Epistemology in Islam: A Philosophical Study

Jurnal Sosialisasi Jurnal Hasil Pemikiran, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

Keilmuan Sosiologi Pendidikan Vol. 8, Nomor 2, Juli 2021

Isenyo Solomon Ogaba | 142

Epistemology in Islam: A Philosophical Study

Isenyo Solomon Ogaba Department of Philosophy,

Federal University Wukari, Taraba state, Nigeria.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This work attempts to expose Quranic epistemology and the views of prominent Muslim scholars

(Ghazzali and Ibn Rushd) is been discussed. The impact of Ghazzali was profound on Sufism, jurisprudence,

Muslim theology, philosophy, and almost all other disciplines and a lot of research has been done on these

aspects of Ghazzali. But so far as the epistemology of Ghazzali is concerned, very little is known about it.

Same as Ibn Rushd who is also a Muslim scholar of repute; widely known in the field of epistemology. Works

of literature existing on both Ghazzali and Ibn Rushd focused on the individual contribution of each of these

scholars on religion and other areas of endeavour, except Islamic epistemology. Furthermore, there is no

study available on the comparison of the epistemology of Ghazzali with that of Ibn Rushd and vice-versa.

Thus, a detailed study of the epistemological theories of these two stalwart thinkers of Islamic history is of

great significance whose impact was epoch-making and clandestine on east and west respectively. The

attempt to find out and explore whether there is any room for reconciliation between these two scholars is

also of great relevance.

Keywords: Epistemology; Islam; Fikr; Dhikr.

INTRODUCTION

Man is the vicegerent of God in this world. In order to enable him to fulfill his

responsibilities, Almighty Allah endowed man with potentials of knowledge. It becomes

incumbent upon him to mould this knowledge as per the Islamic framework. Therefore, all

types of knowledge whether it is natural science, social science, or even pure science

should aim at establishing an Islamic system (Al Migdadi 2012). Islam deals not only

with what man must and must not do, but also with what he needs to know. We can say

in other words, Islam is both a way of acting and doing things and also a way of knowing

but in order to act as per Islam we need to have profound Islamic knowledge. Islam is

essentially a religion of knowledge; thus the way of knowing is more important of the two

ways. Knowledge as per Islam, is the central means to salvation of soul and to the

attainment of human happiness in this life as well as in life hereafter. Moreover, Divine

Unity (Tawhid) and Equilibrium (Itidal) are the main principles of Islam and it upholds

the idea of hierarchy and unity of knowledge and of modes of knowing (Fachruddin

2005). All possible avenues to knowledge are duly recognized and each accorded a

legitimate place and function within the total scheme of Islam. The Muslims have a firm

belief that Allah alone is absolute and everything else is relative. This belief is found on

the Islamic principle of Tawhid. As the Absolute Truth, Allah is the source of all other

truths which, however, admit of a hierarchy or degrees of relativity and these levels of

relative truths are known to man through a number of ways. As per Islam, man is

bestowed by all the necessary faculties of knowing which enable him to know all that he

needs to know (Elkheir 2001).

DEFINITION OF EPISTEMOLOGY

A branch of philosophy that is concerned with various theories of knowledge.

The term Epistemology is derived from the Greek term episteme. Epistemologists are

chiefly concerned with the aspects such as what is knowledge? The origin and the scope

of knowledge, the sources of knowledge and the validity of the knowledge. There are the




two major epistemological theories namely rationalism and empiricism which are basically

responsible for other theories of knowledge (Ogaba 2019). Rationalism maintains that all

genuine knowledge is possible through reason alone, while empiricism sticks to the view

that all genuine knowledge is derived from sense- experience. In opposition to these two

views, Kant advocates to transcendentalism according to which neither reason nor sense-

experience in isolation from each other can ever give us the genuine knowledge of reality

(phenomenon) (Sasa 2019). Thus he asserts that the pure concepts without the percepts are

empty, in as much as the pure percepts without the concepts are sightless (Sasa 2019). The

following definitions will further highlight the meaning of epistemology:

Epistemology, (which comes from Greek word episteme) inquiries into the nature of

knowledge and justification of belief. Many writers prefer to use the label “the

theory of knowledge”. Epistemology however has an advantage of being a

philosophical term of art, whereas the theory of knowledge could also apply to the

investigators of sociologists of knowledge and historians of ideas (Risha 2013, p.

179).

These definitions reveal that the term epistemology is chiefly concerned about the different

areas of knowledge like what is the nature of knowledge? What are the sources that lead

us towards the true or genuine knowledge? What is the subjective pole of knowledge

(receiver or knower)? What is the objective pole of knowledge? (Knowable or that is to

be known through the whole process). When these questions are posed within the Islamic

framework, the answers thereafter we get give the picture of Islamic epistemological

paradigm. Islamic epistemological structure obviously is different from other

epistemologies (Harisah et al., 2019). It has its own vision of knowledge („Ilm). The most

distinctive feature of Islamic epistemology is that the revelation i.e. Qur‟an is its first and

foremost source of knowledge. It is from this source that the foundation of Islamic

epistemology is laid. Revelation (Wahy) is the word of Allah that can never be fallible. One

of the primary questions concerning Islamic epistemology is what type of knowledge

leads us towards certainty (Yaqin) (Zysow2014). From this question, we can infer that

there are two types of knowledge, one among them is the knowledge which is unbridled,

unbalanced, defective, goalless and directionless. This type of knowledge is derived

from the sources independent of revelation (Wahy) especially in super sensible matters

and the second type of knowledge is controlled, balanced, all- comprehensive and

inclusive with a definite goal and direction of knowing and that is real knowledge and this

type of knowledge proceeds from the revelation (Wahy) (Yunus 2000).

In Holy Qur‟an there are about 750 verses which indicate about the term „Ilm and

urge us to study and contemplate on the universe so that we may be able to find out the

truth (Akkach 2019). The subject of knowledge is man himself and is having the various

faculties of knowledge like his five senses and reason. He can use his senses and reason in

the way of acquiring knowledge, but these faculties are having some limitations and they

can operate within assigned limits for example senses can help us in gaining

knowledge of those objects which are having physical appearance and are visible in this

material world but there is another world which is immaterial, abstract and transcendent

which can‟t be comprehended or even grasped through senses or reason alone. The

Muslims never regard the physical reality to be as the whole but only an aspect of the

whole reality (Shariati & Marjani 1981). Qur‟an bear witness to the fact that there is one

more world of metaphysics or abstracts beyond this world which can‟t be comprehended

by man through his senses or reason alone. This world is regarded as the lowest of the

many levels of reality the highest being Allah. Thus a searcher of true /real knowledge has

to be very much careful of all these dangers. No doubt Qur‟an gives us a number of




references for the use of reason („Aql) and wisdom (Hikmah) in the path of acquiring true

knowledge but they work within the assigned limits. Thus Islam is having its own

methodology of arriving at the true knowledge where Qur‟an and Sunnah are the basis of

knowledge and as its main sources. Now all other aspects of knowledge like reflection and

contemplation, verses about senses and reason, types of knowledge and principles of

knowledge as per Qur‟an need to be explained so that it provides the clear picture of

Islamic epistemology.

QUR’AN AND HADITH ON THE CULTIVATION OF KNOWLEDGE

The life as per Islam is to be lived in a positive and effective manner and it is the

obligation of an individual to live in a manner that leads to the collective welfare of

community. For the achievement of this objective it is necessary to have the constant flow

of knowledge into the society so that its members can be saved from ignorance and

stagnation. There was the concept of knowledge and learning even in pre-Islamic Arabia

and when Prophet Muhammad (SAW) comes up with revelation, it attached great

reverence for knowledge and knowledge becomes an essential tool for understanding

realities of life (Thompson 1990). The Qur‟an itself in very clear terms has laid great

emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge. The very first verse that was sent down to the

Prophet Muhammad (SAW) in about 611 CE, in the cave of Hira, it says:

Proclaim! [or read!] in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created-man, out

of a [mere] clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful, He

Who taught [the use of] the pen, Taught man that Which he knew not (Muzaffar

2014, p. 176).

It was in the solitude of cave Hira where Prophet Muhammad (SAW) received message

of Allah for the guidance and instruction of whole humanity. The two main sources of

Islamic knowledge are both the Holy Qur‟an and Traditions (Ahadith) of Prophet

Muhammad (SAW). It is important to note that Allah made man (Adam) superior to the

angels through the factor of knowledge as it is stated in the Holy Qur‟an that Allah

taught Adam all the names and asked him to inform angels about the names which they

otherwise did not know. Then Allah made all the angels to prostate before Adam. Here

we see that it was nothing other than the factor of knowledge which made human beings

superior even to the angels who keep on prostrating and worshiping Allah all the time

(Vandestra 2017).„Ilm is the Arabic term for knowledge (Black 2006). The derivation of

root „Ilm make about one percent of the total vocabulary of the Qur‟an occurring 750

times (Black 2006). The few verses of the Qur‟an will further clarify the importance of

knowledge in Islam. The blind and the seeing are not alike; Nor are the depths of darkness

and the light; nor are the (chilly) shade and the (genial) heat of the sun (Yusuf & Ali

2003).

Allah did confer a great favour on the believers when He sent among them a messenger

from among themselves, rehearsing unto them the signs of Allah, sanctifying them, and

instructing them in Scripture and wisdom, while, before that, they had been in manifest

error. For Allah hath sent down to thee the Book and Wisdom and taught thee what thou

knowest not (before): and great is the Grace of Allah unto thee (Islam 2016, p. 54).

Prophet Muhammad (SAW) had also attached great significance to the knowledge

in his valuable Ahadith. The divine revelation (Wahy) itself is the foundation stone of

Islamic knowledge and faith is the acceptance of divine knowledge, then believing is a

special kind of knowing (Safi 2014). From the strictly Islamic point of view knowledge

thus, is only meant to uncover the truth and strengthen the faith of a believer. However,

the knowledge used for any other purpose is against Quranic principles whose supreme




ideal is to make scientific research an additional support for dissemination of Allah‟s

message on earth.

QUR’AN ON REFLECTION (FIKR) AND CONTEMPLATION (DHIKR)

Allah revealed down Qur‟an to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) through angel Jebriel,

so that Prophet (SAW) may empower people about true knowledge and they may be in a

position to distinguish between right and wrong, true and false. Qur‟an offers a

comprehensive way of life, the design of the universe and dynamic civilization. As Allah

says in the Qur‟an, Nothing have we omitted from the Book (Ahmed 1987, p. 87). We

have sent down to thee the Book explaining all things, a Guide, a Mercy, and glad tidings

to the Muslims (Ahmed 1987, p. 92).

The Qur‟an urges man, in order to understand the true knowledge, to observe the

phenomena of nature, such as succession of day and night, the movement of heavenly

bodies and to think upon the mysteries of creation. As Qur‟an says, Allah is He who

raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see; is firmly established on the throne

(of authority). He has subjected the sun and the moon (To His law). Each one runs (its

course) for a term appointed (Ali 1975, p. 156).

Everything that is in the heavens or on the earth is described in Qur‟an as a vestige or sign

(Ayah) of Allah as Qur‟an says,

And it is He who spread out the earth, and set thereon mountains standing firm and

(flowing) rivers: and fruit of every kind He made in pairs, two and two. He drawth

the night as a veil over the day. Behold, verily, in these things there are signs for

those who consider (Allāh 2003, p. 87).

Reflection, thinking and pondering over the mysteries of creation according to Qur‟an,

should lead one to the recognition and appreciation of Divine Creator. Thus a man

according to the Islamic view is not the product of a blind process of evolution but is

created by Allah with a definite purpose and for the fulfillment of that purpose is

endowed by Allah with the qualities of self-consciousness, freedom and reason so that he

may be able to attain the Divine knowledge and thus fulfill the purpose enjoined upon

him by the Allah. Moreover, the signs of Allah are to be found in the external world as well

as the inner recesses of the human psyche, so Qur‟an wants man to exercise his

reflective capacity so that truth may be manifested to them (Bensaid et al., 2014). Through

reflection and observation of this universe, since we get knowledge about Allah therefore

the whole universe is called as al-Aalam. It is for the same reason that we have been

repeatedly exerted by the Qur‟an to have a ponderous consideration on the universe so

that we may get the immanent form of knowledge of the unity of Allah (Bensaid et al.,

2014).

Furthermore Qur‟an gives a number of terms which exerts to think and ponder

over this universe and thus may be able to find the truth. Fikr is one of these terms and its

meaning is thinking and understanding (Aziz 2017). Tafakur is derived from the word Fikr

and means to examine something to obtain the clear knowledge about it after the

involvement of mind but one thing here is very important that this thinking involves two

aspects Fikr for good or Fikr for evil (Aziz 2017). There are a number of people who direct

their thinking towards evil or exercise it in the service of falsehood or injustice. But in

Qur‟an, Fikr is always used in a positive sense (Aziz 2017). Since Fikr involves mind for

thinking, thus it is closely related with „Aql which is always mentioned in Qur‟an in a

positive meaning. „Aql means reason, rationality, understanding, intelligence etc. Since

Fikr and „Aql are closely related, they take place in our minds but also have their

profound effect in our hearts (Qalb) as has been rightly said by Professor Rafiabadi, I




quote,

Our hearts to a large extant determine what we will think about, how we will

think about it and what conclusions we will reach. Likewise our thinking and

reasoning can influence our hearts, modifying our motivations and emotional

reactions. Enough of our thinking and reasoning needs to be specifically directed

towards our motivations and emotional reactions, so that they become more

reasonable. We also need to think more about the short term and long-term

consequences of our actions for ourselves and others. Islam is primarily

concerned with type of thinking and reasoning (Rafiabadi 2017, p. 25).

This quotation infers the message that we must be able to mould our thought towards our

positive emotions and motivations which should lead towards the welfare of ourselves and

of whole community. Moreover, when we employ our thinking in quest of knowledge, it

should be used in a sense that our search ends in true knowledge after making the

distinction of true (Haq) and false (Batin) (Laffan 2010). There is one more term which is

used by Qur‟an repeatedly for the purpose of reflection and observation and that is

Tadabbur, which literally means to take care of a matter i.e. of any event, affair or case

and see its consequences. Thus, Tadabbur keeps watch on where the matter is finally

leading to and what are its results. In this way Taffakur is closely related with the term

Tadabbur and can be considered as the synonymous term for Tadabbur where Tadabbur

signifies the thinking or meditating upon a thing and endeavoring to understand it as it is

mentioned in Qur‟an.

Thus the term Taffakur encourages a deeper reflection and consideration of the

universal phenomenon through which a man can reach to final conclusion and recognize

Allah as the soul and final source of all knowledge (Mamat et al., 2019). Furthermore this

Fikr leads to Dhikr i.e. the practical aspect of knowledge i.e. Ibadah (prayer) of Allah

through His remembrance and all these endeavors leads towards „Ilm i.e. the true

knowledge when we go near to Allah through Dhikr. But Taffakur is necessarily completed

by Tadabbur in order to reach to a Tawhidic knowledge which is in complete consonance

with the „Ilm (Knowledge) Islam stands for. Thus Fikr which compels a man to ponder and

think over the whole process of universe, the way in which it is governed by Allah and

Dhikr which is the outcome of Fikr, must result a searcher of true knowledge in the

reception of divine guidance which is casted into his bosom in the shape of divine light

(Noor), thus here heart becomes the medium of reception of true knowledge and he should

understand his obligation towards Allah and his Prophet (SAW) and turn himself towards

their sincere obedience. So the ultimate goal of Fikr (reflection) in Holy Qur‟an is Dhikr

(contemplation). Because Fikr without Dhikr ends up in nothing and Fikr along with

Dhikr results in the reception of ultimate knowledge (Mamat et al., 2019). Thus, the

Quranic verses and Quranic terms related to knowledge reflects the importance which

Islam gives to the knowledge and makes it clear that the primary source of Islamic

knowledge is revelation (Qur‟an) which forwards the message that Allah alone is the

ultimate source of true knowledge and revelation (Wahy) plays the basic role in the process

of development of Islamic epistemology.

QURANIC EPISTEMOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE KNOWING

Concerning Islamic epistemology therefore it is obvious to start with Qur‟an which

forms the edifice of Islamic epistemology and this epistemology begins to develop

coherently and legitimately based on insights found in Qur‟an. By marking Quranic

epistemology as the comprehensive knowing, it involves a process that includes a trifecta

relationship between the Qur‟an, the individual and this universe. By focusing on the




Qur‟an, this study however by no means undermines the importance of other sources of

legitimacy in the Islamic tradition. But the Qur‟an is the first point of reference as a result

of its being as the infallible word of Allah. It informs the reader with a specific insight into

“what can we know” and “how does one distinguishes between the true knowledge and

false knowledge” and thus serves as a guide for what amounts to knowledge and the

yardstick used to assess justified belief.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE AS PER QUR’AN

The Quranic epistemology primarily holds the principle of Tawhid i.e. Allah is

one and is the principle cause and source of knowledge (Al-Faruqi 1992). The Quranic

verses are witness to the fact that knowledge is not possible without God‟s sanction and

He alone is worthy of definitive description, “All-Knowing, The Wise”. The Quranic

verses share the important insight of a Quranic epistemology, the first is that Allah, the

Primary source of all knowledge imparted it to the Adam (A.S) (Al-Faruqi 1992). Second

knowing is impossible without His approval and third it shifts the epistemic centrality

towards Allah. Taken together, these verses do not negate the existence of other sources

of knowledge, such as our senses or intellect. It does however; affirm that even if our

senses are used to obtain knowledge, it is impossible to do so without the source of our

senses Allah and that this fact should be acknowledged i.e. knowledge cannot be achieved

solely through the human effort (Al-Faruqi 1992).

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE AS PER QUR’AN

There are references in Qur‟an concerning two realms of knowledge, one seen and

the other unseen realm of knowledge. The former can be understood by human beings

through the various faculties of knowing bestowed upon them by Allah which include his

sensory and intellectual (reason) faculties. The unseen world can also be known in a

different way through the province of revelation (Adeel 2019). Depending upon these two

realms thus, there are two types of knowledge one is intrinsic or revealed knowledge and

the other is extrinsic or acquired knowledge. The Qur‟an describes humans as having five

distinctive parts namely, soul (Ruh), mind („Aql), heart (Qalb), body (Jism) and self

(Nafs), from which knowing may arise (Adeel 2019). Each part, however, functions

differently in its potential to enable knowing. Concerning intrinsic knowledge, humans

have the capacity to know in an intrinsic manner, in which knowing is indicative of the

human conditions, such as in our soul or self. Intrinsic knowing involves innate knowing

and is inherent in every human being. It indicates that human beings are imbibed with an

intrinsic ability to grasp knowledge and the Qur‟an attests to this reality by declaring, And

on the earth, are the signs for those who have faith with certainty. And also in your own

selves, will you not then see (Al-Qur‟an 50:20-21).

Here too, these verses substantiate the conviction that there is a “Sign”, an innate

knowing that verifies the Quranic message and leads to the ability to distinguish between

truth and falsehood by examining our own self. This intrinsic knowing is a consequence of

the human condition, an insight that Allah shared with humanity by the way of Qur‟an.

In this connection Qur‟an explicates to us two very important terms in order to arrive at

this intrinsic or certain knowledge. These two terms as previously discussed are Fikr

(reflection) and Dhikr (contemplation). Fikr is the quest for knowledge through the signs

(Ayat) of universe as well as of the Book while Dhikr is a collection of previously given

knowledge. Thus in Fikr, we try to „reach‟ Allah while in Dhikr we tend to give it a

practical shape through His remembrance which leads to the reception of divine guidance

called as Noor (divine light) according to many Quranic verses and traditions of Prophet




(SAW). It is the co-relationship between these two concepts that gives the final notion of

knowledge in Islam.

Regarding extrinsic knowledge the Qur‟an establishes that Allah has given

humans the capacity to potentially know through their own efforts, relying on sensory or

mental faculties, including the heart, mind and body. The Qur‟an verifies this when it

states, And Allah has brought you forth from your mother‟s womb knowing nothing but

He has endowed you with hearing, and sight and hearts, so that you might have cause to

be grateful (Al-Qur‟an, 16 : 76).

Muslims are repeatedly reminded by the Qur‟an that they should use all the

faculties of knowing in a legitimate way in order to reach to the true knowledge. The

legitimate use of each faculty demands that its proper domain competence and its

limitation be duly recognized. Thus, the Qur‟an similarly cautions the reader. And do not

pursue that of which you have no knowledge. Indeed, the hearing, the sight and the heart-

about all these [one] will be questioned (Al-Qur‟an, 17:36).

When taken collectively, these verses reveal two facts, first knowing may occur

with the use of sight, hearing and our hearts and second we need to be cautious about the

potential of false knowledge that may arise from these faculties when we try to derive

knowledge by using them beyond their limits which may lead us to the knowledge which

in real sense is not „Ilm (true knowledge) but mere Zann (Conjecture). Qur‟an also give

due recognition to reason in the way of acquisition of knowledge. Qur‟an uses the term

„Aql for reason. Its importance is employed in the very task of rightly comprehending the

message of revelation as Allah does not speak directly to man and the message is to be

understood through „Aql.

Even though revelation is beyond the ken of reason but can apprehend the content

of revelation (Kazmi 2009). But reason too has limitations and we should not make use of

it beyond its limits, if done, may lead us to the false knowledge or conjecture. So

Quranic epistemology acknowledges sensory and mental faculties for extrinsic or

acquired knowledge but then restrains the intemperate acceptance of any information

gained thereof. So the Quranic epistemology does not contradict the philosophical regard

for intellect („Aql) but purifies it in the light of divine guidance, unlike modern approach

to rationality which considers itself independent of revelation.

Therefore, a Quranic epistemology begins with the affirmation of the certainty of

knowing through the methodology offered by it considering Allah as the primary source

of all knowledge as well as the tools used to derive the knowledge i.e. the revelation

(Qur‟an and Sunnah) and reason, including one‟s sensory and mental faculties. But it

cautions people in regard to the limitations of all sensory and mental knowledge by

reminding them that acquiring true knowledge is not possible without God‟s sanction. In

addition, it describes two kinds of knowing: intrinsic (innately connected to the human

condition) and extrinsic (acquired by the way of sensory or mental faculties). In spite of all

these facts one thing becomes quit clear that acquiring knowledge is impossible, in either

form of knowing, without God‟s approval. In essence, this epistemology combines a

comprehension of revelation and creation in its search for true knowledge.

WESTERN CONCEPT OF EPISTEMOLOGY

So far as the western epistemology is concerned especially the modern

epistemology it revolves round the two types of knowledge namely rationalism and

empiricism (Nwoye 2018). Western rationalists hold that at least some of our knowledge is

derived from the faculty of reason alone, and that reason plays an important role in the

acquisition of knowledge. Clearly there is a limit to what we can learn through abstract




thought. But the reason plays a role, as per the rationalist claim in observation so that the

mind is more fundamental than the senses in the process of knowledge acquisition.

Rationalist western philosophers like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz believed in the

authority of reason. On the contrary, empiricists hold that all of our knowledge is

ultimately derived from our senses or sense-experience. Therefore, they deny the existence

of innate ideas or knowledge or the knowledge that we possess from birth. Empiricism fits

well with the scientific world-view that places an emphasis on experimentation or

observation and struggles to account for certain types of knowledge like knowledge of

pure mathematics or ethics. Thus, the empiricists like Lock, Barkeley and Hume establish

the authority of the senses in the acquisition of knowledge (Löhr 2019). Moreover, in

empirical knowledge, a subject gains the knowledge of an object after the concept has

organized the percept. In other words, the empirical knowledge depends upon the

interrelationship of percept of subject with the help of his senses with the concept of

object. Western empiricists believed that all knowledge has this form i.e. percept organized

by concept. They believe that neither mere percept of sensation nor mere concept gives

knowledge of reality. Mere percept gives the subject only the feeling of object but no

understanding which as per the western empiricist is only awareness but no knowledge.

Similarly, mere concept gives only universals and no knowledge of the particular, The

Existant, The Real. According to Kant, Percept without concept is blind and concept

without percept is empty (Hamm 1981, p. 86).

Moreover, the western empiricists believe that there cannot be any sort of

knowledge of supersensible or Ultimate Reality and knowing is confined to the empirical

or sensible reality. Thus, western epistemology is almost based on the empirical or

physical knowledge of concrete reality giving very less or no place to the metaphysical

reality and therefore accordingly have developed three kinds of sciences of real_physical

science pertaining to the inorganic aspects of knowledge, biological science pertaining to

the organic aspects of knowledge and psychological science pertaining to mental aspects of

knowledge (Everson 1990).

The above definition leads to the fact that the Islamic concept of knowledge is quite

different from the western empirical concept of knowledge as it has always been inherent

in the thinking of Muslim scholars to believe that the revealed word of God (Wahy) is the

main source of knowledge. All other knowledge derived through scientific

experimentation, observation or reflection is meant to support or substantiate the

instructions given in the Qur‟an. The only purpose the knowledge has is to strengthen the

faith of the believer while as such an approach from western views on knowledge is,

diametrically different, which insist that all scientific learning is meant to refute religious

dogma, and find ways of interpreting and understanding the realities of life, which have no

spiritual connotations. Judging strictly from western standards knowledge is an end in

itself and not a means to an end. In Islam on the other hand, knowledge is only a means

to an end (Everson 1990).

VIEWS OF MODERN ISLAMIC THINKERS ON EPISTEMOLOGY

Imam-Ghazzali’s Definition of the Term ‘Ilm (Knowledge)

It is very difficult to formulate a concrete and operational definition for an elusive

and eternally ambiguous term like knowledge. Difficulties multiply manifold in case of

Islam, because in it religious and secular knowledge are completely intermingled. In the

mind of a Muslim knowledge includes, everything which reason and revelation can

unearth for the spiritual and material betterment of mankind. Since the Qur‟an and the

traditions of Prophet (SAW) had emphasized the importance of knowledge in unmistakable




terms and the Muslim scholars in every period of Islamic history took special pains to

explain the scope and subject matter of knowledge. So far as Imam- Ghazzali is concerned

he defined knowledge in terms of „Ilm. For him „Ilm stands for science as well as

knowledge. He considered both the terms identical with each other and for him both the

terms indicate one and the same concept i.e. „Ilm. It should be noted that Imam-Ghazzali‟s

use of word „sciences‟ is general and not restricted to the natural or physical sciences,

covering all subjects of knowledge including those of the Shariah (Ahmad 2012). He

devoted an entire chapter in his book Al-Mankhul Min Ta‟liqat al-Usul to the discussion

of the nature of sciences. He started this chapter by criticizing the Sophist‟s position

regarding knowledge as they derive the possibility of knowing things in themselves and

denied the sensibles and rejected any role of senses in way of acquisition of knowledge

(Ahmad 2012).

On the definition of science, Ghazzali had a peculiar position. According to him

„science cannot be defined‟ (inna al „Ilma la Hadda lah). Furthermore, he explained that

science could be known and that our “inability to define sciences does not indicate our

ignorance about the same science”. Moreover, he maintained that science could be

distinguished in classification from opinion (Zann) and skepticism (Shakk) (Safi 1997).

Imam-Ghazzali divided the science („Ilm) into two types: one is eternal and another is

accidental. Eternal knowledge according to him is that of Allah i.e. knowledge possessed

by Allah. This knowledge according to him has no beginning and it encompasses all

information. It can be described according to him neither as acquired nor as necessary.

Imam-Ghazzali sub-divided accidental knowledge into further two types, one is immediate

(Hajmiyy) and the other is theoretical (Nazariyy) (Abu-Sway 1993). The immediate is that

knowledge which one has to know by the beginning of reason (awwal al „Aql), like

knowing the existence of self, pains and pleasures. Theoretical knowledge on the other

hand, which is acquired is the result of sound thinking. Furthermore Imam-Ghazzali

defined reason („Aql) also as “the qualification which enables the Qualified (Person) to

perceive knowledge and to think about the cognizable (Abu-Sway 1993). Moreover Imam-

Ghazzali in his Ayyuh-al-walad has in unequivocal terms emphasized the knowledge

which cannot be operationalized is only a monumental wastage. He says,

O youth do not be bankrupt of works, nor empty of states, be assured that

knowledge alone does not strengthen the hand just so though a man read a

hundred thousand scientific questions and understood them or learned them,

they do not benefit him except by working (Ashraf1979, p. 64).

Imam-Ghazzali in advocating such a course was only trying to portray the true and

essential character of knowledge in Quranic terms. In Islam, religion is not merely spiritual

embellishment of human soul; it provides full guidance to the believers in solving the

multifarious problems which they encounter in their search for the straight path.

Furthermore, Ghazzali administered the warning to the scholars who are not pure

in their intentions and do not seek the pleasure of Allah through their scholarship but

only use it for material acquisition, official position or popular recognition. He says,

O youth how many nights you have remained awake repeating science and Poring

over books and have denied yourself sleep. I do not know what the Purpose of it

was. If it was attaining worldly ends and securing its vanities and acquiring its

dignities and surpassing your contemporaries and such like, woe to you and again

woe (Scherer 1933, p. 57).

IBN RUSHD’S VIEW PERTAINING TO EPISTEMOLOGY

Ghazzali wrote a famous book named as Tahafat al-Falasifah with english




translation Incoherence of Philosophers in the criticism of Greek philosophy

(Hamati‐Ataya 2014). Since he was dissatisfied with the doctrine of philosophers, so he

obviously criticized them in his Tahafat and charged them of paganism (Kufr) on twenty

points. The answer to these allegations was given by another prominent western Muslim

thinker in his Tahafat al- Tahafah with English translation as Incoherence of Incoherence

known as Ibn Rushd, born in Cordova Spain in 1126 CE, almost 15 years after the death of

Imam-Ghazzali (Hamati‐Ataya 2014). Known to the west as Averroes was a great Muslim

philosopher of Spain. The discussion between the two great personalities mirrors a

genuine conflict in Muslim society, between religion on the one hand and science and

philosophy on the other, being the two main issues of epistemology in those days. Ibn

Rushd, in his capacity as a philosopher aiming at truth, integrated the three apparently

diverse realms. Through rational interpretation of the Qur‟an, he affected the harmony

of the religion with philosophy. The two respective Tahafats of Ghazzali and Ibn Rushd,

picture the ideas which were in play on the stage of Islamic civilization during the 5th

and

6th

AH/11TH

And 12th

CE. Some of those ideas, though now considered to be of mere

historical value, were of major importance at that time (Özdemir 2016).

Ibn Rushd, an important Muslim philosopher of twelfth century Islamic Spain as a

matter of fact set out to integrate the Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic thought. A

common theme throughout his writings is there is no incompatibility between religion and

philosophy when both are properly understood. His contribution to philosophy took

many forms, ranging from his detailed commentaries on Aristotle, his defense of

philosophy against the attacks of those who condemned it and his construction of a form

of Aristotelianism (Liatsi 2016). Ibn Rushd was an ardent follower of Aristotle. It looks as

if in him the philosophy of Muslims has been to come to an understanding of Aristotle.

Aristotle for him is the supremely perfect man, the greatest thinker, the philosopher who

was in possession of an infallible truth (Liatsi 2016). Ibn Rushd as a philosopher found

that it was his duty to defend the philosophers against the fierce attacks of the Faqihs and

theologians, especially after their condemnation by Imam-Ghazzali. He was of the view

that there are three classes of the men, the philosophers, the theologians and the common

men. The philosophers are the people of demonstration. The theologians i.e. the Asharites

who were official at the time of Ibn Rushd in his opinion are of a lower degree as they

started from dialectical reasoning and not from scientific truth. The masses are the people

of rhetoric who understand only through examples and poetic thinking. Religion

according to him is compatible with philosophy. The aim and the act of philosophy is same

as that of the religion. About the compatibility of their methods and subject-matter, he

was of the opinion that if the traditional is found to be contrary to the rational, it is to be

interpreted in such a way as to be in harmony with the rational.

Religion according to him is based on three principles in which every Muslim of

the above mentioned three classes should believe. These are the existence of God, the

Prophecy and resurrection. They according to him constitute the main subject-matter of

the religion. As prophecy depends on revelation, philosophy remains distinct from religion,

unless it is shown that reason and revelation are in accord with each other. But he who

denies any one of the above mentioned basic principles is irreligious (Kafir). He can

believe what he likes through any of the demonstrative, dialectical or rhetorical ways. Thus

in his opinion there is no wrong if a philosopher tries to philosophize the religious

doctrines through demonstrative methods and philosophy in his opinion is the twin sister of

religion and thus Ghazzali has no right to condemn the philosophers as irreligious (Kafir)

(Liatsi 2016).




DISCUSSION So far as the epistemology of Imam Ghazzali is concerned, he finally triumphed in

religion especially related to the knowledge of super sensible or metaphysical realities

where according to him revelation (Qur‟an and Hadith) is the sole criterion, but at the same

time he does not negate the importance and role of reason in acquiring the real knowledge

and we see that the main tool that Ghazzali used in extracting the principles of Islamic law

was reason as John Inglis further enunciates by stating that the book on the principles of

jurisprudence of Imam- Ghazzali fitted well into the program of rationalizing the sciences

which was pursued by Ibn Rushd too and by his mentor Abu Yaqub Yusuf, because

Ghazzali‟s approach to Islamic law was most rationale at that time amongst all well-known

jurists. Moreover Ghazzali challenged the authenticity of Taqlid (blind imitation/belief)

and affirmed the role of reason in religious matters. What he actually meant concerning the

position of reason as the source of knowledge is that reason must remain subservient to

revelation in theological matters like the knowledge about God, angels, hereafter etc. But

one thing here is very important to mention that the epistemological curiosity of Ghazzali

from his very early age led him to intuition or mystical experience as a valid source of

knowledge. He was seldom satisfied by the intellectual rationalism. He realized that

Muslim mystics were truly Godly, illumined with the light that proceeds from the central

radiance of inspiration (Kashf). The transcendental experiences of these sufis convinced

him of the actuality of receiving knowledge that was beyond other human intellect.

On the other hand, Ibn Rushd concerning his epistemology relies always on rational

approach and demonstrative argumentation for the pursuit of reality and discovery of true

knowledge. For Ibn Rushd philosophy is the surest source of knowledge. He is not

satisfied with Sufism, which as per Ibn Rushd is based on subjective inspiration of a

particular person and as per Ghazzali cannot be communicated to other people as it evades

all definitions and articulations. Therefore speaking epistemologically, Ibn Rushd does not

give any place to mystical experiences as the knowledge of the soul and divine matters

and Qur‟an as per Ibn Rushd has also not ordained it. Ibn Rushd in fact aimed at attaining

knowledge of God through the knowledge of the nature that is actually the task of

philosophy. He puts forward the condition that if the philosophy is given in the right hands

then it leads to true knowledge, but if it is laid in the hands of wrong people then it will be

very disastrous for right belief. Therefore for Ibn Rushd, philosophy was a means to

strengthen faith and to deepen ones appreciation for truth. Ghazzali as a matter of fact set

the agenda for Ibn Rushd and the books of both these thinkers are interlocked.

The general position about Ghazzali however is that he denounced and condemned

reason, while as Ibn Rushd has elevated it to the highest status. But in my opinion his view

that “if an astronomical observation or a mathematically derived principle appears to

contradict a Hadith, the later should be reinterpreted” is sufficient to refute all allegations

against him. Though he does not blindly believe that reason is the absolute criterion of

truth and certainty as was held by Ibn Rushd. Furthermore, one more thing has been

wrongly associated with Ghazzali that he has rejected the notion of cause and effect in all

matters. But in daily life matters especially in the observance of dictates of Shariah, he

fully recommends the consideration for cause and effect when he says, “it is, however,

not possible except through knowledge of the nature of these destructive matters of life,

as well as their causes, symptoms, and cure, as he does not know evil falls into it. A cure

is, in confronting a cause with its opposite. How could such a thing be possible without

knowledge of both cause and effect?”

Therefore on the final note the conclusion which can be drawn from the exhaustive

study is that Imam-Ghazzali and Ibn Rushd relied on intuition and reason (philosophy)




in their respective epistemologies and mostly were divergent in their theories of knowledge

especially concerning the theological matters, but there are various issues where they were

convergent or in agreement with each other. For example Ibn Rushd agreed with Ghazzali

on the principles of Islamic law, Ghazzali‟s position in avoiding the indulgence in Kalam,

Ghazzali‟s position with regard to categories of people and the nature of scriptural text in

relation to interpretation (Ta‟wil). Finally we can say that for true knowledge revelation,

intuition and reason are needed. Intuition cannot ignore the laws of reason and even the

enjoyment of divine vision cannot be known to be so unless it passes into a rational

judgment and reason of course has to depend for its knowledge of the basic and the

ultimate on revelation and intuition. To depend wholly on the one or the other or to keep

them apart was a big mistake and reason and intuition must complement each other.

CONCLUSION

While taking the epistemological pursuits of both the scholars critically, we come

to the conclusion that Imam Ghazzali gave undue importance to sufi practices in the

acquisition of genuine knowledge and therein putting aside the balanced approach of

senses, reason, revelation and intuition. Sufism maintains that the ultimate reality, union

with which is sought by the mystics in their moment of contemplation, is attainable not

through the exercise of ratiocinative process or logico-mathematical techniques but

through the operation of intuitive faculty which enables one to see it face to face.

Furthermore Ghazzali also maintained dichotomy between scientific and spiritual

knowledge making scientific knowledge or the knowledge gained through observation

secondary in importance. While as when we look at the epistemology of Ibn Rushd, his

thought is parallel to that of Ghazzali‟s, making philosophy especially that of the Aristotle

as the ultimate way of acquiring genuine knowledge by the process of discussing the

nature of things through logic or reason and gave the epistemology that does not suit

Islamic paradigm. Ibn Rushd too, like Ghazzali ignored another important aspect of

knowledge and that is spiritual knowledge. Thus while concluding we can say that

Ghazzali‟s epistemology lack in the scientific way of acquiring knowledge and Ibn

Rushd‟s epistemology lack in the spiritual way of acquiring knowledge and if the

epistemologies of both scholars are combined thereupon we can get the answer to the

question of epistemology within Islamic paradigm.

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Epistemology in Islam: A Philosophical Study