Environmental Law

4th edition

David Hughes LLB (LIVERPOOL), LLM (CANTAB), FRSA

Professor ofHousing and Planning Law,De Montfort Law School, De Montfort University, Leicester

Tim Jewell LLB, MPHIL (LEICESTER)

Barrister, Senior Visiting Fellow,

Faculty ofLaw, University of Southampton

Jason LoWther LLB (MIDDLESEX POLYTECHNIC), LLM (SOUTHAMPTON), PGCE

Lecturer in Law,

School of Legal Studies, University of Wolverhampton

Neil ParpWOrth LLB (LEICESTER), MA (LONDON)

Senior Lecturer in Law,De Montfort Law School, De Montfort University, Leicester

Paula d e Prez LLB, PHD (WOLVERHAMPTON)

Lecturer in Law,

Liverpool Law School, University of Liverpool

ButterwprthsLexisNexis™

Contents

Preface vTerms and abbreviations regularly encounterd xxixWeb-based resources xxxiiiTableof Statutes xxxviiListofcases liii

PARTI

The overall structure and development of environmental law

CHAPTERl

Environmental law - past, present and future 3

'The past indicative, the present imperfect and the future uncertain' 3A The historical development of the law relating

to public health 3'Matters of Imperial interest, which we cannot with impunity neglect' 3Pour encourager les autres 5

B The growth and current State of planning law 5From slum to Utopia? 5'We'llkeeptheredflagflyinghere?' 6The years of 'one of us7 - planning under the Thatcher governments 8

C To sum up so far ... 9D The current law relating to statutory nuisances 9

The procedure for taking action in respect of a statutory nuisance: localauthorities 10

Against whom is action taken? 11Taking of action in respect of statutory nuisances by private Citizens 13

viii Contents

Further reading 14History and development of the law 14The current law of statutory nuisances 15

CHAPTER2

The ethical basis of environmental law and its principles 17

The search for a moral basis for the law 17From morality to legal principle 20Sustainable development 20

The development of an idea 20The relationship with environmental economics 20Further legal development 22How might sustainability as a notion further express itself? 23For the future? 23

The precautionary principle 24The'polluterpays'principle 26

but is it the polluter pays or the user pays? 26Best practicable environmental Option 27A miscellany of principles 27

The current legal and policy position of the UK 29The law/economics/policy interface 30

Further reading 31Future developments 31Environmental ethics and policy 31Taxation issues 32

CHAPTER3

The players: bodies responsible for the formulation andimplementation of environmental policy and regulation 33

A Central government and the environment 33The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs 33Green Ministers 34Greening Government and the Environment Audit Committee 35

B Regulators and the environment 36A potted history of twentieth Century environmental regulation 36Pre-Agency regulation of prescribed processes: Her Majesty's Inspectorate

ofPollution: 1987-1996 37Pre-Agency regulation of water pollution: the National Rivers

Authority: 1989-1996 37Pre-Agency regulation of waste: Waste Regulation

Authorities: 1990-1996 38

Contents ix

The Environment Agency: integration and defragmentation 39The Environment Agency's statutory duties 40

The principal aim 40The Agency's other general duties 42The cost benefit duty 42Funding 43

Environment Agency enforcement: policy and practice 43General Powers of Entry, etc 47Sentencing in environmental cases 48Assessment of the Environment Agency: A 'champion' for the

environment? 48The courts: the case for an environmental court 50The Nature Conservancy Councils 51The Countryside Agency 51Food Standards Agency 52

'Proof of the pudding...' 54C Environmental advisory bodies 54

The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution 54Advisory Committee on Business and the Environment (ACBE) 55Parliamentary select committees 55Commission on Sustainable Development 56

D Sustainable development - UK policy 56The ten principles of the new strategy for sustainable development 57The three sides of the sustainable development 'triangle' 58Further reading 60

General background 60Journal literature 60Official reports 61

CHAPTER4

Environmental law: the international and European dimension 63

A International environmental law 63'Soft' international environmental law 65General principles of international environmental law 65Treaty based law 65Trends in international environmental law 69Flying on from Rio? 69The World Trade Organisation (GATT) 71International environmental law: a summary and a vision? 72EC or EU — Community or Union? 73

B European Community (EC) environmental law 73C The inception of the ECs environmental policy 74D The place of the environmental policy in the overall EC scheine. 74E The action programmes 75

x Contents

F The legal basis of EC action 76G The institutions and legal base of EC environmental activity 77

The Council 77The Commission 78The Parliament 78The European Court of Justice (ECJ) 78The Economic and Social Committee (ECOSOC) 79The Court of Auditors 79The environmental provisions of the Treaty 79The decision making procedure 79

Where unanimity is required ('consultation procedure') 80Where Art 252 (ex 189C)applies('co-operation procedure') 80Where Art 251 (ex 189B)applies (Joint legislative or co-decision

procedure) 81The principle of subsidiarity 81

H The f orms of EC secondary legislation 82IDirecteffect 83

State liability 87J Enforcement issues 89

The Court of First Instance 90K EC law. an evaluation and view on future prospects 92

A quickening pace of change? 92Protection of environmental interests under the European Convention on Human

Rights(ECHR) 93Further reading 93

ECLaw 93International law 94

CHAPTER5

Human rights and the environment 95

A The human rights approach to environmental issues 95B From moral to legal human rights 96C History of the Convention 96

What does the Convention say? 96'The margin of appreciation' 97Will our courts develop the 'margin' notion? 97Bringing rights home 98

D A thumbnail sketch of the HRA 1998 98What if a court cannot achieve compatibility? 98Who can do anything about such an incompatibility? 98

E Duties of public authorities - including local authorities 99What if such an authority breaks that rule? 99How can action be taken? 99What remedy can a court give? 99

Contents xi

F Convention rights and the environment 99G The attitude of the ECHR towards environmental issues 100H To sum up so far 101I The possible application of Art 2 101J Procedural rights 102K The implications for, and developments in, UK law 103L Article 8 etc and planning law 104M The impact of Art 6 107N Seif incrimination 111O Article 6 and exclusionary rules of ci vil liability 113P Regulation of investigatory powers 113

Further Reading 114The HRA 1998 114General Issues 115

CHAPTER6

Civil liability for environmental damage 117

The law of torts and the environment 117A The tort of private nuisance 118

Unreasonable user 118Types of interference 119The relevance of locality 120Who can sue? 121A remedy for personal injury ? 122Who can be sued? 123For what damage will the defendant be liable? 125Remedies 127Damages 127Injunctions 128Self-help 129

B Public nuisance 130Assessment of nuisance as a tool of environmental protection 131

C The Rule in Rylands v Fletcher 132Assessment of Rylands v Fletcher as a tool of environmental protection 134

D The tort of negligence 134A concept of environmental damage at common law? 135Establishing a duty of care 137Breach of duty - a civil duty to regulate? 138Causation 140A defence of statutory authority? 141Assessment of the tort of negligence as a tool of environmental protection 142

E Trespass to land 143F An action for breach of statutory duty 143G Damage from nuclear installations 144

xii Contents

Grounds of liability 144Limitation and compensation arrangements 146

H White Paper on Environmental Liability 147What is'damage'? 147Who will beliable? 148Who can bring an action? 149

Further reading 149

CHAPTER7

Access to environmental information andenvironmental justice 151

Introduction 151Behind closed doors: traditions of secrecy 152Modern regulation of access to environmental information 152A The statutory registers 153

Reliability of register entries as a measure of compliance 153Register entries and public inspection 153

B Environmental Information Regulations 1992 154Who are 'relevant persons' ? 154What is 'environmental information' ? 155The general Obligation to make information available 155Problems with the 1992 regulations 156

C The Aarhus Convention 157The Scope of the Convention 157Aarhus Convention, Art 4: passive access to information 157Article 5: active access to information 158Articles 6-8: public participation in decision making 159Article 9: access to environmental justice 159

D Proposed directi ve on environmental information 160EFreedomof Information Act 2000 161

The right to information 161Exempt information 162

F The Green Claims Code 163G Environmental reporting 164H General provisions 165I Access to justice: legal challenge of environmental decision making 165J Pressure groups/non-governmental organisations (ngos) 165

Judicial review and the standing of NGOs 167Concerned Citizens and standing 167Standing and NGOs 168The 'Pergau Dam case': confirmation of 'Surrogate' standing66 169

The Alconbury case: Art 6 and the right to a fair hearing 170The right to private prosecution 171The courts and Strategie lawsuits against public participation 173

Further reading 175

Contents xiii

PART II

Protection of the land

CHAPTER 8

The basic structure of planning control 179

Planning and sustainability 179A Plan making 180

A note on National Parks 181An emerging patchwork quilt of planning authorities 181

B Development plans 182Unitary Development Plans (UDPs) 182Structure plans 185Local plans 186Recovery of inquiry costs 188Other types of plan 188London 189Plans and the environment 189What is the 'development plan' ? 191

C General planning control 191The definition of development 191

D The need for planning permission 193Permitted development (PD) 195Simplified planning zones 196

E Applying for planning permission 198Publicity requirements 199

'Verymajor' 199'Major' 200'Minor' 200

Deciding the application 200The growth of third party rights 205The Obligation to act fairly 205

F Environmental impact assessment 206The development of an idea 207Scope, application and form of EI A 208The problem of permitted development rights 211The decision on whether EIA is required 211Recent developments 213Procedure once it is determined EIA is required (or where it is mandatory) 215Submitting the ES 216Determining the application 217EIA: an assessment 218

Recent developments at EC level 219Assessment of the effects of plans and programmes on the environment 219The process 220

HCallinpowers 221

xiv Contents

I The grant of planning permission, planning conditions and obligations 221Planning obligations 223Obligations; the technicalities 225Multi party obligations 226Application of planning control to land of interested planning authorities and

development by them 226J Challenging a planning decision 226

Holding the inquiry 228The decision on appeal 230Human rights issues and other matters 231Costs 231Further challenge 232

K Financial consequences of revoking or refusing permission 234L Enforcement 235

The current law 236Enforcement: further action 239

M Certificates of lawful use/development 241The future of planning law 242

The principal planning tier of local government 243Fundamental changes in development control 244

Further proposals 246Repeat applications 246Twin tracking 246Timelimits 246Land assembly 246Appeals 246Permitted development rights 247Community consultation and involvement 247Planning obligations 247Enforcement 247

Other fundamental changes at national, regional and local levels 248Major development projects 248Appeals 248Called-in decision 248Third party rights of appeal 248Delegation and contracting out 248

Comment 249Further reading 249

Books 249Journals 250

CHAPTER 9

The use of land in rural areas and powers to deal withderelictland 251

A The EC dimension 252

Contents xv

CAP 'capped' 252CAP in the future 253

Pesticides 253Biodiversity 255

B Agriculture and planning law 255Future prospects 257A yet more radical approach? 258

C Agriculture and countryside legislation 259A troubled Act 259

The new law 260Designation and its consequences 260Appeals 261Exemptions for 'public bodies' 261Management schemes and notices 262Payments 263Powers of compulsory purchase 263Offences 264Miscellaneous and consequential issues 265Evaluation 265Commencement 266

D Special Protection Areas, Special Areas of Conservation and EnvironmentallySensitive Areas (ESAs) 266

ESAs 267E Limestone pavement Orders 268FPesticide Control 269

Control over aerial spraying 270G National parks, access to, and leisure in, the countryside 270

Planning in the National Parks: further considerations 272H Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) 274

Management plans within AONB 275I Coastline protection 276J Country parks 277KForestry 277

Forestry policy 278Current forestry policy 278Grant aid and forestry policy 279Compensation issues etc 281

L Hedgerows 283M Green belts and development in rural areas 284

Land for Housing: 'Greenfield v Brownfield' 288N Derelictland 290OConclusion 293

The future 293Further reading 294

Books 294Journals, occasional and Conference papers 295Official reports and Conference papers 295

xvi Contents

CHAPTER 10

Access to the countryside and public rights of way 297

A 'The right to roam' 298The scheme of the Act 299Mapping 299The rights and liabilities of landholders 300Dedication 300Exclusion and restriction of access 301Means of access 302General and Miscellaneous provisions 303Commencement and guidance 304

B Public rights of way and long-distance routes 304C A continuing duty 305D Reform under CROWA 2000 305E Further reform under CROWA 2000 307F Miscellaneous and commencement 309G The form of the definitive map and Statement 309H Long Distance Routes 309I Assessment of access 310

Further reading 310Books 310Articles 310Official Reports 310

CHAPTER 11

Controversial uses of land 311

A Trank and Special roads 311Procedure 312The road to hell is paved with good intentions 314A New Deal for Transport? 315Environmental impact (EIA) assessment of roads 318The Line Inquiry Stage 319Criticisms of highway procedure 322Future reform? 323Compulsory purchase powers 323

B Aerodromes 324The airports for London controversy 325

The London STOLPORT 326Continuing airport controversy 326

Compulsory purchase powers 328C Electricity undertakings 329

The construction of power stations and installation of power lines 330Special provisions for nuclear installations 332Inquiries and nuclear installations: further controversies 334

Contents xvii

D Concern over and reform of inquiry procedure 335Muted responses to concern over inquiry procedure 338

E The Transport and Works Act 1992 339F For the future...? 339

Real reform? 341G Pipelines: uncontroversial laws? 341H Controls over hazardous developments and installations on land, and major

industrial hazard sites, etc 342Major accident hazards 342Duties of the competent authority 344Planning and hazardous substance controls 345Conditional consent 346Variation and revocation of consents 347Revocation, appeals and enforcement 348

Further reading 350Roads 350Airports 350Power stations 350Articles 350Official reports 350

CHAPTER 12

Genetic modification technology and the environment 351

Introduction 351A Newfangled or 'oldhat'? 351B Arguments for and against GM technologies 353C Regulation ofGMOs 354

1 Contained use of GMOs23 3552 Deliberate release of GMOs: marketing and release of GMOs 356

EPA controls of deliberate releases 357Enforcement and publicity provisions 359Marketing GMOs in the EU: the Deliberate Release Directive 360

D GMOs in food and food labelling: 'from ethical coffee to environmentaltea'57 361

E Relevant bodies in the regulation of GMOs 363The role of the Food Standards Agency 363The role of the Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment

(ACRE) 364The role of the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes

(ACNFP) 364F World Trade Organisation rules 365G The Cartagena Biosafety Protocol 2000 366H The legality of a UK moratorium 367I Civil liability for releases of GMOs 367

Cross-pollination of organic crops 368

xviii Contents

Allergies and other personal injury 369J Criticisms of GMO regulation 370

Further reading 371Official publications 372

CHAPTER 13

Mineral extraction 373

A Extraction and the environment 373B Basic structuresof control 374

Mineral planning authorities 375Policy preparation and content 377

C 'mining' and 'minerals' 379Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 381Permitted development 383Continuing control I: conditions and obligations 385Continuing control II: aftercare 387Continuing control III: review of planning permissions 388

Old mining permissions 388Other minerals permissions 389

Continuing control IV: other powers of Intervention 391Revocation, modification and discontinuation 391Prohibition and Suspension 393

Taxation of aggregates extraction 394E Extraction of marine aggregates 395

The old System 396The revised non-statutory System 397Towards a statutory System 398

FCoal 398Coal mining and planning policy 399

G Onshore oil and gas 402Further reading 404

CHAPTER 14

Waste management 405

A The background 405Waste management law in outline 407

The development of waste controls 407International measures 409

B European measures 410European waste policy 411European waste law 412

Stream-specific waste measures 413

Contents xix

Packaging and related waste 414Hazardous wastes 416Transboundary mo vement of waste 417Landfül 418

C National waste policy 420The national waste strategies 420National waste policy: 'the European objectives' 421

D UK waste management law 423Control under planning law 423

Strategie planning 424Development control 426

Waste management licensing 427Defining 'waste': the statutory position 427Defining 'waste': the case law 429Institutional framework 432Waste collection funetions 433Waste disposal funetions 434Waste management licensing: key offences 435Exclusions and exemptions from licensing 438Other registration obligations: waste brokers 439Other registration obligations: waste carriers 439Defences to EPA 1990, s 33 offences 440The statutory duty of care 441Waste management licences 442Applying for a waste management licence 443'Fit and proper person' 444Variation of licences 445Revocation and Suspension of licences 446Surrender of licences 446Transfer of licences 448Appeals and public registers 448The disposal of 'special waste' 449Removal of unlawfully deposited waste 450

Economic instruments: the landfill tax 451Application of the landfill tax 452Exemptions from the landfill tax 453Landfill tax credits 454

Litter 454E Radioactive waste 457

International guidelines and regulations 457The types of radiacti ve waste 458Disposal: the regulatory framework 459The development of radioactive waste policy 460

Implementation of policy through law 462Authorisation of disposal and aecumulation of radioactive waste 463Further powers of the Secretary of State and offences 464The application of the law in practice 465Transporting nuclear waste 467Further reading 468

xx Contents

CHAPTER 15

Contaminated land 471

A The current position in outline 473Core principles 473Part ILA and planning controls 474Part ILA and waste management controls 476EPA 1990, Part IIA and statutory nuisance controls 477

B The new regime 477C What is 'contaminated' land? 478D Identifying contaminated land 480E The remediation procedure 482

When a remediation notice may not be served 483The recipient(s) of a remediation notice 484Multiple liability: non-statutory exclusions, and apportionment 486

F Supplementary provisions 488Appealing against a remediation notice 488Offences 488Powers of enforcing authorities to carry out remediation 489Registers 490Agency reports and guidance 490

Further reading 491

PART III

Legal protection for the atmosphere and integrated controls overmajor polluting activities

CHAPTER 16

IPCandIPPC 495

A The IPC and LAAPC Systems 496The Environmental Protection Act 1990, Part I 496

Emission limits and quality objectives 496Discharge and scope of funetions 497Prescribed processes and prescribed substances 497The 'A' and 'B' lists 498Authorisations 500Conditions of authorisation 500BATNEEC 501BPEO 502BATNEEC, BPEO and the courts 505Guidance 506Transfers and variations 507

Contents xxi

Revocation and enforcement 508Prohibition 509Appeals 509Public registers of information 510Offences 511Injunctive relief 512IPC/LAAPC and the courts 513Howis the IPC/LAAPC System working? 514

BTheIPPCDirective96/61/EC 517Whatisapermit? 517

Obtainingapermit 517The implications for UK Systems 518

C Domestic implementation of the JPPC Directive 520The Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999 520

Definitions 520Regulating polluting activities 521

The Pollution Prevention and Control (England and Wales)Regulations 2000 522

The regulators 522Definitions 523

Installations and mobile plants 523Permits 525

Transitional arrangements 525Applications for permits 526Determining an application 526Conditions of a permit 527The BAT condition 528Guidance 530Off-site conditions 531General binding rules 531Review of conditions 531Change in the Operation of an installation 532Variation of conditions 532Transferring a permit 532Surrendering a permit 533Revoking a permit 534

Enforcement 534Enforcement notices 534Suspension notices 535Power of the regulator to prevent or remedy pollution 535

Appeals 535Information and publicity 537

Public registers of information 537Information affecting national security 538Commercially confidential information 538

Provision as to offences 539Offences 539Power of court to order cause of offence to be remedied 539

xxii Contents

Powers of the Secretary of State 540Applying for IPPC permits: the experience to date 540

Further reading 541Books 541Articles: LPC 541Articles: IPPC 542Official reports 542

CHAPTER 17

Atmospheric pollution 543

A The overall problem 543B Particular problems and some Solutions 544

Particular problems 544' Acid rain' 544Depletion of the ozone layer 545Acidification (a simplified model) 545The greenhouse effect 546

Further issues in atmospheric pollution 548C The legal response 549

Atmospheric treaties 551Principal features of the Montreal Protocol 552The Climate Change Convention in practice 555EC and UK policy responses to the 'greenhouse' issue 557

European Union law: 'non-greenhouse' issues 560Amiscellanyof further EU measures 562

Domestic law 563D Statutory control of smoke and other atmospheric pollutants 563

Control of smoke 564The Clean Air Act 1993 564

control of dark smoke 564emissions from trade premises 565controls over new furnaces 566control ofchimneys 567smoke control areas 567

Special cases 568Are the Clean Air Act's provisions needed? 569

E The national air quality strategy 569F Planning law and atmospheric pollution 572G Miscellaneous powers 573H Control of vehicle emissions 575I Stubble burning 576

Further reading 577General works 577Energy 577Planning control 577

Contents xxiii

Transport 577Odours 578Official reports 578

CHAPTER 18

Noise 579

A What is noise? The problem and the international response 580Peak sound level in dB(A) 580Noise and the EC 581

B Noise and the common law 582C Public law controls over noise 583

The development of the law 583Common law powers 584The current Statute law 584

Noise nuisances 584Street noise 587General defences to noise nuisance allegations 588High Court proceedings and injunctive relief 589Summary proceedings by person aggrieved 589Notices served under previous legislation 590Night noise 590Construction site noise 591Loudspeaker noise 593Noise abatement zones 594Procedure for designating zones 594Offences 595Noise abatement zones — the practice 596Noise from plant and machinery 597Supplemental provisions 597A miscellany of codes 597

D Other sources of noise and modes of noise 598Audible intruder alarms 598Motor sports 598Entertainment 598Raves 599Anti-social behaviour 600

Some future developments 601A National Ambient Noise Strategy 601Neighbour and neighbourhood noise 602IPPC 602

Byelaws 603Planning controls 603

General principles 604Noise exposure for residential developments 604

xxiv Contents

Noise from road and rail traffic 604Industrial and commercial development noise 605Noise from construction sites 605Sporting and recreation noise 605Waste disposal site noise 605

E The control of aircraft noise 606Civil liability for aircraft noise 606Public regulation of aircraft noise 608

Engine noise 608Control of airport noise 609Control of noise by means of air transport licences 610A miscellany of other controls 610The future 612

F The control of traffic noise 613Control under traffic regulation powers 613

"The roaring traffic's boom' 614Control of vehicle noise 614

Motorcycles 615G The control of rail noise 616H Noise insulation schemes 616

Grants in respect of aircraft noise 616Grants in respect of traffic noise 617Grants in respect of railway noise 618

I Miscellaneous forms of compensation 618Further reading 620

General 620Official reports 620EC requirements 620Motor vehicles 620Aircraft 621Planning powers 621The economics of noi se 621

PART IV

Protection of the aqueous environment

CHAPTER 19

Marine pollution 625

A Customary international law on marine pollution 625B International treaty law on marine pollution 626

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 626Treaties relating to oil pollution 627The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

(MARPOL1973/78) 628

Contents xxv

Treaties relating to dumping 628The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes

and Other Matter (the London Convention) 629The 1996 Protocol 629

The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North EastAtlantic (the OSPAR Convention) 630

C Pollution of the sea in UK law 631The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil Pollution) Regulations 632The Merchant Shipping Act 1995 633

Powers to intervene 634Temporary exclusion zones 635Power to require ships to be removed 635Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 636Improvement notices 637

Prevention of Oil Pollution Act 1971 637Dumping at sea 638

Offshore installations 639Other provisions Controlling exploitation of the sea 641The Deep Sea Mining (Temporary Provisions) Act 1981 641Petroleum Act 1998 641Sand and gravel extraction 642

D Marine nature reserves 643Byelaws 644Further reading 644

Books 644Journals 644Official reports 645

CHAPTER 20

Riverine pollution 647

A EC Water Directives 647The Dangerous Substances Directive 648The Groundwater Directive 649The Surface Water Directive 650The Bathing Water Directive 650The Freshwater Fish Waters Directive 651The Shellfish Waters Directive 652The Drinking Water Directive 652Detergents Directive 654The Titanium Dioxide Directive 654The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 655The Water Framework Directive 655

B Domestic controls over fresh water 657Water resource management 65 8

xxvi Contents

Licences to abstract water 659Droughts 660

Ordinary drought Orders 660Emergency drought Orders 660Making drought Orders 660Works, compensation and offences 660Drought permits 661

Control of pollution 661The 'causing' and 'knowingly permit' offences 662

Words and phrases 663'Cause or knowingly permit' 664The causing offence 664Empress 666Intervening acts of third parties 667Vicarious liability 668The knowingly permit offence 669Prohibition ofdischarge 670Discharges into and from public sewers 670

Sampling evidence 671The new regime 671Statutory defences 671Collateral challenge 672

Abandoned mines 673Discharge consents 674

Appeals in respect of consents 675Deposits and Vegetation in rivers 676Supplementary provisions 676

Anti-pollution works and operations 678Works notices 678Appeals against works notices 679Consequences of not complying with a works order 680Environment Agency Policy and Guidance on the use of Anti-Pollution Works

Notices 680Enforcement 681

Sentencing 682Ministerial regulations/directions 683

Implementing EC obligations 684Water protection zones, nitrate sensitive areas and nitrate vulnerable zones 686

Water protection zones 686Nitrate sensitive areas 687Procedural matters 688The Nitrate Directive and nitrate vulnerable zones 689

The Water Industry Act 1991 690Sewers and drains 691Trade effluents 691Trade effluent consents 692Other effluents 692Sewerage undertakers powers 693

Contents xxvii

Environment Agency powers 693Information 695

Drinking water 695Statutory duty with respect to water quality 696Supplying water unfit for human consumption 696Common law liability 697Regulations for preserving water quality 697Waste, contamination, misuse etc of water sources 698Local authority funetions 698

The future 699C Planning and water pollution 700D Land drainage 701E Reservoir construction 702

Further reading 703Books 703Journals 703Official reports 704

Index 705