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THEORIES OF LEARNING
Definitionlearning noun
the activity of obtaining knowledgeThis technique makeslearningfun.
knowledge obtained by studyHis fr iend s praised his generosity, wit andlearning.
Camb r idge Advanced Dict ionary
What is Learning?
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What is language learning?
Language can only be properly understood as areflection of human thought process.
Language learning is conditioned by the way in
which the mind observes, organises and storesinformation.
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Namely, the key to successful language learning and
teaching lies not in the analysis of the human nature
but in understanding the structure and process of
the mind.
However, little do we know about how people learn.
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Nevertheless, if the techniques, methods and
content of language teaching is to be improved,
what is done in the classroom should be based on
sound principles of learning.
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Given the developments in learning theories, the
importance of each for language teaching should be
taken into consideration and it is best to consider
the theories relating to language and learningseparately.
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(Very) Brief History of Learning Theory
As with the language description, the main developments in
theories of how learners learn and relate each to the needs of
the ESP learner and teacher are to be described.
Until the 20th century there was no coherent theory of
learning available to the language teacher. Certainly there
were empirical observations, such as Comenius studiesmade in the 17th century and the precepts of the Direct
Method at the end of the 19th century. But no coherent theoryof learning emerged until psychology had been established
as a respectable subject of scientific enquiry in the early 20th
century.
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J A N A M O S C O M E N I U S (1592-1670) was a Czeck teacher, scientist,
Educator, and writer. He was a Unity of the brethen/Moravian Protestant
Bishop, a religious refugee and one of earliest champions of universal
champions of universal education a concept eventually set forth in his
book Didactica Magna. Comenius became known as the teacher of nations.
He is often considered the father of modern education.
To understand him better we need to have look at the way his thinks about
education. According to Comenius, education is not merely the training of the
child at school or in the home; it is a process affecting mans whole life and thecountless social adjustments he must make.UNESCO:Internat ional B ureau o f
Edu catio n, 1999 p.173-96
Why his contributions are so important to our modern educational point of view
is clearly given by Piaget.According to Piaget Except in a few cases, the realdifference between Comenius and us is the difference that lies between
seventeenth- and twentieth-century ways of thinking. We no longer believe that
metaphysics will enable us to understand the development of the child or of manin society, or the interaction between man and nature, to say nothing of the laws
of nature.
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To understand him better we need to have look at the way his thinks
about education. According to Comenius, education is not merely the
training of the child at school or in the home; it is a process affecting
mans whole life and the countless social adjustments he must make.
UNESCO: International Bu reau of Education , 1999 p.173-96.Why his contributions are so important to our modern educational point
of view is clearly given by Piaget.According to Piaget Except in a fewcases, the real difference between Comenius and us is the difference that
lies between seventeenth- and twentieth-century ways of thinking. We no
longer believe that metaphysics will enable us to understand thedevelopment of the child or of man in society, or the interaction between
man and nature, to say nothing of the laws of nature.
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After a very short historical journey,
it is time we continued to the answer of the question.
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Learning as a Black Box
INPUTS OUTCOMES
INPUTS OUTCOMESLearning
So whats happening inside the box?
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A Brief Review
Behaviorism Mentalism
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theory Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning
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Behaviorism The first coherent theory of learning was behaviorist theory
based mainly n the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and
of Skinner in the United states.According to this theory, learning is a mechanical processof habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequentreinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence.
The simplicity and directness of this theory had anenormous impact on learning psychology and on languageteaching. It was widely used in Audio lingual Method in the50s and 60s. The method laid down a set of guidingmethodological principles firstly on the behaviourist
stimulus response concept and secondly on an assumptionthat second language learning should reflect and imitatethe perceived process of mother tongue learning.
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In Behaviourism:
Learning is defined by the outward expressionof new behaviors
Focuses solely on observable behaviors
A biological basis for learning
Learning is context-independent
Classical & Operant Conditioning
Reflexes (Pavlovs Dogs) Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinners Pigeon Box)
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Behaviorism in the Classroom
Rewards and
punishments
Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely with
the teacher
Lecture-based,highly structured
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Critiques of Behaviorism
Does not account for processes taking place in
the mind that cannot be observed
Advocates for passive student learning in a
teacher-centric environment
One size fits all
Knowledge itself is given and absolute
Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing
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The basic exercise technique of a behaviorist methodology is
pattern practice, particularly in the form of language
laboratory drills. Such drills are widely used in ESP.
To illustrate;
Combine the sentences with given words.
A) The accident occurred in the lab. Workers were not well trained. (As)
____________________________________________________________
A) There are lots of accidents in the lab. Personnel should be well trained.
(So)____________________________________________________________
Moreover, modern ESP books have looked for more interesting ways of
handling pattern practice and a number of useful variations on the basic idea
have been developed.
The accident occurred in the lab as personnel were not well trained.
There are lots of accidents in the lab, so workers should be well trained.
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Pattern practice exercises still have a useful role to
play in language teaching, but only as one part of
the whole learning process.
As learning is much more complex than just
imitative habit formation, subsequent needs for
developements emerged. However, this does not
necessarily mean that there is no place for patternpractice in a modern methodology.
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Mentalism: thinking as rule governed activity
There was considerable empirical evidence
among language teachers that the AudiolingualMethod and its behaviourist principles did not
deliver the results promised.
Th fi f l l h b h i i
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The first successful assault on the behaviorist
theory came from Chomsky (1964).
He tackled behaviourism on the question of how the
mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one-stimulus response sequence to other novel
situations.
There was a vague concept of generalisation inbehaviourist theory, this was always neglected and
never properly explained.
Thi h th i th t t d d difi d b
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This hypothesis then tested and modified by
subsequent experience. The mind, in other words,
does not just respond to a stimulus, it uses the
individual stimuli in order to find the underlyingpattern or system.
It can then use this knowledge of the system in a
novel situation to predict what is likely to happen,what is an appropriate response or whatever.
Th t li t i f th i d l k l d
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The mentalist view of the mind as a rule-seeker led
naturally to the next important stage:
The Cognitive Theory of Learning
Cognitivism
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CognitivismCognitive Approach
assumption:
knowledge is alwaysconstructed by the
learner in an active
process of coming to
terms with reality.
Th C iti Th f L i l
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The Cognitive Theory of Learning: learners as
thinking beings
Whereas the behaviourist theory of lerning
portrayed the learner as a passive receiver of
information, the cognitive view takes the larne to be
an active processor of information (Ausubel et al .,
1978). Learning and using a rule require learners to think,
that is, to apply their mental powers in order to
distil a workable generative rule from the mass of
data presented, and then to analyse the situationswhere the application of the rule would be useful or
appropriate.
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In short, we learn by thinking about and trying to
make sense of what we see, feel and hear.
The basic teaching technique associated with a
cognitive theory of language learning is theproblem-solving task. In ESP such exercises have
often been modeled on activities associated with
the learners subject specialism.
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To illustrate:
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More recently, the cognitive view of learning has
had a significant impact on ESP through the
development of courses to teach reading strategies.
A number of ESP projects have concentrated onmaking students aware of their reading strategies
so that they can consciously apply them to
understanding texts in a foreign language
(Alderson, 1980 and Scott, 1981).
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To illustrate:
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Grew in response to Behaviorism
Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
Learning is the process of connecting symbols
in a meaningful & memorable way
Studies focused on the mental processes that
facilitate symbol connection
Cognitivism
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Cognitivism contributors
Jean Piaget
Genetic Epistemology
Assimilation and Accommodation
Jerome Bruner Discovery Learning
Learner as independent problem-solver
C i i i i h Cl
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Cognitivism in the Classroom Inquiry-oriented
projects
Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses
Curiosity encouraged
Staged scaffolding
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Critiques of Cognitivism
Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and
absolute
Input Process Output model is mechanistic
and deterministic Does not account enough for individuality
Little emphasis on affective characteristics
As a conclusion
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As a conclusion,The cognitive code view of learning seems to answermany of the theoretical and practical problems raised
by behaviourism.It treats the learners as thinking beings and puts themfirmly at the center of the learning process, bystressing that learning will only take place when mater
to be learnt is meaningful to the learners.But in itself a cognitive view is not sufficient.
To complete the picture we need an affective view,too.
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Social Learning Theory (SLT)A. Bandura (1973) put forward the theory.
According to his theory, it posits that peoplelearn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often
been called a bridge between behaviorist andcognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.
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Grew out of Cognitivism
Learning takes place through observation and
sensorial experiences Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games Bobo Doll Experiment
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SLT in the Classroom Collaborative learning
and group work
Modeling responses
and expectations
Opportunities to
observe experts in
action
Critiques of Social Learning
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Critiques of Social LearningTheory
Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating factors
Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed tobeing active learners
Emotions and motivation not considered
important or connected to learning
Social Constructivism
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Another cognitive psychologist, Lev Vygotsky shared many of
Piagets assumptions about how children learn, but he placedmore emphasis on the social context of learning. Piaget's
cognitive theories have been used as the foundation for
discovery learningmodels in which the teacher plays a limited
role. In Vygotsky's theories both teachers and older or more
experienced children play very important roles in learning.
Social Constructivism
Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism framed
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Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framedaround metacognition
Knowledge is actively constructed
Learning is A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner
Lev Vygotsky Social Learning
Zone of Proximal Development
Social Constructivism in the
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Social Constructivism in the
Classroom
Journaling
Experiential
activities
Personal focus
Collaborative &
cooperative learning
r ques o oc a
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r ques o oc aConstructivism
Suggests that knowledge is neither given norabsolute
Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction
Does not fit well with traditional age grouping
and rigid terms/semesters
Multiple Intelligences (MI)
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Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the
capacity to solve problems or to fashion products
that are valued in one or more cultural setting'
(Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He reviewed the
literature using eight criteria or 'signs' of an
intelligence: Potential isolation by brain damage.
Multiple Intelligences (MI)
The existence of idiots savants prodigies and
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The existence of idiots savants, prodigies and
other exceptional individuals.
An identifiable core operation or set of
operations. A distinctive development history, along with a
definable set of 'end-state' performances.
An evolutionary history and evolutionaryplausibility.
Support from experimental psychological tasks.
Support from psychometric findings.
Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.
(Howard Gardner 1983: 62-69)
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Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
All people are born with eight intelligences:
Enables students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to
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Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to
spoken and written language, the ability to learn
languages, and the capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals. This intelligenceincludes the ability to effectively use language to
express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and
language as a means to remember information.
Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are amongthose that Howard Gardner sees as having high
linguistic intelligence.
Naturalistic intelligence has to do with nature nurturing
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Naturalistic intelligencehas to do with nature, nurturingand relating information to one's natural surroundings.
This type of intelligence was not part of Gardner's original
theory of Multiple Intelligences, but was added to the
theory in 1997. Those with it are said to have greater
sensitivity to nature and their place within it, the ability to
nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring for,
taming and interacting with animals. They may also be
able to discern changes in weather or similar fluctuationsin their natural surroundings. They are also good at
recognizing and classifying different species. They must
connect a new experience with prior knowledge to truly
learn something new.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the
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Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the
capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out
mathematical operations, and investigate issues
scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, itentails the ability to detect patterns, reason
deductively and think logically. This intelligence is
most often associated with scientific and
mathematical thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the
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Musical intelligence involves skill in the
performance, composition, and appreciation of
musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to
recognize and compose musical pitches, tones,and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner
musical intelligence runs in an almost structural
parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the
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Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the
potential of using one's whole body or parts
of the body to solve problems. It is the
ability to use mental abilities to coordinatebodily movements. Howard Gardner sees
mental and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to
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Spatial intelligence involves the potential to
recognize and use the patterns of wide
space and more confined areas.
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the
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Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the
capacity to understand the intentions, motivations
and desires of other people. It allows people to
work effectively with others. Educators,salespeople, religious and political leaders and
counsellors all need a well-developed
interpersonal intelligence.
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to
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Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to
understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings,
fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view
it involves having an effective working model ofourselves, and to be able to use such information
to regulate our lives.
MI in the Classroom
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MI in the Classroom Delivery of instruction
via multiple mediums Student-centered
classroom
AuthenticAssessment
Self-directed learning
Critiques of MI
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Critiques of MI Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular
and methodological approach has any
discernable impact on learning
Development process is a time-sink
Suggestive of a departure from core curricula
and standards
B i B d L i (BBL)
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Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
This learning theory is based on the
structure and function of the brain. As long
as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling
its normal processes, learning will occur.
B i B d L i (BBL)
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Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980s to
present)
12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique
People often say that everyone can learn. Yet the
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p y y
reality is that everyone does learn. Every person is
born with a brain that functions as an immensely
powerful processor. Traditional schooling,however, often inhibits learning by discouraging,
ignoring, or punishing the brains natural learningprocesses.
. -state
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state
that:
The brain is a parallel processor, meaning itcan perform several activities at once, like
tasting and smelling.
Learning engages the whole physiology.
The search for meaning is innate.
The search for meaning comes through
patterning.
Emotions are critical to patterning.The brain processes wholes and parts
simultaneously.
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7. Learning involves both focused attention and
peripheral perception.
8. Learning involves both conscious and
unconscious processes.
9. We have two types of memory: spatial and
rote.
10. We understand best when facts areembedded in natural, spatial memory.
11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and
inhibited by threat.
12. Each brain is unique.
. e ree ns ruc ona ec n ques assoc a ewith
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with
brain-based learning are:
Orchestrated immersionCreating learningenvironments that fully immerse students in
an educational experience
Relaxed alertnessTrying to eliminate fear inlearners, while maintaining a highly
challenging environment
Active processingAllowing the learner to
consolidate and internalize information byactively processing it
How Brain Based Learning Impacts Education
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How Brain-Based Learning Impacts Education
Curr iculumTeachers must design learning
aroundstudent interests and make learning
contextual.
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Curr iculumTeachers must design learning around
student interests and make learningcontextual.
Instruct ion Educators let students learn in teams
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Instruct ionEducators let students learn in teamsand use peripheral learning. Teachers
structure
learning around real problems, encouragingstudents to also learn in settings outside the
classroom and the school building.
ssessmen nce a s u en s are earn ng, e r assessment should allow them to understand
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assessment should allow them to understand
their
own learning styles and preferences. This
way,students monitor and enhance their own
learning
process.
BBL in the Classroom
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BBL in the Classroom
Opportunities for group
learning Regular environmental
changes
A multi-sensoryenvironment
Opportunities for self-expression andmaking personalconnections to content
Community-basedlearning
Critiques of BBL
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Critiques of BBL Research conducted by neuroscientists, not
teachers & educational researchers
Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes
brain-based learning questionable
Individual principles have been scientifically
questioned
Other Learning Theories of Note
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Other Learning Theories of Note
Andragogy (M. Knowles)
Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
Situated Learning (J. Lave)
Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
Learning as a Not-So-Black Box
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Learning as a Not-So-Black Box
LearnerINPUTS
INPUT
S
INPU
TS
INPUTS
INPUTS
Environment
OUTCOMES
OUTCOM
ES
OUTCOMES
Lost
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There are also some sort of crucial items that need to
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There are also some sort of crucial items that need to
be taken into consideration when it comes to learning, such
as ;
The affective factor Learners as emotional beings
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The affective factor. Learners as emotional beings
People think but they also have feelings.
It is one of the paradoxes of human nature,although we are all aware of our feelings and
their effects on our actions, we invariably seek
answers to our problems in rational terms.
This attitude affects the way we see learners- more
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like machines to be programmed than people with
likes and dislikes, fears, weaknesses and
prejudices.
But learners are people. Even ESP learners are
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people. They may be learning about machines and
systems, but they still learn as human beings.
Learning, particularly the learning of a language, is
an emotional experience, and the feeling that the
learner process evokes will have a crucial bearing
on the success or failure of the learning (Stevick,1976).
The importance of the emotional factor is easily
if id th l ti hi b t th
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seen if we cosider the relationship between the
cogntive and affective aspects of the learner.
The cognitive theory tells us that learners will learnwhen they actively think about what they are
learning. But this cognitive factor presupposes the
affective factor of motivation.
Before learners can actively think about something,
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Before learners can actively think about something,
they must wantto think about it.
The emotional reaction to the learning experience is
the essential foundation for the initiation of the
cognitive process.
How the learning is perceived by the learner will
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Howthe learning is perceived by the learner will
affect whatlearning, if any, will take place.
The cognitive/affective learning interplay in the form
of a learning cycle as it is given below:
EntryLearner wants
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Entry
pointto learn
Learner applies
cognitive powers to
acquire knowledge
Learning is
successful
Learnerscompetence
develeopes
Increased competence
enables learner to
learn more easily
Learner sees
learning as an
enjoyable and
satisfying experince A positive learning cycle
The relationship between the cognitive andemotional aspects of learning is therefore one of
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emotional aspects of learning is, therefore, one of
the vital importance to the success or otherwise of a
language learning experince.
This brings us to a matter which has been one of the
most important elements in the developement of
ESP-motivation.
The most influential study of motivation in language
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learning has been Gardner and Lamberts (1972)study of bilingualism in French speaking Canada.
They identified two forms of motivation:
instrumental (Need)
integrated (Want)
Ins trumental mo t ivat ionis the reflection of anexternal need The learners are not learning a
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external need. The learners are not learning a
language because they want to (although this does
not imply that they do not want to), but rather
because they need to.
In other words, wanting to learn a language for the
purpose of obtaining some concrete goals such as a
job, graduation, or the ability to read academicmaterials. This form of motivation is thought to be
less likely to lead to success than integrated
motivation.
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The need may derive from varying sources. the need
to sell things to speakers of the language; the need
to pass an exam in the language; the need to readtexts in the language for work or study. Whatever
they are, the motivation is an external one.
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Integrat ive mo tivat ion, on the other hand, derives from a
desire on the part of the learners to be members of the
speech community that uses a particular language. It is an
internally generated wantrather than an externally imposed
need.
That is to say, When students want to learn a language to
become part of a speech community (integrate). People whoimmigrate to new countries are some examples of people
who may want to identify with the community around them.
An important aspect of this form of language learning is
using language for social interaction. This form of motivationis thought to produce success in language learners.
Learning and acqusi t ion
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Much debate has recently cemtered around the distinction
made by stephen Krashaen (1981) between learning andacqusiton.
Learningis seen as a conscious process, while acqusi t ion
proceeds unconsciously. According to the view we have
advocate so far is that for the second language learner both
processes are likeley to play a useful part and that a goodESP course will try to exploit both.
A model for learning
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In the lights of thet ideas it has been discussed there should
be a model of learning process to present. That will provide apractical source of reference for the ESP teacher and course
designer.
First of all the mind should be depicted as a network of
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First of all, the mind should be depicted as a network of
conecions, rather like a road map.
The indivudual houses, towns and villages represent items or
bundles of knowledge. These various settlements, however,are only useful if they are connected to the main network by
roads.
The mind of the learner is like a developement agency. It
wants to bring the settlements into the network and sodevelop their potential.
To achive this communication links must be established.
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However, as with any communication network, links can only
be established from existing links. There is no limit to the
number of links possible. Indeed the more links a placealready has the more it is likely to attract
Individual items of knowledge like the towns have little
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Individual items of knowledge, like the towns, have little
significance on their own. They only acquire meaning and
use when they are connected into the network of existing
knowledge.
It is the existing knowledge that makes it possible to
construct new connections. So in the act ofacquiring new
knowledge it is the learners exisiting knowledge that makesit possible to learn new items.
Items of knowledge are not of equal significance. Some items
are harder to acquire, but may open up wide possibilities for
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are harder to acquire, but may open up wide possibilities for
further learning. Like a bridge across a river or a tunnel
through a mountain, learning a generative rule may take time,
but once it is there, it greatly increase the potential for furtherlearning.
This why so often learning appears to progress in leaps and
bounds. For a long time it might appear that little progress is
being made; then suddenly the learner makes an enormousleap to a higher level of competence. Think of these leaps as
the crossing of rivers, mountains and other major obstacles.
Roads and railways are not built haphazardly. They require
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planning. The road builder has to recognise where problem
lie and work out strategies for solving those problems. In the
same way the learner will make better progress bydeveloping strategies for solving the learning problems that
will arise.A communication network is a system . If the road builder
can see the whole system, the planning and construction of
the roads will be a lot easier. Language is a system, too. If theleaner sees it as just a haphazard set of arbitrary and
capricious obstacles, learning will be difficult, if not possible.
Finally, before anyone builds a road, crosses a river or climbs
a mountain, they must have some kind of motivation to do so.
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a mountain, they must have some kind of motivation to do so.
If they could ot care less what is beyond the mountains,
dislike the people who come from there or are simply afraid
of travelling, the chances of communication links beingestablished are minimal.
A communication network is a system . If the road builder
can see the whole system, the planning and construction of
the roads will be a lot easier. Language is a system, too. If theleaner sees it as just a haphazard set of arbitrary and
capricious obstacles, learning will be difficult, if not possible.
First of all, there must be a need to establish the links. In ESP
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st o a , t e e ust be a eed to estab s t e s S
this need is usually taken for granted. But as anyone who has
set out on a long and possibly difficult journey will know, a
need is not enough. You can always find an excuse for notgoing. The traveller must also want to make the journey.
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As a result, with learning, a need to acquire knowledge is a
necessary factor, but of equal, if not greater importance, is
the need to actually enjoy the process of acquisition.
After the brief summary of the most importantdevelopemnets in approaches to learning and considered
h i l ESP I l i h ld lik k
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their relevance to ESP. In conclusion, we should like to make
two points:
First, we still do not know very much about learning. It is
important, therefore, not to base any approach too narrowly
on one thary. As with lanuage descriptions, it is wise to take
ecclectic approach, taking what is useful from each theary
and trusting also in the evidence of your own experince as ateacher. It is possible that there are cognitive, affective and
behaviourist approach to the teaching of pronunciaiton, a
cognitive approach to the teaching grammar and use
affective criteria in selecting your text.
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Second, theories of learning and language descriptions are
casually linked. As Corder (1973) says:
There is no logical connection between a particularpsychological theory of how grammar is learned an any
particular theory of language structure.. There is, however,an undaubted histor icalconnection between them.
Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles forthe ESP practitioner:
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-teacher
-course designer and materials provider-collaborator
-researcher
-evaluator.
Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-
REFERANCES
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y ( ) p
disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(UNESCO, International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIII, no. 1/2,
1993, p. 173-96.
UNESCO:International Bureau of Education, 1999
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THANK YOU
OKT NECMETTN KLTR