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Environmental Ethics and
Philosophy
Learning Objectives
Understand some principles of environmental ethics and philosophy
Compare and contrast how different ethical perspectives shape our view of nature and our role in it
Realize how your own worldview and core values shape your perception of nature
Explain anthropocentrism, biocentrism, ecocentrism, utilitarianism, and ecofeminism, and what it says about human/nature relationships
INTRODUCTION
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with
– Morals: Distinction between right and wrong
– Values: Ultimate worth of actions or things
“What is the good of life? How ought we, as moral beings, to behave? (Socrates and Greek philosophers 2500 y.a.)
Environmental ethics deals with the moral relationships between humans and the surrounding world.
Ethical Questions on the
Environment
Do we have special duties, obligations, or responsibilities to other species or to nature in general?
Are there ethical principles that constrain how we use resources or modify our environment?
How are our obligations and responsibilities to nature weighed against human values and interests? Do some interests or values supersede others?
Ethical Principles
Universalists –fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging, and eternal.
introduced by Plato and Kant
ethical rules are valid regardless of our interests, attitudes, desires, or preferences.
these rules are revealed by God or discovered through reason and knowledge.
Ethical Principles
Relativists - Claim moral principles are always relative to a particular person, society, or situation.
advanced by the Sophists
no transcendent, absolute principles apply
regardless of circumstances.
“There are no facts, only interpretations”
Friedrich Nietzsche’s aphorism
Ethical Principles
Utilitarians - Believe an action is right that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
associated with Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Hedonism – equate goodness with happiness and
happiness with pleasure
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) – makes utilitarianism less
hedonistic. (pleasures of intellect superior than that of body)
Gifford Pinchot and early conservationists – purpose of
conservation is “for the greatest good for the greatest number
for the longest time”.
Values, Rights, and Obligations
Moral Agents - Beings capable of acting morally or immorally, and WHO CAN ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY for their acts.
– Humans
Moral Subjects - Beings who are not moral agents, but who have moral interests and can be treated rightly or wrongly.
– Children, people who are mentally retarded or ill
Moral Extensionism - Widening definition of who is considered ethically significant.
– Animal Rights
Do Other Animals Have Rights?
Does moral extensionism encompass nonhumans? Do other species have rights as well? Are they moral agents or at least moral subjects?
Many philosophers (e.g. Descartes) --- NO!
Reason and consciousness are essential criteria
Descartes claimed that animals are mere automata (machines) and can neither reason nor feel.
Most pet owners disagree – animals are intelligent and can feel. As sentient (perceptive) beings, they deserve ethical treatment.
But what about non-sentient? Bugs? Rocks? Landscapes?
Intrinsic and Instrumental Value
Intrinsic (Inherent - Innate) - Worth or value simply because of existence. –Humans
Instrumental (Conferred) - Worth or value only because they are valued by someone who matters. –Tools
e.g. human vs car
Do nonsentient things have inherent value?
The case of Sierra Club vs Disney Corporation (landmark court case, 1969)
Non-living things also have inherent worth, but could not
speak for themselves in court “Sierra Club sued the Disney Co on behalf of the trees,
rocks, and wildlife of Mineral King Valley in the Sierra Nevada Mountains where Disney wanted to build a ski resort”
Christopher Stone – legal brief “Should Trees Have
Standing” since Disney Co is also treated as a person Are there ethical limits on what we can do to nature?
WORLDVIEWS Anthropocentric
View- Human-centered.
“humans as more important than any other species”
“Be fruitful, and multiply,
and replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Genesis 1:28)
WORLDVIEWS
Stewardship View- Custodian of resources.
– Indigenous peoples, traditional agricultural societies, modern farmers
“We have a responsibility to
manage and care for a particular place”
Humility and reverence are essential in this worldview, where humans are seen as partners in the natural process rather than masters.
STEWARDSHIP
WORLDVIEWS
Biocentrism - “Life-centered”
- many environmentalists
– “All living organisms have
intrinsic values and rights regardless of whether they are useful to us” (John Muir and Aldo Leopold)
– “Biodiversity is the highest ethical value in nature : species and populations
WORLDVIEWS
Ecocentricism – (Ecology-centered)
- claims moral values and rights for ecological processes and systems rather than individual organisms – the whole is greater than its
individual parts.
Larger-scale ecological processes such as evolution, adaptation,
and the grand biogeochemical cycles as the most important aspects of nature
Nature doesn’t seem to care about individuals. Species come and go. What seems to have longevity in nature are processes like photosynthesis and evolution.
ECOCENTRISM
Water Cycle
Infiltration
WORLDVIEWS
Animal Rights View – hold that animals and humans have equal rights.
- view humans as destroyers when these same rights are not afforded to animals.
WORLDVIEWS
Ecofeminism - argue that most philosophies came from a patriarchal system based on domination and duality that assigns prestige and importance to some things but not to others.
Patriarchal worldview (1) men
are superior over women (2) minds better than bodies (3) progress higher than nature
– Contend that domination,
exploitation, and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature are intimately connected and mutually reinforcing.
Ecofeminism
pluralistic
Nonhierarchical
Relationship-oriented philosophy
Humans must reconceive
themselves and their relationship with nature in nondominating ways and instead cooperation rather than competition, network of personal relationships rather than isolated egos
ECOFEMINISM
What is Ecofeminism? – Ecofeminism integrates ecology and feminism.
1. Women are believed to be closer to nature.Therefore,
ecofeminists take on life-struggles of all of nature as their own.
2. There is no hierarchy in nature. 3. A balanced ecosystem must maintain diversity. 4. Ecofeminism attempts to convey a new understanding
and awareness of nature.
Ecofeminists, also known as ecological feminists, are women who analyze the interconnections between the status of women and the status of nature.
Worldviews and Ethical
Perspectives
WORLD VIEWS AND ETHICAL
PERSPECTIVES : Summary
ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Environmental Justice
combines civil rights and environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy environment for all people. – People of color around
the world are subjected to a disproportionately high level of environmental health risks.
– Poorer minorities live in
urban ghettos, toxic waste dumps, landfills, smelters, refineries, incinerators, etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM
Environmental Racism – inequitable distribution of environmental hazards based on race.
Evidence: At every income level,
whether rich or poor, black children are 2 to 3x more likely than whites to suffer from lead poisoning.
Environmental Justice
Toxic Colonialism - Targeting poor communities of color in poor areas / countries for waste disposal and / or experimentation. – Moving operations to countries where
environmental regulations are lax.
– A treaty regulating international shipping of toxics was signed by 105 nations in 1989.
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal
Evidence of racism?
Ethical Choices: Trade-off’s
South Durban: Ethical Concerns
South Durban: Ethical Concerns
Sustainability: Challenge!!!
NATURAL SYSTEM
(Handbook, Page 9)
SOCIAL SYSTEM
ECONOMIC
SYSTEM
Framework: Ethics into
environmental planning
The 1996 Constitution for the Republic of South Africa (section 24) states:
“Everyone has the right-
(a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well being; and
(b) to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that-
(i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation;
(ii) promote conservation; and
(iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development”.
Municipal Systems Act
Section 4(2)(f) of the MSA requires councils to “promote a safe and healthy environment in the municipality”;
Section 4(2)(g) states that councils must assist in the progressive realisation of fundamental rights, such as the environmental right and others in the Constitution.
Key Ethical Principles for
Sustainability
Summary of Key Ethical Principles*
*Note: A comprehensive set of key environmental principles as listed in NEMA can be found in the Handbook.
Integration of social, environmental, economic and institutional issues.
Concern for the future – thinking about how the action or decision you take now will affect future
generations.
Social justice and equity, including working to eradicate poverty.
Avoiding disturbance to ecosystems and loss of biodiversity, and recognizing and working within ecological limits.
Key Legislated Ethical Principles
NEMA 2006, Precautionary Principle.
– If the impacts are not know why Do it!!!
Access to information as a form of empowerment.
– Why consultation without access to information.
– Relevant, accurate and timely information is required to make proper ethical decisions.
Con: key Ethical Principles for
Sustainability
Adopting a multi-sectoral approach. Accountability, and transparency. Monitoring and evaluation to assess how
we are doing. Linking local issues to global impacts. Local economic development and job
creation. Public participation and forming
partnerships between public, private and community groupings.
References
Seeliger, Leanne and Hattingh, Johan, 2005 Ethics and Environmental
Decision-Making, A case study in Cape Town and surrounds ,
University of Stellenbosch, Dept of Applied Ethics
COMEST, 1996, Draft Policy Advice on Environmental Ethics, UNESCO
