and Mangifera indica

Blume. under which Tirthankars were Enlightened or were venues for sermons.

The Jain temples have a low percentage of consumable fruit yielding plants in their

gardens. A noteworthy conservational feature is that, none of the temples sustain plants

which are used as consumable vegetables and seeds, since people of this faith consider

seed as the first stage of life where sleeps the dormant embryo. A religion so pro-life,

with eco-friendly virtues, preaching non-violence is the need of the hour, not only for

environmental issues and conservational aspects but also in social perspectives.


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6.3.7. Islam

The Muslims have a major influence on the social, religious and cultural life of Kolkata

and due to a large Muslim population in the city, Islamic culture has crept silently into

almost all aspects of Kolkata’s life. Delectable from “moghlai” cuisine to aspects of

application of “mehendi” to hair, hands and feet, that the average Kolkatan can nowadays

hardly do without this. Muslims had been long living in Kolkata but their numbers

notably increased after 1806 with the decapitation of Tipu Sultan when the Sultan family

moved from South India to live permanently in Tollygunge area of South Kolkata. The

Shahi Masjid (site no.96) was the resting place of Wajed Ali Shah, the last Nawab of

Oudh, after he was ousted from the throne in 1855 by the British in a bloodless coup.

Lucknow was transplanted in the Watgunge and Metiaburz areas of south west Kolkata.

Mosques, masjids and mazhars for Muslim saints came up in great numbers during this

period. In the present study, 17 mosques and 10 burial grounds have been visited from

where the man-plant relationship has been documented from such aspects as religious

belief, worship, culture and taboos. The masjids and burial grounds are administered

under various Waqf Estates with the Matowale as the head of the Estate. Of these, the

Tipu Sultan Waqf Estate is noteworthy where the Matowale, Anwar Ali Shah is the 7th

generation after Tipu Sultan. In a close interview, Mr. Shah spoke of his legacy, of the

pending litigations of the Waqf Estate in High Court as well as Supreme Court, the fund

crunch for these legal battles and also the maintenance of the Gulam Mohammad Mosque

at Tollygunge. A large 9 bigha land, in the heart of the city houses the Gulam

Mohammad Mosque with 4 bigha of garden, 2.5 bigha of water body and the rest

impenetrable low marshy waste land. Maximum number of plant species is sustained in

this mosque garden. Large number of mango trees Mangifera indica Blume. still thrive

herein, which have been planted ages back and Mr. Shah has heard from his grandfather

that at one time, gallons of ‘attar’ used to be brought in trucks from Lucknow, to spray

on inflorescence during the flowering season of mango, to get the desired flavor out of

the fruit. This gives just a glimpse of the man-plant relationship in Nawab culture.

Recently mahogany trees Swietenia mahagoni L. is being cultivated along the southern

boundary of the Mosque, for the plants economic value to be utilized for maintenance of

the Masjid. Arshad Ali, the gardener informed the present author that the inflorescence


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of Mangifera indica Blume. is collected by local ‘moulovis’ to dry them and give to

devotees for cure of diarrhea and chronic dysentery. In the similar way, flowers of

Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. are collected for use as medicine against skin

diseases. It is observed here that these ‘moulovis’ apply their traditional knowledge of

plant use, to cure to certain diseases even in today’s context in urban Kolkata. An Imam,

a Mohzin (a person who calls for prayer), 2 gardeners and 2 security persons are

employed but the number is inadequate in respect of the large number of devotees, the

large garden and the work load in cleaning and maintaining of the whole area, admits Mr.

Shah. In spite of all limitations this religious landmark holds unique features of man-plant

relationship laced with beauty of ornamental plants.

Under the same Waft Estate is the Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid, built of brick and sand-lime

mortar, with closely spaced combination of domes and minarets, typical of Islamic

architecture. Here the author met Moulana Al-Haaj Quari S.M. Noorur Rahaman

Barkati, The Shahi Imam of Kolkata, through prior appointment. As many as 4000

namaji can read Namaj at one time in this Masjid. There is no garden here but exist two

very old trees: one Mangifera indica Blume. which is about 70 years old and the other 50

years old Eugenia malaccense L.. Shahi Imam confirmed that no flowers are offered in

worship or placed in the Mazar. More than 2000 devotees visit this shrine on occasions of

Id-Ul-Fitre, Id-Ud-Zoha and Milad-un-Nabi.

By the time the minarets of the Nakhoda Mosque loom into view it becomes conspicuous

that the color of the minarets is bright green, which is in similar concept with the tombs

of Madina where it is said that Nabi loved this color. Nakhoda is the largest mosque in

Kolkata built in 1942 (according to some records 1925) since it can hold the largest

congregation. The entire area is cemented with a few potted plants at the entrance. Shops

around Nakhoda Mosque specialize in “attar”, which are made mainly from essence of

flowers of rose (Rosa sp.) and jasmine (Jasminum sp.). In some of the Mosques, data

could not be recorded initially by the present author for being a woman. Moreover the

religious restrictions and sentiments had to be respected but knowledgeable persons of

the faith helped the present author to overcome most of these difficulties.

Out of 10 burial grounds, 6 dot the city on the south-western fringes, one centrally, one in

the north and two in the eastern part of the city. Most of the burial grounds occupy large


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areas and are rich in vegetation. The burial grounds in the south- western part of the city

have large trees like Mangifera indica Blume., Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don.Hort.ex

Steud, Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. of the dicotyledonous

families and Borassus flabellifer L., Cocos nucifera L., Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. of

Palmae and are also weed infested by Parthenium hysterophorus L., whereas those in the

other parts of the city are well maintained, with regular operations of weeding and

cleaning. A squeeze past electric shops, idle rickshaw pullers and honking vehicles, take

one to the gates of Bagmari burial ground (Site No.87), quite hidden by the small trading

outlets which line the boundary wall on the side of Bagmari Road, one is unaware of the

152 bigha of burial grounds behind the line of shops. Mimusops elengi L. is the

dominating species in this Burial Ground, the huge canopy of the tree castes a dark shade

to the ground where the departed souls rest in peace. The Sub-registrar Dr. Kamrup Jamal

informed that out of 42 staff, 9-10 persons are engaged to look after the garden. About 4-

5 burials are registered per day and more than 100 people come regularly accompanied

with the deceased. He further informed that there are lakhs of visitors from all religious

beliefs on the day of Sabebarat. There is also a small masjid within this compound. The

Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan (Site No. 89) has demarcating pathways that lead to the

graves, a clean and well organized garden and shaded sitting arrangement, grave diggers

and officials for help which collectively make the environment very conducive for those

who come for burial of a family or community member. Adjacent to this is the Gore

Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan which does not have any green living entity.

6.3.8. Nirankari

Nirankari as the name suggests is the believer of the God as a spirit lacking bodily form.

It is mainly the outcome of a reformist movement of Sikhism which has a single temple

in Kolkata under the Sant Nirankari Mission. The Mission identifies itself as an ardent

participant of an all embracing movement dedicated to human welfare which is truest in

its sense as is observed in the Nirankari Temple of Kolkata. Daily ‘kirtan’ and

‘prabachan’ by the devotees and a large garden form the main feature of this temple.

Ornamental, shade giving, flower and fruit yielding species are mainly sustained in the

large garden and Albizzia lebbek Benth. is found to be the dominating species in this


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temple garden. Within the garden large plots of land were seen getting prepared for

cultivation with a lot of people engaged in the work. Arjun Singh, the Zonal in-charge of

Kolkata Mission informed that there were a number of projects to be undertaken by the

Mission for human welfare. Of these projects, to the present author, the most remarkable

was the cultivation of medicinal plants. This incidentally is the most important feature of

an optimum man-plant relationship maintained and executed through their missionary

activities for welfare of human life. They have also specified certain areas in the garden

where they plan to cultivate antidiabetic medicinal plants. The Nirankaris thus possess

outstanding virtues for improving human life through their religion.

6.3.9. Judaism

The entry of Jews in Kolkata took place sometime in 1790’s and the community grew in

numbers going into real estate businesses. Expansion of medical facilities in Kolkata is

one of their notable contributions. However, most immigrated to Israel since 1948 and

the present Jewish population in Kolkata is less than 35. Maghen David Synagogue was

set up in 1884, made of red brick, the spire of the synagogue rises nearly four storey.

Typical Venetian style arched windows with colored glass lend grace to the structure.

This is normally open on Saturdays, the Jewish Sabbath and on Jewish festival days.

There is a large compound wall to demarcate the monument from other commercial

establishments of the area. A brick paved pathway runs around the building parallel to the

compound wall. Trees sustain on all four sides of the Synagogue in between the

pathway and compound wall. The building and open space together measure 18886 sq.ft.

Only few plant varieties are sustained, of them considerable number of

monocotyledonous plants have been observed namely, Aloe abyssinica Lam., Yucca

aloifolia L., Ravenala madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. and Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. A

short distance, on the other side of the road is the Beth-el Synagogue in off-white sand-

lime plaster. A marble tablet on the left of the entrance mentions that it was set up to the

memory of David Joseph Ezra and Ezakiel Judah in the year AM 5616. The monument

is of a comparatively smaller size than Magen David Synagogue, measuring about

1300sq.ft but still houses a few plants including Palm Bentinckia nicobarica Becc..This

palm is common to both the Synagogues. Two shade giving trees are common to both the


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monuments Mangifera indica Blume. and Azadirachta indica Juss. Two commonly

occurring fruit yielding varieties Carica papaya L. and Citrus decumana L. sustain in

both places. Together with the Maghen David this is used for prayer on alternate

Saturdays, between 5.30 am and 8 am. The other Mevi Shalon Syanagogue is abandoned,

and no prayer services are organized there. The Jewish Cemetery is located at

Narkeldanga Main Road and is always closed during day time, since the lone Jewish

resident of the Cemetery, Shalome Israel is away during day for more obvious purpose.

He cares for the graves and also the two dozen Jewish elders still living in the city and

shall perform their last rites when they die.

6.3.10. Hinduism

27 places of worship in form of Temples, Maths (Moths) and Missions, 6 burning-ghats

and 1 burial ground has been studied, of which Kalighat is considered to be especially

holy as it is commonly held to be a “pitha-sthan”. According to common belief, here fell

the toe of Sati (a manifestation of the goddess Kali), when her dead body was being

carried (after the “Dakshya Yagna”) by her husband, Siva, in his “tandava” phase and

Vishnudeva with his “Sudarshan Chakra” cut into pieces of the dead body of Sati to calm

down Shiva.. The Kalighat temple was built with the donation made on the occasion of

the funeral of Churamoni Dutta by his son, Kaliprasad Dutta in 1799. The temple was

constructed in an “ath-chala” style (typical of rural Bengal) in 1800. It is about 30 feet in

height. The sanctum, where the Goddess stands on the prostate Siva, is surrounded by a

raised veranda. In front is the pavilion or “nat-mandir”. The temple compound with a

water body, associated land, dharamsalas, living accommodation for sevaits with family,

large number of kiosks for sale of puja offering, eateries, Nakuleshwar Temple, all

leading roads to the temple, totally covers almost 595 bigha of land. Except for two

species of Ficus at the corner of the water body, no garden whatsoever exists. The entire

area is a crowd of devotees, sevaits, shopkeepers, security men and people seeking for

alms etc. Thousands of red china-rose (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) garlands are offered to

the deity regularly but all procured from outside. On the western side runs the Adi Ganga,

a heavily silted and highly polluted tributary of the river Hooghly but even 50 years ago

was subject to daily ebb and tide from the distant Bay of Bengal.


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Gopal Mandir in Tollygunge was built by Peary Das Mondal in 1847. Gopalji – is also a

manifestation of Krishna and along with this temple is a consort of 12 Siva temples. A

large area of 10.5 bigha adjacent to the temple is in the name of the Deity, known as

“debottor” which enjoys certain privilages under the Land Revenue Act and such land

cannot be sold or purchased. The entire area is a grassy play ground utilized by local

boys, no garden exists at all. On the Adi Ganga side there is sacred tree variety, Garcinia

xanthochymus Hook.f.& T. Anderson. (3 in number), this sapling was brought in from

Vrindavan informed Amitava Mondal, Secretary, Sri Sri Gopaljiu & Sri Sri

Sambhunathjiu ShivThakur Debottor Estate. A garden of Ocimum sanctumL. adjacent to

this, which is said to be, was a much larger garden but due to soil erosion, a portion of the

garden of this sacred plant has caved into the Adi Ganga several years back. Further

down the Adi Ganga could be seen ruins of still extant (non-functional) cubicles where

even at the turn of the twentieth century, aged persons were dispatched on the ‘antar-jali

jatra” to death and rebirth.

For Hindu religious places, it has been observed that more of vegetation was found in the

Moths and Sanghas built by Hindu religious sects compared to the vegetation that thrives

in Temple premises. The Mahanirban Math is one such which sustains maximum number

of plant species among the Hindu sites. The rare species found here are namely Santalum

album L., Cinnamomum tamala T.Nees & Eberm., Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.,

Terinalia chebula Retz.,and Couroupita guianensis Aubl. which is said to be more than

100 years old. With 100 bigha of land in the heart of South Calcutta, the Math has regular

a thousand visitors. Flowers offered to the Deity are not purchased from the market but

are acquired from the garden, the plants from which such offerings are procured are

Gardenia florida L., Clitoria ternatea L., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Hibiscus mutabilis

L. and Tagetes patula L..

Ram Thakur Ashram located at Jadavpur has a beautiful well maintained garden. 47

vascular plant species thrive in the 1.5 bigha of land under the ashram. The resourceful

garden sustains a few plant species which are not found in any other Hindu religious

sites. These are namely Annona squamosa Delile., Allamanda neriifolia Hook., Dillenia

indica Blanco., Euphorbia trigona Haw., Salvia splendens Ker –Gawl., Albizzia lebbek

Benth., Butea monosperma Kuntze., Papaver somniferum L., Petunia integrifolia Schinz.


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& Thellung., Pterospermum acerifolium Benth., Viola tricolor L. and Globba bulbifera

Roxb.. More than 1000 visitors throng the ashram regularly. The present author visited

the site in spring and found the garden to be very colorful.

Dakate Kali Bari located at Purna Das Road, a posh area of the city, has a very interesting

heritage. As the name suggests it was a temple worshipped by dacoits more than 100

years back. A small temple garden not very well maintained but infested by trees which

are of the same age as that of the temple, the oldest of all being Mangifera indica Blume.,

Ficus benghalensis L.and Azadirachta indica A. Juss., says the Purohit Kanti Bhusan

Bhattacharjee. Monohar, the leader of the gang , indiscriminately killed men to offer to

the Deity. Involved in dacoity and blood bath, he was a terror in those days. In a

miraculous incident he found a parentless child and adopted him, named him Haradhon,

educated him. At the time of his death, he gave Haradhan all the wealth he accumulated

from his sinful work and told him that scarcity of water, prevents habitation in this part of

Calcutta, so he instructed him to dig out a large water body and plant trees to provide

shade for those who come to collect water from a distance. Monohar is no more nor is

Haradhon, but he lives in his name Monoharpukur Road, a very decent residential

locality today and also remains his worshipped deity Kali at Purna Das Road.

The Sri Guru Ashram in south Calcutta has the noteworthy feature of sustaining a

“pancha-vati” (five plants considered sacred by Hindus thriving in one place). These trees

are Garcinia xanthocymus Hook.f.& T.Anderson., Anthocephalus cadamba Miq., Aegle

marmelos Correa., Saraca indica L. and Azadirachta indica A.Juss.. At Anandadham, the

founder Swami Umanand, had a “pancha-vati” in the gardens but due to indiscriminate

breaking of twigs and leaves by locals, only remains Saraca indica L., while the others

could not be conserved. At the Buro Bhuter Mandir is worshipped the trees Ficus

religiosa Decne.ex Miq. and Ficus benghalensis L. together, considered to be

incarnation of twelve “avatars”. Threads are tied around the trees by devotees, a belief

that their wishes will be fulfilled.

A strong resolve to walk up to the “burning ghats”, a place for cremation of the dead,

leaves the present author remembering that many of the illustrious sons of Bengal and

citizens of Calcutta have had their last rites performed at these places. Six “burning

ghats” have been visited of which only Keoratala Mahaswasan has some maintained


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plants to enter into the data-sheet. Other “burning ghats” are almost concrete building

structures. The only Hindu burial ground is at Topsia, a very large area where a particular

sect of Hindus, the “Vaishnavas” and children under 5 years old are buried in the earth,

even Hindu Sadhus and Saints are learnt to have been buried. It is mainly grass land and

waste land in which luxuriantly thrives Jatropha gossypifolia L. in abundance and the

most noteworthy is Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.welcoming the visitor at the entrance.

It should also be mentioned here that all bathing ghats of the Ganges turn into religious

places on occasions like Chhat (worship of the God Sun), Mahalaya (recalling of

ancestors and offering prayers in their names), Itu puja ( floating of the pot, where grows

a cereal plant, sown in the name of God a month earlier), marriage, thread and shradh

(final rites by Hindus after death) ceremonies. A dip in the Holy Ganges is always

considered auspicious by the Hindus. The young devotees of the Hanuman deva “akhra”

besides Ganges steps near Mallik Ghat at Strand Road, have a peculiar practice of

smearing themselves in the light mud of the river and engage in vigorous native

exercises, yoga and a bit of friendly wrestling to stay in form.

Hinduism, a religion which has large number of Gods and Goddesses and their

manifestation forms, the message of conservation is silently tied with all these manifested

forms of Gods, Goddesses and Avatars. In some cases, the tree is worshipped as a whole

while in some others, even parts of rare plants form essential parts of “puja” or offerings,

thus promoting plantation and conservation of such species.

6.3.11. Brahmo Dharma

Rational thinking, avoidance of idol-worship and meaningless rituals, a deep faith in

monotheism and humanism forms the basics of Brahmo dharma. The movement began in

1820 as the Atmiya Sabha “congregation for those akin in soul” and grew into Adi

Brahmo Samaj in 1828. Its role in education in general and in education of women in

particular and abolition of “Sati-daha”, “Bal-bibaha” etc , since the 1840’s, has been

notable. It propagated a devout but non-ritualistic way of life and a liberal humanistic

outlook at a time when Bengali society remained substantially bound-over by orthodoxy.

The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj located on the busy tram line road of Bidhan Sarani is

unostentatious but has quiet a dignity. Tall pillars with Venetian shutters in front, and a


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colonnaded hall inside, with a pulpit and pews, remind more of a church than an oriental

temple of worship. A small driveway that leads to the main building and beside the

driveway not specifically a garden but are trees lined on either sides. Large number of

mango trees Mangifera indica Blume., and the other fruit bearing tree being Psidium

guayava L. a few flowering shrubs of Ixora coccinea Comm.ex. Lam., Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd., Cestrum nocturum Lam. and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.. A

Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. grows up to the terrace with the building as a support, the

colorful spathes mostly covering the greenness of leaves of this beautiful climber. Palm

tree Mascarena lagenicaulis L.H. Baiey and Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f.ex

Hook.f. lined on one side of the building add to the aesthetic beauty of the place.

Brahmos are true nature lovers confirms Arun Kr. Das, President of the Samaj and to

them in simple words “God is nature”, omnipresent, in all fruits flowers and grass, in all

where there is manifestation of life. The Brahmo sangeet or hymns are in praise for

Nature and for the Power so more beautiful who created such beauty of nature. No

offering in the form of flowers or fruits has been noticed but traditional rice and curry is

distributed on days of Maghotsav and Bhadrotsav. An orphanage for girls is also within

the compound run by the Samaj. Prayer services are illustriously organized on Sundays

when people of the faith gather for worship called “Upasana” under the guidance of

“Acharyas”. This mainly involves the dedication of oneself to the formless Parambrahma

through prayers and singing of devotional songs. A comparatively smaller place of

worship is the Brahmo Sammilon Samaj at Rajendra Road ( near Gajapark) but still with

a garden, well maintained, sustaining many plant species. A central open space is

characteristic with vegetation on all sides of the compound with the natural tropical

garden trees, shrubs and climbers. Notable among these is Pelargonium hortorum

L.H.Bailey, the name of the genus having been derived from the Greek word “pelargos”

meaning ‘stork’ referring to its long beak like fruit. Medium sized Hollarrhena

antidysenterica Wall. and climber Allamanda cathartica L. with abundant flowering,

brightens the garden and the dominating species Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. is

laden with white flowers symbolizing purity of the Absolute Creator and Preserver.


324

6.4. Contribution to the stock-taking of the plant diversity of Calcutta (the erstwhile

Kolkata):

A catalogue of the plants which were cultivated in the Hon. East India Company's

botanical garden, Calcutta along with those in the Serampore botanical garden was

prepared for the first time by Voigt in his book Hortus suburbanus Calcuttensis

published in1845. Although it was Prain(1903) who gave the floristic account of

Hooghly, Howrah and 24-Parganas including Calcutta as a whole, the most

comprehensive account of trees of Calcutta and neighbourhood was received from

Benthall (1946). Majumdar (1965) was the pioneer botanist to have contributed to the

aquatic and semiaquatic flora of Calcutta and adjacent localities. We are indebted to

Biswas (1950) for getting from him a very important document on the Flora of South

Calcutta with special reference to that of the University College of Science compound in

Ballygunge area. A further contribution to the flora of this campus was made by Paria

(1978) and Paria and Pal (1994). Like the Ballygunge Science College, many of the

academic and research institutions in Kolkata with campuses referable to as old

repositories have been sustaining in their gardens many rare, botanically interesting and

economically important plants. Chakraverty and Mukhopadhyay(1990) covered all such

plants in details.The work of Acharya and Banerjee (2009) deserves mention for its

concern with the stocktaking of medicinal plants in the campus of Ramakrishna

Vivekananda Institute of Advanced Studies in north Calcutta. These authors together with

Sarkhel (Sarkhel et al., 2011) brought out the inventory of the angiosperms sustained in

the same institution many of which are rare, botanically interesting and sources of

aesthetic pleasure and valuable phyto-resources.

Flora of Calcutta and vicinity was worked out by Datta and Majumdar (1966)

which deserves appreciation. A very informative document was received from Jain and

Chakraverty (1984) regarding the beautiful trees and shrubs of Calcutta. Raha(1987) took

up the work of preparing a systematic account of the plants of Calcutta's gardens and

parks. Since access is not normally allowed inside the premises and the plant lovers have

been curious to know the plant treasurers within Raj Bhavan, the Governor Raghunath

Reddy, in 1989, wanted an inventory of the plant resources of the Raj Bhavan garden to

be prepared by the authorities of the Indian Botanic Garden, Botanical Survey of India


325

establishing their correct nomenclature (name) with location details inside the garden and

labeling each of the species. Mukhopadhyay and Chakraverty took up the responsibility

to complete preparation of the systematic account of the plant wealth of the Raj Bhavan,

Kolkata and get it published in March 2008. The work of Pandey and Chakraverty (1996)

involved the non-herbaceous plant resources of the Victoria Memorial area, Calcutta.

Intersetingly Barui and Chanda(1995) worked out the Holocene vegetational history of

Calcutta peat in Bhowanipur area.

A thorough search and scrutiny of literature including the review work of

Chakraverty and Raychaudhuri (2000) could reveal no work so far done on the plants

sustained in the places of religious activities in such an important city like Calcutta where

in live people of diverse religions. As such the present work, new of its kind for Calcutta,

is the pioneering effort based on the realization that stocktaking of plant diversity at

different spatial and temporal scales even in urban localities very much essential when

many of them have been perceiving threats of extinction. Accordingly the present author

prioritized identification and documentation of the plant diversity associated with the

activities (performance of worship, rituals,festivals, ceremonies, cremation etc.) of people

adhering to no less than 11 religions..to ensure conservation, sustainable use and

optimization of environment.

6.5. Environmental implications of the plants sustained in the places of religious

activities in Calcutta:

The pace of modern development and overcrowding in cities has been jeopardizing

nature so rapidly as to make it less suitable for living. There have been severe depletion

of bioresources and prolific escalation of pollution levels. The significant detrimental

effects of environmental pollution on human health and longevity have been the subject

of increasing scientific concern throughout the world. In Calcutta also environmental

pollution is an increasingly important issue mainly due to tremendous growth of

population, construction works, increase in public vehicles and private cars, expansion of

the metropolis etc., particularly during the past few decades. As such environmental

researches have been mainly directed towards mitigation of pollution and optimization of

the environment. Although physical and chemical methods of remediation are very


326

important, the best methods are biological or more precisely botanical because of high

efficiency of plants in detection, evaluation of effects and estimation of pollutants for

being one of the principal targets. Literature pertinent to effects of pollutants on plants

and their specific response to pollutants show affluence many of which ( Feder, 1978;

Mukherjee and Chaudhuri, 1983; Santra, 1987;Rao and Dubey, 1990; Mukherjee, 1993;

Singh et al.,1994; Agarwall and Agarwall,1999; Agarwall, 2000;Masitha et al.,2001;Palit

and Mukherjee, 2001; Ghosh and Mukherjee, 2003) can prove helpful in monitoring

environmental state and mitigation of pollution. Since plants can act as excellent

scavengers of plants there have been attempts to determine the Air Pollution Tolerance

Index(APTI), which indicates the general efficiency of the species to thrive and bear the

overall or collective load of pollutants in the ambient air, of different plants especially of

trees. The results of these findings can guide the urban planners to maintain a clean air by

planting air pollution tolerant species. The species with low tolerance showing

teratological changes can be used as indicators to take appropriate mitigatory measures.

Interestingly the APTI values of most of the species dominating the greenery of places of

religious practices in Calcutta were found from literature (Mashitha and Pise,

2001;Ghosh and Mukherjee, 2003) to be very useful in monitoring and optimization of

the environment of Calcutta(Table 6.1).Thus the environmental concern of different

religions in Calcutta deserves appreciation and gratitude for having selected appropriate

species for sustenance. Investigation in this direction may further prove valuable in

environmental optimization. The species enlisted in this work deserve to be sustained in

different parts of the city by the Corporation authorities.

Table 6.1: APTI values of important species in different places of religious species as

revealed from literature.

Sl. Religious sites of Species of

importance

APTI of

the

species

Environmental

importance as

a

1. BUDDHIST

MONASTRIES

Ficus religiosa

Decne. Ex. Miq.

45.0 Tolerant plant

2. CHURCHES AND Polyalthia 69.8 Tolerant plant


327

CEMETERIES longifolia Benth &

Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.

3. FIRE TEMPLE AND

TOWER OF

SILENCE

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd.

12.0 Sensitive plant

4. GURDWARAS No dominant

species found

5. GURU RAVIDAS

TEMPLE

Polyalthia

longifolia Benth &

Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.

(dominant species)

69.8 Tolerant plant

6. JAIN TEMPLES Mangifera indica

Blume.

Rosa centifolia L.

20.2

8.0

Moderately

tolerant

Sensitive plant

7. MOSQUES AND

BURIAL GROUNDS

Mangifera indica

Blume.

Psidium guayava

L.

20.2

6.0

Moderately

tolerant

Sensitive plant

8. NIRANKARI

TEMPLE

Albizzia lebbek

Benth. (dominant

species)

21.0 Moderately

tolerant

9. SYNAGOGUES Mangifera indica

Blume.

Azadirachta indica

A. Juss.

Carica papaya L.

20.2

9.0

37.6

Moderately

tolerant

Sensitive plant

Tolerant plant

10. TEMPLES AND

CREMATORIUMS

Mangifera indica

Blume.

20.2

Moderately

tolerant

11. UPASANALAYAS Mangifera indica 20.2 Moderately


328

Blume.

Polyalthia

longifolia Benth.

&

Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.

Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd.

69.8

12.0

tolerant

Tolerant plant

Sensitive plant

6.6.Role of sites of religious activities in stress relief:

In the present scenario, stresses induced due to global environmental change have indeed

become a focal point of researches and study programmes worldwide. Stress caused to

human life has an important consequence to health and activities. Religious activities

covering worship, prayers, rituals, festivals, ceremonies etc. in the holy and sacred places

of Calcutta elucidate the plant-man relationship in a manner that not only has soothing

effects on mind and spirit but also enlightens him with the sense of humanity, love and

peace concomitantly rejuvenating him with aesthetic pleasure. All these effects impart in

him stress tolerance and a better quality of life. This hitherto less focused areas

concerning phytoremediation of human stress and stress tolerant bio-aesthetic

development need to be explored by applied psychologists in collaboration with

botanists, social anthropologists, religionists, and environmental scientists for

concentrating more on plant than pollutants. The consideration of these aspects can play a

formative role in defining future environmental research, eco-technologies and policies

and in putting efforts to utilize the scientific message of religion in conservation of

biodiversity and optimization of environment for peace, prosperity and improvement of

qualities of life.

7 : SUMMARY

7.1. The work at a glance:

Since the inception of human wisdom there have been endeavours to develop society

linked values for optimizing environment through spiritual and ritualistic activities and

faith. The present work is designed to study ethnobotanical aspects or the age-long direct

man-plant relationship and the scientific wisdom thus gained from these relationships

which are traditionally preserved in the matrix of religious activities guided by tenets of

different religions in Calcutta. Calcutta, a cosmopolitan city of international reputation

sustains a unique composite culture designed by different religious beliefs and faiths. The

present work initiated in 2003 covers an exhaustive survey of 123 sites adhering to the

religious activities of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, Ravidassias,

Nirankaris, Brahmos, Parsees and Jews.The ethnobotanical perspectives of the survey

work was based on standard methods using both primary sources in form of 82

knowledgeable persons linked with the 11 religions as mentioned and secondary sources

in form of pertinent literature. For identification of the plants associated with the places

of religious activities standard taxonomic methods were followed. Voucher specimens

have also been preserved conventionally in the Eco-taxonomy laboratory of the

Department of Botany, Burdwan University.

7.2. The concept and objective

Stocktaking and ethnobotanical perspectives of plants associated with places of religious

activities for use in different occasions and in promotion of aesthetic pleasure and divine

ambience deserve consideration in scientific research since the findings are likely to have

benevolent virtues and eco-friendly implications. In view of the importance of

biodiversity and their functional, cultural and socioeconomic perspectives as well as

ecological and aesthetic values, the present work aims to prepare an account of the use

pattern of the plants willfully sustained in the premises of worship and religious

activities. An analysis of the scientific rationale cryptic in religious activities is likely to

enable us to use the concept as a model for improving human life and optimization of the

presently deranged ecosystem in general and biodiversity conservation and sustenance in

particular maintaining a harmony between plants and the lifestyle of Calcuttans.

Chapter 7: Summary

330

7.3. The outcome - An overview:

A brief account of the findings is presented in the following in the sequence of places of

religious activities linked with eleven different religions prevailing in Calcutta, the city

also called Kolkata.

7.3. 1. Buddhist Monasteries:

In the three Buddhist monasteries and one cemetery of the city studied the total number

of plant species sustained was 44 of which 19 belonged to the Yin Yee Thong Cemetery

alone. Minimum number of species (6spp.) was found in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Ficus

religiosa Decne.ex.Miq. was found to be the most dominant species in all four sites.

A taxonomic analysis of plants sustained shows that the dicots dominate over the

monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 2.13 at the family level, 1 : 1.93

at the genus level and 1 : 2 at the species level. It is also interesting to note that at Site

No. 4 (Nippon Zen Myohoji Temple), the ratio of monocots to dicots at the genus, family

and species levels is almost 1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and maintained

garden.

It is evident that in respect of use categories found in all Buddhist religious sites, the

decorative plants which are mainly used to enhance aesthetic effect dominate the scenario

with a share of 54.55%. The next share is of fruit-bearing plants (22.73 %) and shade-

giving plants (18.18%).Those decorative plants which are utilized for fencing/hedging

constitute 9.09 % in totality.

The plants considered sacred by the followers of Lord Buddha have been enumerated,

amongst which Ficus religiosa Decne.ex.Miq. (banyan) can be found in most of the

temple gardens.

A taxonomic analysis of plant-diversity associated with Buddhist Monasteries and

Cemeteries shows 17 dicotyledonous families having 27 genera and 28 species and 8

monocotyledonous families having 14 genera and 14 species. Thus the dicots and

monocots represent 65.85% and 34.15% of the flora at generic level and 66.67% and

33.33% at species level respectively. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms have a share of

3.70 % each. Of the 17 dicotyledonous families, it is Apocynaceae has the highest

number of genera, next to which is the Leguminosae. Out of the 8 monocotyledonous

families recorded it is Palmae which has the highest number of genera and species,

Chapter 7: Summary

331

followed by Gramineae. Only one family each of Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes could

be recorded.

7.3.2. Churches and Cemeteries:

As many as 6 cemeteries and 33 churches were visited wherefrom 48 dicotyledonous

families having 137 genera and 156 species and 10 monocotyledonous families having 31

genera and 34 species could be documented. Thus 81.55% of the taxa were dicots and

18.45% monocots at generic level and 82.11% were dicots and 17.89% monocots at

species level. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represent 4.62% and 6.15% of the total

trachaeophytes present.

Out of 48 dicotyledonous families, Leguminoceae has the maximum number of genera,

followed by Annonaceae. Maximum number of species has been noted in Leguminoceae,

followed by Annonaceae. Out of 10 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the highest

number of genera and species, followed successively by Araceae and Scitamineae. There

are 4 families of Gymnosperm and 3 families of Pteridophyta having the same number of

genera and species as that of the respective family. Incidentally Thuja odorata Doi. (

Jhau) is present in 27 sites followed by Cycas revoluta Bedd. of Cycadaceae family.

That the dicots dominate over the monocots is evident from the ratio of 1: 4.8 at the

family level, 1: 4.42 at the genus level and 1 : 4.59 at the species level respectively.

Of all the Church sites Oxford Mission Church (Site No. 8) houses the maximum number

of species (76 spp.) whereas Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site No. 50) amongst all

cemeteries has the maximum number of plant species (47 spp.). Polyalthia longifolia

Benth. & Hook. f.ex.Hook. (Debdaru) is found in maximum number of Churches

whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don. (Krishnachura) is found in maximum number

of cemeteries. But in totality, Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f.ex.Hook (Debdaru)

happens to be the most prevalent species in respect of all 39 Christian religious sites.

In respect of utility of the plants found in all Christian religious sites, plants which

enhance aesthetic effect of the site constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 84.62%.

Next come the shade-giving plants which are about 12.31% of total species found. Fruit-

bearing plants and vegetables constitute 9.74% and 5.64% respectively. There are only

6.67% of total plants parts of which are utilized particularly for offering to God during

Chapter 7: Summary

332

festivals or decorating the Churches/Cemeteries. 2.05% of total plants are utilized as

fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathsways inside the premises etc.

A list of plants considered to be sacred by the followers of Jesus Christ or the plants

which are included in Bible has also been prepared. Out of 9 such plants, Citrus maxima

Merrill.. (Lebu), Nerium oleander L. ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi) and Punica granatum

L.(Dalim) are found in 11, 7 and 4 sites respectively.

7.3.3. Fire temples and Tower of Silence of Zoroastrians:

The two Zoroastrian study-sites of Calcutta, i.e. the Fire Temple and the Tower of

Silence, sustain 21 dicotyledonous families having 46 genera and 50 species and 7

monocotyledonous families having 15 genera and 16 species. The dicots represent75.41%

and 75.76% while monocots 24.59% and 24.24% at generic and species levels

respectively. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms contribute 3.23% and 6.45% of total

vascular plants respectively.

Out of 23 dicotyledonous families, Leguminoceae has the highest number of genera and

species next is Apocynaceae, followed by Rubiaceae and Cactaceae. The dicots dominate

over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is 1: 3 at the family level, 1: 3.07 at

the generic level and 1 : 3.13 at the species level. Only one species i.e., Tabernaemontana

coronaria Willd. (Tagar), was found to be common in both the sites.

In all Zoroastrian religious sites, the species mainly used to enhance aesthetic effect of

the site, constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 77.14% in totality. Next comes the

fruit-bearing (14.29 %) and shade-giving plants (8.57%). Other decorative plants which

are used for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, road and pathsways inside the premises

etc. constitute about 2.86% of the total species.. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.

(Tagar) is found in both the temple-gardens plenty in number. The name of the plants

considered sacred by the Zoroastrians and the sites of sustenance have been tabulated. Of

these plants characteristically, Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Rosa centifolia L.

(Golap) are found mostly.

7.3.4. Gurdwaras

As many as 6 Gurdwara study-sites wherefrom 5 dicotyledonous families having 6

genera and 6 species and 2 monocotyledonous families having 3 genus and 3 species

could be recorded. The dicots represent 67% and monocots 33% both at generic and

Chapter 7: Summary

333

specific levels. No Pteridophyta could be found at any of the sites, although 2

gymnospermous families having 2 genera and 2 species could be recorded. Apocynaceae

was found with the highest number of genera and species.

The dicots were seen to dominate over the monocots, the ratio of the latter to the former

being 1 : 2.5 at the family level, 1 : 2 at both the genus and species levels.

Almost all of the plants found in these sites are decorative which give immense aesthetic

pleasure. There is only one species each belonging to the category of fruit-bearing and

Shade-giving plants. Not a single plant could be found, whose parts (flower, fruit, seed

etc.) are offered to the deity/God during festivals or used in decorating the shrine or in

fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was found to

be grown for vegetables. No plant considered sacred by the Sikhs or adhering to their

Holy Guru Granth Sahib was found at any of the sites under study.

7.3.5. Gurudwara Mona Punjabi

Only 9 dicotyledonous families having 13 genera and 13 species and 1

monocotyledonous family having 1 genus and 1 species could be recorded from Guru

Ravidass temple, the only temple of its kind in the city, better known as ‘temple of

dalits’. Thus dicots were found to represent 92.86% and monocots 7.14% both at generic

and specific levels. Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be observed at

the site. Out of 10 dicotyledonous families, Rubiaceae family has the maximum number

of genera and followed by Leguminosae in the same context. There is only 1

monocotyledonous family having solitary genus and species.

The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 9 at

the family level, 1 : 13 at both the genus and species levels. Species of Rubiaceae family

were found to be most dominant in this religious site.

Majority of the plants sustained in this site are decorative which enhance beauty of the

site and give aesthetic pleasure being 57.14%. Next share is of the fruit-bearing plants

which are about 35.17% of the total species noted. Shade-giving plants constitute 28.57%

of the total species. Not a single species could be found, whose flower, fruit, seeds etc.

are offered to the deity/God during festivals or used in decorating the shrine or in fencing

and/or demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was found to be

grown for vegetables.

Chapter 7: Summary

334

7.3.6. Jain Temples:

From the five Jain temples studied 23 dicotyledonous families represented by 49 genera

and 58 species and 5 monocotyledonous families by 17 genera and 22 species have been

observed. The dicots represent 74.24% and monocots 25.76% at the generic- and 72.50%

dicots and 27.50% monocots at species- levesl. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represent

3.03% and 12.12% of the total vascular plants respectively.

Out of the 23 dicotyledonous families scored, Leguminosae has highest number of genus

followed by Euphorbiaceae. Maximum number of species were also noted in

Euphorbiaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.

Out of 5 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genus and

species, followed by Liliaceae. Only 4 families of Gymnosperms and 1 family of

Pteridophyta have been identified.

The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1 : 4.60 for

the family level, 1 : 2.88 for the genus level and 1 : 2.64 for the species level in totality. It

is also interesting to note that at Swetambar Jain Temple, the ratio of monocot to dicot at

the genus and species level is almost 1: 1, which implies that it is a planned and

maintained garden.

The maximum number of plant species found in all five Jain temples of Kolkata is

87, out of which Parsanath Digambar Jain temple garden singly contributes 51 species.

Minimum number of species (07) found amongst all five temples is in Chandra Prabhuji

Ka Mandir. The Setwambar Jain Temple is having 24 genera of plants mostly of shrubs

and a few tree varieties, whereas the Parsanath Digambar Jain temple had large number

of trees. Gymnospermous plants (4 in total) are found mostly in Parsanath Digambar Jain

temple garden and there is only one such species in Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir garden.

Mangifera indica Blume and Rosa centifolia L. were found to be the most dominant

species in respect of all five Jain religious sites.

In all Jain sites, the decorative plants constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about

80.46% of the totality and. 6.90% of the total decorative species are utilized for offering

to the deities or decorating the temples. As many as 6.90% of the species are used for

fencing and 2.3 % for shade giving. The fruit-bearing plants have a share of 9.2 % of the

species sustained. Both Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Rosa centifolia L. (Golap)

Chapter 7: Summary

335

can be found almost in all temple-gardens in plenty of number, which not only enhance

the beauty of the gardens but also are used as offerings especially during religiously

performed ceremonies.

7.3.7. Mosques and Burial Grounds:

From the 27 Islamic religious sites (17mosques and 10 burial grounds) studied as

many as 39 dicotyledonous families having 98 genera and 113 species and 10

monocotyledonous families having 22 genera and 22 species could be recorded. In this

composition dicots represent 81.61% and 83.70% whereas monocots 18.33% and 16.30%

at generic and species levels respectively. Not a single species of Pteridophyta could be

found in 27 sites. Gymnosperms represent 3.92% of the total vascular plants. The dicots

were seen to dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 :

3.9 at the family level, 1 : 4.45 at the genus level and 1 : 5.14 at the species level.

Out of 39 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae followed by large number of

genera in Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae and Compositae is observed. Out of 10

monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and species

followed by Gramineae and Liliaceae.

Among Gymnosperms only 2 families, viz. Pinaceae and Cycadaceae could be

scored each of which was with one genus and one species. The ornamental plant Thuja

odorata Doi. (Jhau) was found sustained in 6 out of 27 studied sites. Among angiosperms

Psidium guayava L. was found sustained in maximum number of mosques whereas

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. and Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. were found in

maximum number of burial grounds. But in totality Mangifera indica Blume and

Psidium guayava L. were found to be the most dominant species in respect of all the

Islamic sites studied.

So far utilitarian aspect of the plants Islamic sites was concerned, decorative

plants were found to constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 65%. Next to come were

the shade-giving and fruit-bearing plants each of which composed 12% of total species

recorded. Of all decorative plants found in the Islamic sites, plants offered to the

Almighty or used for decorating the mosque were very few being 1.28%,.However 93%

of the decorative plants were found sustained for enhancing the aesthetics of the site.

Chapter 7: Summary

336

Plants considered sacred by the followers of Islam as well as those included in

the Holy Quran have been enumerated, amongst which Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. deserve

mention for having been found in 12 sites. Among others Lawsonia inermis L. found in

7 sites, Punica granatum L. in 4 sites and Brassica nigra Koch. in 1 site deserve

mention.

7.3.8. Nirankari Temple:

Sant Nirankari Satsang Mandal, the only temple, is situated at South-eastern fringe of

Kolkata wherein 18 dicotyledonous families having 26 genera and 28 species and 3

monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species are sustained. The dicots

represent 86.67% and 87.50% where as the monocots represent 13.33% and 12.50% at

generic and species levels respectively. The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio

of the latter to the former is 1 : 6 at the family level, 1 : 6.5 at the genus level and 1 : 7 at

the species level. Each of both Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represents 4.35% of total

vascular plants concerned. Out of 18 dicotyledonous families, Annonaceae, Leguminosae

and Rubiaceae have the highest number of genera as well as species, followed by

Cucurbitaceae. Out of the 3 monocotyledonous families sustained, Palmae has the

maximum number of genera and species. There is 1 family each from Gymnosperm and

Pteridophyta having one genus and one species.

Majority i.e. 55.88% of the plants sustained in this site are decorative enhancing the

aesthetic effect of the site. Next share is of the fruit-bearing plants 23.53% followed by

the shade-giving plants 17.64%. Plants utilized in fencing and/or demarcating gardens,

paths inside the premises etc. were found to be only 2.94% of the total species. Plants

utilized as vegetables also have the same share of 2.94%. No plant whose parts are

utilized for offering to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine were

found sustained. It was encouraging to find that a separate area inside the premises was

earmarked and prepared by the authority for cultivation of medicinal plants, especially

the antidiabetic ones.

7.3.9. Synagogues:

In the two Jews religious sites studied, 11 dicotyledonous families having 14 genera and

15 species and 3 monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species were found

Chapter 7: Summary

337

getting sustained. The dicots represent 77.78% and 78.95% where as the monocots

represent 22.22% and 21.05% at generic and species levels respectively.

There is no Pteridophyta in any of the sites. Gymnosperms have only one family with a

single genus and solitary species to constitute 6.67% of the total number of vascular

plants sustained.

Each of the families like Annonaceae, Myrtaceae and Lytheraceae has two genera and

two species sustained while each of all the 8 remaining families has a single genus. Only

one of these genera is represented by two species and all the rest are with solitary species

each.

.

In respect of utility of the plants sustained in the Jewish sites, the ornamental species

constitute about 47.37% in totality, whereas fruit-bearing and shade-giving plants

constitute 31.58% and 15.79% respectively. Other decorative plants which are used for

fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside the premises etc. comprise 5.26% of the

total species sustained. The names of the plants considered sacred by the Jews along with

their occurrence have been tabulated of which Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate) found

in Maghen David Synagogue is noteworthy.

7.3.10. Hindu Temples and Burning Ghats:

In as many as 23 temples, 4 ‘Guru-ashramas’, 6 crematoriums and one burial ground

associated with the Hindu religion of the city 45 dicotyledonous families having 94

genera and 104 species and 8 monocotyledonous families having 17 genera and 17

species were found getting sustained. The MahanirvanMath (Site No. 49) houses

maximum number i.e. 65 species whereas it is Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10)

amongst all crematoriums which has the maximum number of species, i.e. 23 .

Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), were found sustained in

maximum number of temples and Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) in maximum

number of Burning Ghats. In respect of all 34 Hindu religious sites studied Mangifera

indica Blume. (Aam) seems to be the most dominant species. In the taxonomic census the

dicots and monocots represent 84.68% and 15.32% at generic level and 85.95% and

14.05% at species level respectively. Gymnosperms represent 1.85% of the total vascular

plants and not a single pteridophyte was found getting willfully sustained.

Chapter 7: Summary

338

Out of 45 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number of

genera, followed by Apocynaceae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in

case of Leguminosae, followed by that of Apocynaceae. Out of 8 monocotyledonous

families recorded, Palmae and Scitamineae has the highest number of genera and species,

followed by Gramineae.

As many as 2 families of Gymnosperms (Cupressaceae) were found to have

representation in form of 2 genera and 2 species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Bilati Jhau) was

found sustained in 4 sites and Cycas revoluta Bedd. (Fern palm) could be recorded from

only one crematorium.

The plants which enhance aesthetic effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about

67.48% amongst all. Next to come are the fruit-bearing plants which constitute about

17.07% of total species recorded. Furthermore there are 14.63% of total species, the parts

of which are utilized particularly for offering to God during festivals or considered as

sacred. Shade-giving plants and vegetables constitute 13.08% and 11.38% of the total

number of species respectively. As much as 3.25% of the total plants are utilized in

fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside the premises etc. the plants considered

sacred and the ones with parts offered to the God have also been enumerated.

7.3.11. Upasanalayas:

No less than 14 dicotyledonous families having 18 genera and 18 species and 3

monocotyledonous families having 5 genera and 6 species have been recorded from the

two Upasanalayas. Of these Upasanalayas Brahmo Sammilan Samaj sustains the

maximum number of species i.e.17 out of 24.The dicots represent 78.26% and 75.00%

where as the monocots represent 21.74% and 25.00% at generic and species levels

respectively. Out of 14 dicotyledonous families, Apocynaceae family has the maximum

number of genera and species, followed by Myrtaceae. There are 3 monocotyledonous

families of which Palmae has the maximum number of genera and species.

Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be found at any of the sites.

From utilitarian aspect, majority of the plants (87.50%) found in this site are decorative

plants which enhance aesthetic effect of the site. Next share is of fruit-bearing plants

which constitute about 16.67% of the total species found. Shade-giving plants constitute

4.16% of total plants. No plant was found the flowers, fruits, seed etc. of which were

Chapter 7: Summary

339

offered to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine or in fencing and/or

demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was grown for use as

vegetables. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) was found sustained in

profusion in both the temple-gardens.

From all religious sites studied a total of 762 plants species are recorded.

7.4. Conclusion:

In the matters of relentless efforts to sustain the earth’s environment as viable in

optimum state for future generations, environmental studies have not so far adequately

evaluated the role of different religions although the present author could realize

subsequently that ecology is deeply ingrained in it and nature, and its destiny, human

virtues and ethics are guided and conditioned by religious beliefs and teachings. It is

certain that religious tenets, views and practices can guide and mould our attitudes

towards nature and her biotic as well as abiotic components and functions. Religion sets

the guidelines to build up sustainable relations of our materialistic lives with the

ecosystem in the best possible way and help us to reappraise our behaviour with the

flora, fauna and environment and reorient us towards a successful life with optimum

resources. This kind of faith augmented the present author to address a new field of

study in the arena of Hinduism and ten other religions as conceptualized and practiced

under the conditions existing in Calcutta to reveal their environmental implications

and distill the contemporary environmental ethics percolating from their direct man-

plant relationship for use in optimization of lives and the environment.

The present work has aptly explored the ecological or more precisely the

environmental underpinnings and implications of the direct man-plant relationship or

rather the ethnobotanical knowledge and wisdom traditionally preserved in the tenets,

principles, rites, taboos faith and practices of different religions in Calcutta. The findings

of this work can find practical application in planning strategies by the public policy

makers, developmental and administrative authorities in urban landscape designing in

the most public inclusive and sustainable ways. Ethnobotanical excerpts from the man-

plant relationships revealed in the work is a valuable document to inspire further

research in evaluation of the religion associated species in biomonitoring the state of the

environment as indicators as well as scavengers. Judicious integration of religious

Chapter 7: Summary

340

wisdom and activities in the most secular way with our urbanscape would not only

afford aesthetic rejuvenation and spiritual invigoration but also promote plant

conservation and phytoremediation, alleviation of stress, tension and social evils , and

improvement of quality and tenure of life. Once the idea catches on, landscape

designers and other experts can explore opportunities to further optimize environment

and evolve models for application in other rural and urban areas.

To sum up it may be said that this work, new of its kind, is likely to inspire the

activities of both indigenous and exotic religions and enlighten the followers with the

sense of humanity, fraternity, amity and peace to ensure the religious-system a

respectable and sustainable niche in the noosystem i.e. the ecosystem, in its complete

sense, covering social, cultural, economic, physical and biological components and

function. The present author would consider her efforts successful if the sum and

substance of this work find application in optimization of life and living with a green,

stress free, peaceful, pleasant and healthy environment.

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Documents

ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLACES OF RELIGIOUS