ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF URBANIZATION

6.1 Introduction:

“A beautiful environment generates beautiful minds and beautiful minds lead

to creativity”. As one contemplates the alluring words spoken by Dr. A.P.J.Abdul

Kalam, it instantaneously makes one believe and treat ‘creativity’ as the birthplace for

several indispensable questions responsible for many scientific discoveries enriching

human societies. The recent studies show that in most of the developing countries

including India, concern for environment is widely expressed. The “Environment”

comprises all entities, living and non-living, natural or manmade, external to oneself,

and their interrelationships, which provide value, now or perhaps in the future, to

humankind. Environmental concerns relate to their degradation through actions of

humans. We the human species and all our activities are also an integral part of the

dynamic environment. Our biological survival is totally dependent upon the stability

of our surroundings which is nothing but a complex set of processes in dynamic

equilibrium. Hence automatically all our developmental activities if they are to be

beneficial and sustainable must be anchored on the environmental and ecological

precepts.

One of the greatest challenges of the present century is to tackle the problem

of rapid urbanization. The rapid rate of urbanization and development has led to

increasing environmental degradation. This increase has been rapid since the middle

of the 19th century which has affected the quality of environment. As per 2001 Census

27.8 per cent of India’s population (286 million) lives in urban areas, thereby showing

more than tenfold increase in total urban population from 1901 to 2001. According to

the UN-HABITAT 2006 Annual Report, in regard to future trends, it is estimated 93

per cent of urban growth will occur in Asia and Africa and mainly two Asian

Countries, India and China. By 2050 over 6 billion people, two thirds of humanity,

will be living in towns and cities.1 Urbanization is associated with higher incomes,

improved health, higher literacy, improved quality of life and other benefits. Yet

along with benefits comes environmental and social ills. Urbanization affects the

environment in many ways: its relation with discharge of pollutants and generation of

194

solid/liquid/gaseous wastes, secondly, its relation with the depletion of natural

resources and its relation with the social costs of population explosion, pollution,

poverty and sustainable development.

Waste generation has witnessed an increasing trend parallel to the

development of industrialization, urbanization and rapid growth of population. The

problem has become one of the primary urban environmental issues. Enormous

amount of waste is generated daily and its management is a huge task. Similarly, the

rapid increase in urbanization combines with desperate poverty to deplete and pollute

local resource basis on which the livelihood of the present and future generation

depends. Apart from these, India has major environmental problems related to

industrialization also. In the pursuit for faster industrialization, the environmental

factors have not been given serious consideration in the formulation of industrial

policies. The cavalier attitude towards environmental degradation and adoption of

environmentally less friendly technologies has resulted in air and water pollution and

has made most of our major rivers impure and filthy. While the major industries are

responsible for macro-environmental problems, the unchecked growth of informal

manufacturing sector in most of urban centres has spoiled the micro-environments.

“Nature has enough to satisfy everyone’s need but has not enough to satisfy man’s greed. Sadly our over-expanding greed has put us in such precarious situation. Will we realise it? The policy of industrialization had helped rich to become richer and poor become poorer. The disparity has widened. It is the democratic system followed in the country which has forced our policy-makers to think of growth for all. That is why we are hearing plans for inclusive growth. Industrialization is not without price. All these have a direct bearing on environmental pollution leading to climatic change. We are all witness to the deleterious effects of climate change. The whole world is now anxious to repair the damage”.

Mahatma Gandhi

Protection of the environment has to be a central part of any substantial

inclusive growth strategy. This aspect of development is especially important in the

Eleventh Plan when consciousness of the dangers of environmental degradation has

increased greatly. Population growth, urbanization, and anthropogenic development

employing energy-intensive technologies have resulted in injecting a heavy load of

pollutants into the environment. More recently, the issue assumed special importance

because of the accumulation of evidence of global warming and the associate climate

195

change that it is likely to bring. Thus, these consequences on quality of environment

are not easily dealt with. The lack of knowledge is a problem.

Therefore, environmental issues should not be viewed from a sectoral

perspective or regarded as an add-on on consideration, because they form an integral

part of all human activities. The national government’s overriding concern for balance

of payments to the exclusion of all their considerations has led to the neglect of

environmental issues, greatly endangering the societal well-being. There is an urgent

need to include to concept “environmental burden” in international trade and

commerce.

Similarly, sustainability criteria should become a touch stone for evaluating

developmental projects along with techno-economic feasibility. A wide range of

policy choices is available for protecting and improving environment. A judicious

blend of short-term and long-term policies would be required to integrate

environmental concern with developmental activities for attaining sustainable

development.

This chapter is divided into five sections: the second section include

Generation of solid/liquid/gaseous wastes and their characteristics. The third section

deals with various global environmental concerns; fourth section throw light on Waste

Minimization Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste Management Approach: the

fifth and the final section deals with Social costs of population explosion, pollution,

poverty and sustainable development and their various aspects.

6.2 Generation of Solid/Liquid/Gaseous Wastes

A. Solid Waste Generation

Solid wastes consist of the discards of households, dead animals, industrial and

agricultural wastes and other large wastes like debris from construction site,

automobiles, furniture etc. A typical classification of solid waste includes:

1. Garbage: putrescible (decomposable) wastes from food slaughter houses,

canning freezing industries and market refuse.

2. Rubbish: Non-putrescible wastes like paper, wood, cloth, rubber, leather etc.

Which are all combustible. It also includes non-combustible like metals, glass,

ceramics, stone etc.

196

3. Ashes: Like fly ash from thermal plants, residues of incineration of solid wastes

by municipal bodies or industries.

4. Hospital Refuse: Cotton, plaster, needles and operation theatre wastes.

5. Large Wastes: Debris from construction site, old furniture, automobiles.

6. Dead animals: Households, veterinary hospitals and zoo.

7. Sewage treatment process solids or sludge.

8. Industrial solid wastes: chemicals, paints, sand etc.

9. Agricultural Wastes: Farm animal manure, crop residue etc.

10. Mining Wastes: Tailings, slag heaps.2

In Indian cities, the waste is generally not weighed. It is measured by volume

to determine the quantity of waste disposed off. Some studies have shown that the

waste generation rates are low in small towns whereas they are high in cities over 20

lakh population. The range is between 200 gms per capita per day and 500 gms per

capita per day3. Table 6.1, describes the average municipal solid waste production

from 0.21 to 0.50 Kg per capita per day in India. The present urban population is

expected 341 million in 2010. The waste quantities are expected to increase from 46

million tons in 2001 to 65 million tons in 20104. It is also reported that per capita per

day production will increase to 0.7 kg in 2050.

Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities

Population Range Average Per Capita

(Millions) Value Kg/Capita/Day

0.1-0.5 0.21

0.5-1.0 0.25

1.0-2.0 0.27

2.0-5.0 0.35

>5 0.5

Source: NEERI Strategy paper on SWM in India February 1996

Cities with 100,000 plus population contribute 72.5 per cent of the waste

generated in the country as compared to other 3955 urban centres that produce only

17.5 per cent of the total waste (Table 6.2).

197

Table 6.2: Waste Generation in Class 1 Cities with Population

above 100,000

Note: Mega cities are above 4 million population and metro cities (also known as million plus cities) are the same as the identified cities under the proposed JNNURM. Class 1 cities with population in the 100,000 to 1 million range are 388 in number.

Source: MOUD (2005)

A (I) Characteristics of waste

Table 6.3: represents the municipal solid waste characteristic during last three

decades in the country. From the analysis of the table it could be concluded that the

waste characteristics are expected to change due to urbanization, increased

commercialization and standard of living.

Table 6.3: Characteristics of Municipal solid Waste

S.No COMPONENT WET WEIGHT IN INDIA %

1971-72* 1996** 2005***

1 Paper 4.14 2.91-6.43 8.13

2 Plastics 0.69 0.28-0.78 9.22

3 Metals 0.5 0.32-0.80 0.5

4 Glass 0.4 0.35-0.94 1.01

5 Inert 3.83 44-54 25.16

6 Ash and Fine Earth 49.2 30-40 --

7 Compostable Matter 41.24 31-57 40-60

8 Calorific Value 800-1100 <1500 800-1000

9 C/N Ratio 20-30 20-30 20-40

Note: *Bhide & Suderesan, 1983, **Manual on MSW, NEERI, 1996,

***http://www.cpcb.nic.in

Source: CPHEEO Manual on MSW Management

Types of Cities Tonnes/day % of Total Garbage

The 7 mega cities 21,100 18.35

the 28 metro cities 19,643 17.08

the 388 class 1 towns 42,635 37.07

Total 83,378 72.5

198

The present trend indicates that the paper and plastics content will increase

while the organic content will decrease. The ash and earth content is also expected to

decrease mainly due to an increase in the paved surface. Although, the organic

content is expected to decrease, the material will still be amenable to biodegradation

and the calorific value will continue to be unsuitable for incineration. In keeping with

the present practices and estimates of waste generation, around 90 per cent of the

generated wastes are land filled requiring around 1200 hectare of land every year with

an average depth of 3 m. Due to rapid urbanization, prevailing land use regulation and

completing demands for available land, it is desirable that adequate land be earmarked

at the planning stage itself for solid waste disposal. The larger quantities of solid

waste and higher degree of urbanization will necessitate better management involving

a higher level of expenditure on manpower and equipment.

• Plastic Waste

It is noteworthy that the quantum of waste is ever increasing due to the increase in

population, developmental activities, changes in life style, and socio-economic

conditions. Plastics waste constitutes a significant portion of the total municipal solid

waste (MSW). It is estimated that approximately ten thousand tonnes per day (TPD)

of plastic waste is generated i.e. 9 per cent of 1.20 lakhs TPD of MSW in India. The

plastic waste includes two major categories of plastics; (1) Thermoplastics and (2)

Thermoset plastics. Thermoplastics constitute 80 per cent and Thermoset constitutes

approximately 20 per cent of total postconsumer plastic waste generated in India.

Thermoplastics are recyclable plastics and include Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET),

Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), High Density Poly

Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), etc. Thermoset plastics

contain alkyd, epoxy, ester, melamine formaldehyde, phenolic formaldehyde, silicon,

urea formaldehyde, polyurethane, metalized and multilayer plastics etc.

• Hazardous Waste

The hazardous waste generated in the country is about 4.4 million tonnes, out of

which 38.3 per cent is recyclable, 4.3 per cent is incinerable and the remaining 57.4

per cent is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve states of the country (including

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan)

199

account for 87 of total waste generation. The top five waste generating states are

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal.

• Electronic Waste (e-waste)

The growth of e-waste has significant environmental, economic and social impact.

The increase of electrical and electronic products, consumption rates and higher

obsolescence rates lead to higher generation of e-waste. The increasing obsolescence

rate of electronic products also adds to the huge import of used electronics products.

The e-waste inventory based on the obsolescence rate in India for the year 2005 has

been estimated to be 1, 46,180 tonnes, and is expected to exceed 8, 00,000 tonnes by

2012. There is no large scale organized e-waste recycling facility in India, whereas

there are two small e-waste dismantling facilities functioning in Chennai and

Bangalore, while most of the e-waste recycling units are operating in the un-organized

sector.5

B. Liquid Waste Generation

With increasing urbanization, industrialization and their growing amount of

wastes, huge quantities of waste water enters rivers and canals and have over-taxed

their natural recycling capabilities. Of the many problems associated with increasing

wastes, the problem of fresh water pollution in India came to the forefront towards the

beginning of 1970’s with the domestic sewage and industrial waste discharges being

the most critical sources of pollution in cities. This resulted in the promulgation of the

water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and establishment of the

National Water Quality Network in 1979. The Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB) has established National Water Quality Monitoring Network comprising

1429 monitoring stations in 27 states and 6 in Union Territories on various water

bodies across the country. The monitoring is undertaken on monthly or quarterly basis

in surface waters and on half yearly basis in case of ground water. The monitoring

network covers 293 Rivers, 94 Lakes, 9 Tanks, 41 Ponds, 8 Creeks, 23 Canals, 18

Drains and 411 Wells. Presently the inland water quality-monitoring network is

operated under a three-tier programme i.e. Global Environmental Monitoring System

(GEMS), Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic Resources System and Yamuna

Action Plan.

200

B (I) Water Pollution

The sources of water pollution include point and non-point sources like

discharges from industries and storm water respectively. While pollution from point

sources can be controlled, it is difficult to control pollution from non-point sources

such as agriculture run-off, leaching from waste disposal sites and storm water.6 The

infiltration of rainfall into landfill, together with the biochemical and chemical

breakdown of the wastes, produces a leachate which is high in suspended solids and

of varying organic and inorganic content. All household and most industrial wastes

will produce leachate. If the leachate enters surface or groundwater before sufficient

dilution has occurred, serious pollution incidents can occur. In surface waters,

leachate high in organic material and reduced metals will cause severe oxygen

depletion and result in fish-kills. Leachate high in non biodegradable synthetic

organic compounds is a particular threat: through bioaccumulation, concentrations of

these substances may increase to toxic levels and endanger animal and human life.

If leachate enters groundwater or shallow aquifers, the problems are more

intractable. Dilution and removal of leachate is much slower in groundwater than in

surface water and it may render the groundwater non-potable for the foreseeable

future. Contamination of groundwater is a serious problem of immediate concern.

B (II) River Water Pollution

90 percent of wastewater discharged daily in developing countries is

untreated, contributing to the deaths of some 2.2 million people a year from diarrheal

diseases caused by unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene. At least 1.8 million

children younger than 5 die every year from water-born diseases. Fully 80 per cent of

urban waste in India ends up in the country’s rivers, and unchecked urban growth

across the country combined with poor government oversight means the problem is

only getting worse. A growing numbers of water bodies in India are unfit for human

use, and in the River Ganga, holy to countries 82 per cent Hindu majority, is dying

slowly due to unchecked pollution.

Much of the river pollution problem in India comes from untreated sewage.

The water quality data of rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sabarmati, Mahi, Tapi, Narmada,

Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarni, Subarnrekha,

201

Brahmaputra, Satluj and Beas is computed statistically to obtain information on

polluted stretches. The water quality of major rivers varied widely with respect to DO,

BOD, total Coliform and faecal Coliform. The level of DO is observed more than 4

mg/l in river Narmada, Mahanadi, Brahmini, Baitarni, Subarnrekha, Beas and

Chambal throughout the year whereas, the lowest values (in mg/l) were observed in

stretches as river Kali East (0.1), Ganga (0.3), Yamuna (0.3), Krishna (0.4),

Amlakhedi (0.4), Sabarmati (0.7), Ghaggar (0.8), Brahmaputra (1.1), Tapi (1.2),

Satluj (1.6), Godavari (2.4), Mahi (2.7), Kaveri (3.3), Pennar (2.3) and at few

locations downstream of urban settlements due to discharge of untreated/partially

treated municipal wastewater, which is responsible for high oxygen demand. Very

high values of BOD were observed in rivers Amlakhedi (947 mg/l), Sabarmati (380

mg/L), Kali East (165 mg/l) followed by Satluj (64 mg/l), Yamuna (40mg/l), Tapi (36

mg/l), Ghaggar (28 mg/l), Chambal (24 mg/l), Godavari (15mg/l), Ganga (14.4 mg/l),

Cauvery (9 mg/l), Krishna (9 mg/l) and Brahmani (7 mg/l). The relatively low values

of BOD were measured in river(s) Mahi, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Pennar, Mahanadi,

Baitarni and Beas. In respect of total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) and faecal Coliform

numbers (MPN/100 ml), river Yamuna is leading with highest count of 1.1x109 and

6.2x107 respectively followed by, Sabarmati (4.6x105 and 2.4x105), Ganga (4.5x106

and 7x105), Brahmaputra (2.4x105 and 2.4x105), Cauvery (5x104 and 1.7x104),

Brahmani (2.8x104 and 1.3 x 104), Satluj (2x105 and 9x104), Krishana (1.24 x 105

and 2.8 x 103), Mahanadi (9.2x104 and 2.4 x 104), Baitarni (9.2x104 and 3.5 x 103),

Ghaggar (1.7 x 105 and 9x104), Tapi (5x105), and Godavari (2.2 x 105 and 5.5 x 104)

at certain locations. The river Mahi, Subenarrekha, Pennar and Narmada are relatively

clean rivers as the number of total Coliform and faecal Coliform count are relatively

less than 2400 MPN/100 ml and 700 MPN/100 ml respectively.7

Some of the polluted river stretches; their Observations in terms of Dissolved

Oxygen (DO) and Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) are summarised in Table

6.4. It has been observed that almost all rivers are polluted with respect to Bio-

Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), one of the most important indicators of water

quality.

202

Table 6.4: List of Polluted River Stretches in terms of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Concentrations at various points located at Interstate Boundaries

S.No. River Location Duration of

Observations

year

BOD (mg/l) DO (mg/l)

1. Yamuna Paonata Sahib (H.P.)

2005-08 1 3.64 1.26 6.6 10.6 8.7

Sonipat Baghpat Road,

Haryana

2005-08 1 5 2.55 6.1 8.2 7.13

Palla, (Delhi) 2005-08 1 6 2.84 5.5 10.7 7.9 Asgarpur

Village (U.P.) 2005-08 6 50 30 0 0 0

Dak Patthar (Uttarakhand)

2005-08 1 2 1.16 9.01 10.2 8.9

Buriya U/S Jagadhari (Haryana)

2005-08 1 2 1.28 7 10.5 8.27

Mohena Palwal Road

(Haryana)

2005-08 8 37 21 0 12.1 3.2

Shergarh (U.P.)

2005-07 2 10 4.84 6.6 18.6 10.3

2. Ganga Tarighat, Ghazipur

(U.P.)

2005-08 1 6 3.2 6.9 8.72 7.95

Sultanpur (Uttrakhand)

2005-08 1 2 1.42 6.8 12 8.90

Bijnor Deoband Road

(U.P.)

2005-08 1 4 1.85 7 9 8

3. Sutlej Nangal (H.P.) 2006-08 1 2 1.33 6 8.7 1.66 4.

Krishna Khurundward Kohlapur

(Maharashtra)

2005-08 <1 5 1.7 5.4 11.5 8.4

Deodurg (Karnataka)

2005-08 <1 2 0.61 7 7.8 7.8

5. Damodar Sindri (Jharkhand)

2005-09 1 3 2.16 6.9 8.2 7.48

Dishergharh (West Bengal)

2005-09 1 3 2.17 6.5 8.2 7.38

203

6. Cauvery Satyagala Bridge, Narsipur

(Karnataka)

2005-08 <1 2 0.92 6.9 8.6 7.56

7. Godavari Basra Kavalguda,

(Maharashtra)

2005-08 1 3 2.03 4 568 192.9

8. Sabarmati Khedbrahma (Gujarat)

2005-07 1 1 1.1 6.7 10.5 8.6

9. Tapi Prakasha (Maharashtra)

2006-08 <1 8 4.03 7.0 8.8 7.63

Nizhar (Gujarat)

2006-08 1 1.5 1.25 7.1 8.1 7.6

Ajnand (Maharashtra)

2006-08 <1 3 2.03 7.1 14.5 9.93

10. Subarnarekha Bheragora (Jharkhand)

2005-09 1 3 2 6.8 8.5 7.58

Gopibhallavpur (West Bengal)

2005-09 2 3 2.25 6.4 8.5 7.57

Lakhannath (Orissa)

2005-09 2 2 2 6.8 8.2 7.5

11. Narmada Navagam (Gujarat)

2006-08 <1 2 1.4 4.8 9 7.06

12. Kosi Dadyal Bridge (U.P.)

2008 2 2 2 7.4 7.4 7.4

13. Sone Chopan, (D/S before

Reservoir Rihand), (U.P.)

2005-08 1 3 1.77 5.5 5.58 5.4

Deora (U/S before

Reservoir Rihand), (M.P.)

2005-08 <1 3 1.18 5.74 8.3 7.02

Source: CPCB Annual Report, 2008-09

204

Table 6.5: Trend of Water Supply, Waste Water Generation and Treatment in

Class I Cities/Class II Towns (1978-79 to 2003-04)

Parameters Class I Cities Class II Towns

1978-79

1989-90

1994-95

2003-04 1978-79 1989-90 1994-95 2003-04

Number 142 212 299 423 190 241 345 498

Population (millions)

60 102 128 187 12.8 20.7 23.6 37.5

Water supply (mld)

8,638 15,191 20,607 29782 1533 1622 1936 3035

Water supply (lpcd)

144 149 161 160 120 78 82 81

Waste Water

Generated (mld)

7,007 12,145 16,662 23826 1226 1280 1650 2428

Waste water

Generation (lpcd)

117 119 130 127 96 62 70 65

Waste water treated

(mld)

2,756

(39%)

2,485

(20.5%)

4,037

(24%)

6955

(29%)

67

(5.44%)

27

(2.12%)

62

(3.73%)

89

(3.67%)

Waste water

Untreated (mld)

4,251

(61%)

9,660

(79.5%)

12,625

(76%)

16871

(71%)

1160

(94.56%)

1252

(97.88%)

1588

(96.27%)

2339

(96.33%)

Source: 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Vol 2, Planning Commission, GOI

Note: mld-Mega litre per day

lpcd-Litres per Capita per Day

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) realised the gravity of water

quality deterioration in water bodies and instituted studies on the wastewater

management in India with changing urban pattern during last three decades and

highlighted the need for urban wastewater management. The studies on watersheds

for assessment of water quality and wastewater management formed the basis for

River Action Plans on many of rivers and their tributaries. The trend of water supply

205

and wastewater generation and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II towns is

summarised in Table 6.5. The comparison of water supply, wastewater generation

and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II Towns during 1978-79, 1989-90, 1994-95

and 2003-04 is given. Data collected in these studies indicates that the wastewater

generation has increased three fold i.e. from 8233 million litres per day (mld) in 1978-

79 to 26254 mld in 2003-04 putting together the figures of both categories of urban

centres. Although, the treatment capacity has also increased by two and half times

from 2823 mld in 1978-79 to 7044 mld in 2003-04 but the gap of untreated volume

has increased drastically.

Table 6.6 represent the data on wastewater generation and treatment in Class I

cities and Class II towns in India during 2003-04. The data is compiled for each State

and Union Territory and the ranking of States (worked out on the basis of discharge of

untreated wastewater). Table 6.7 shows projected population and wastewater

generation in India. It is clear from the table that based on the projected population for

the year 2051 the wastewater generation is going to be 132253 mld and the urban

population projection for the year 2051 is likely to be of the magnitude of 1093

million when about 50 per cent population will live in cities however this shows that

waste water generation shows an increasing trend and is positively related to rise in

urban population. As the water availability is going to reduce due to increase in

population the wastewater generation in any urban centre is going to be the source of

water supply for the downstream located urban centres. In view of such situation there

is a need to attain 100 per cent wastewater treatment with more stringent standard.

206

Table 6.6: Ranking of States based on discharge of untreated wastewater in Class I cities and Class II towns - 2003-04

Rank States Waste water Generated

(mld)

Waste water Treatment

(mld)

Discharge of untreated waste

water

1 Maharashtra 5247 653 4594

2 West Bengal 2363 385 1978

3 Delhi 3663 2230 1433

4 Bihar (incl. Jharkhand)

1524 135 1389

5 Uttar Pradesh (incl. Uttaranchal)

2563 1215 1348

6 Andhra Pradesh 1421 208 1213

7 Rajasthan 1180 27 1153

8 Gujarat 1911 807 1104

9 Madhya Pradesh (incl. Chhattisgarh)

1296 241 1055

10 Tamil Nadu 1223 338 885

11 Karnataka 1158 397 761

12 Punjab 689 5 684

13 Kerala 479 0 479

14 Orissa 418 0 418

15 Assam 248 0 248

16 Chandigarh 304 91 213

17 Haryana 369 309 60

18 Pondicherry 40 0 40

19 Meghalaya 34 0 34

20 Manipur 27 0 27

21 Tripura 25 0 25

22 Goa 22 0 22

23 Nagaland 22 0 22

24 Himachal Pradesh 15 3 12

25 Andaman 9 0 9

26 Mizoram 4 0 4

Total 26254 7044 19210 Source: 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Planning Commission, GOI

207

Table 6.7: Projected Population and Respectively Wastewater Generation in India

Year Urban

Population (Million)

Litres/Capita/Day (lpcd)

Gross Wastewater Generation (mld)

1977-78 60 116 7007

1989-90 102 119 12145

1994-95 128 130 16662

2001 285 - -

2011 373 - -

2021 488 121 (Assumed) 59048 (Projected)

2031 638 121 (Assumed) 77198 (Projected)

2041 835 121 (Assumed) 101035 (Projected)

2051 1093 121 (Assumed) 132253 (Projected) Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India.

C. Gaseous Waste Generation

The decomposition of waste into chemicals constituent is a common source of

local environmental pollution which contaminates air and water systems. A major

environmental concern is gas release by decomposing garbage. Methane is a by-

product of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and these bacteria thrive in landfills

with high amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations can reach up to 50 per cent of

the composition of landfill gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition. In the absence

of proper methane venting and/or flaring, the gas seeps into porous soil surrounding

the waste and eventually migrates into basements and homes, posing an explosion

risk. Carbon dioxide is a second predominant gas emitted by landfills; although less

reactive, build up in nearby homes could be a cause of asphyxiation.

A second problem with these gasses is their contribution to the so-called

greenhouse gasses (GHGs) which are blamed for global warming. Both gases are

major constituents of the world’s problem GHGs; however while carbon dioxide is

readily absorbed for use in photosynthesis; methane is less easily broken down, and is

considered 20 times more potent as a GHG.8

208

C (I) Air Pollution

Air pollution in India has been aggravated over the years by developments that

typically occur as economies become industrialised: growing cities, increasing traffic,

and higher levels of energy consumption. Although, industrial emissions are

significant but vehicular pollution is the single most important source of air pollution

(around 70 per cent). Since 1960’s the number of motor vehicles is increasing at rate

faster than the population. It is estimated that there were 50 million cars all over the

world in 1950, which have risen to 600 million in 2002. By 2020 it will be touching 1

billion mark. Vehicle production in India is increasing at the rate of 15-20 per cent per

year. As per a recent media report (T.O.I.), Delhi is adding 963 vehicles on its road

every day while Bangalore is adding 500 vehicles. The story is no different in other

metros or tier-II and tier-III cities9.

Table 6.8 shows the rapid growth of automobiles in India, in various sectors

during 1951 to 2006. The table reveals that personalised mode (constituting mainly

two wheelers and cars) accounted for more than four-fifth of the motor vehicles in the

country compared to their share of little over three-fifth in 1950. Further break up of

motor vehicle population reflects preponderance of two wheelers with a share of more

than 72 per cent in total vehicle population, followed by passenger cars at 13 per cent

and other vehicles (a heterogeneous category which includes 3 wheelers (LMV

Passengers), trailers, tractors, etc.) around 9 per cent. In contrast to personalized

mode, the share of buses in total registered vehicles has declined from 11.1 per cent in

1951 to 1.1 per cent during 2006. Also, the share of goods vehicle at about 5 per cent

in vehicle population is modest in comparison to the size of the economy. The share

of buses in the vehicle population at about 1 per cent possibly indicates the slow

growth in public transport. The major share is contributed by metropolitan cities in all

registered vehicles in the country. The problem has been further compounded by

steady increase in urban population (from approximately 17 percent to 28 percent

during 1951-2001) and larger concentration of vehicles in these urban cities specially

in four major metros namely, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata which account for

more than 15 percent of the total vehicular population of the whole country, whereas,

more than 40 other metropolitan cities (with human population more than 1million)

accounted for 35 percent of the vehicular population of the country. Further, 25

209

percent of the total energy (of which 98 percent comes from oil) is consumed by road

sector only. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70

percent of CO, 50 percent of HC, 30-40 percent of NOx, 30 percent of SPM and 10

percent of SO2

of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two third is

contributed by two wheelers alone. These high level of pollutants are mainly

responsible for respiratory and other air pollution related ailments including lung

cancer, asthma etc., which is significantly higher than the national average.10

Table 6.8: Composition of Vehicle Population in Percentage of total

Year 2 Wheelers

Cars, Jeeps etc.

Buses Goods Vehicle

Others Total (Million)

1951 8.8 52 11.1 26.8 1.3 0.31 1961 13.2 46.6 8.6 25.3 6.3 0.66 1971 30.9 36.6 5 18.4 9.1 1.86 1981 48.6 21.5 3 10.3 16.6 5.39 1991 66.4 13.8 1.5 6.3 11.9 21.37

2001 70.1 12.8 1.2 5.4 10.5 54.99 2004 71.4 13 1.1 5.2 9.4 72.72 2005 72.1 12.7 1.1 4.9 9.1 81.5 2006 (P)

72.2 12.9 1.1 4.9 8.8 89.61

Note: Others include Tractors, Trailers, 3 Wheelers & etc. (P): Provisional

Source: Road Transport Year Book 2006-07, MoRTH

Fig: 6.1

Source: As table 6.8

210

These cause the problem of air pollution, as a result of exhaust gases and

particulate matter. As per a recent study by IIT, Chennai, 70 per cent air pollutants are

from automobile emission in the mega city of Chennai. Some of these exhaust gases

like CO2 is a major greenhouse gas while Carbon Monoxide, NOx and hydrocarbons

are major health hazards for the people on road as vehicle emit within the breathing

zone of people. The increase of automobiles is major concern for air quality in the

Indian cities. Release of dust, smoke and chemically hazardous gases lead to poor air

quality near the industrial sites. Dust from mines specially coal and asbestoses when

inhaled by the workers produce chest related diseases. Dust from brick clines, fly ash

from coal fired thermal power plants cover large areas in the neighbouring towns and

cities. Thus, this is clearly an area of concern in global environmental issues.

In order to determine the air quality status and trends assess health hazards,

disseminate air quality data, and to control and regulate pollution, the CPCB (Central

Pollution Control Board) initiated a nationwide framework of NAAQM (National

Ambient Air Quality Monitoring) in 1984 with 28 stations at 7 cities. Presently, the

network has 290 monitoring stations in 92 cities and towns throughout the country.

The pollutants being monitored are mainly SPM (suspended particulate

matter), SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and NOx (oxides of nitrogen). SPM is one of the most

critical pollutants in terms of its on air quality and is also the most common pollutant

across all sectors. As against to the maximum permissible limits laid down by CPCB

for annual average concentration of SPM in ambient air - 70 mg/m3 in sensitive areas,

140 mg/m3 in residential areas and 360 mg/m3 in industrial areas, it is clearly evident

that the SPM levels are high in most of the cities in India. Table 6.9 reveals air

pollution scenario in different cities and lead us to the conclusion that almost all cities

shows a high level of air pollution and as a result public policies to address these

problems are in place, but no city has been able to satisfactorily contain them.

211

Table 6.9: Air Pollution Scenario in different Cities

(Concentrations in Microgramme Per Cubic Metre)

City Population thousands

(2005)

Particulate Matter (2002)

SPM (2001)

RSPM (2001)

SO2 (1995-2001)

NO2 (1995-2005)

Ahmedabad 5171 98 220 198 30 21

Bangalore 6532 53 106 87 - -

Kolkata 14299 145 239 102 49 34

Chennai 6915 44 82 66 15 17

Delhi 15334 177 311 180 24 41

Hyderabad 6145 48 115 77 12 17

Kanpur 3040 128 570 202 15 14

Lucknow 2589 129 341 173 26 25

Mumbai 18336 74 243 81 33 39

Nagpur 2359 65 277 83 6 13

Pune 4485 55 245 115 - - Source: World Bank World Development Indicators (WDI), 2006.

6.3: Global Environmental Concerns

One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is

that it affects all mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country,

region, or race. Some of the environmental issues of global significance are listed

below:-

A. Greenhouse effects

The green house effect is increasing because of human activities.

Unfortunately, every major source of energy, except nuclear power emits carbon

dioxide. Land and water are heated by the solar energy. After being heated, land and

water radiates back to the atmosphere. This outgoing heat may be blocked by carbon

dioxide and water vapour present in the air. This trapped energy causes heating of the

earth, which is known as greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide and many trace gases

released as by-products of human activities are currently accumulating in the

atmosphere. The most important green house gases (GHG) in terms of past and

current contribution to air pollution are shown in the Table 6.10 and Fig.2. Table 6.11

212

and Fig.3 shows sectoral contribution of GHG emission. From table 6.10 it is clear

that Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a prime gas responsible for greenhouse effect

contributing nearly 49 per cent and table 6.11 shows that highest sector which

contributes to GHG emission is energy 61 per cent.

Table 6.10: Contribution of GHG to Atmosphere

Green house Gases Contribution of GHG (%) Carbon dioxide 49

Methane 18 Chloro flouro Carbons 14

Nitrous Oxide 06 Others 13 Total 100

Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.19

Table 6.11: Sectoral Contribution of GHG Emission

Sector Contribution of GHG (%) Energy 61

Agricultural Sector 28 Industrial 08

Urban Wastage 02 Others 01 total 100

Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.50

Fig: 6.2:

Source: as Table 6.10

213

Fig: 6.3

Source: as Table 6.11

B. Global Warming

It is one of the serious environmental problems of today. The increased level

of carbon dioxide due to green house effect has led to an increase in the temperature

of the earth. This is called global warming. Precise predictions about global warming

are difficult but the best model studies indicate that in the coming years the

temperature of earth may rise to such a level that it would be enough to melt the polar

icecaps, which can increase the sea level and also increase the chances of floods.

Table 6.12 reveals Co2 emission in the world. So far as the Co2 emissions in India are

concerned, India stands at fifth position in terms of total Co2 emission. But in terms of

per capita emissions of Co2 India’s rank is 113th. The per 1000 people Co2 emission in

US is 19.48 thousand metric tons, which is highest in the world. In comparison to this,

the per 1000 people Co2 emissions in India is only 0.93 thousand metric tons.

However, according to the energy information administration, after China and the US,

among major polluters India is expected to have significant growth of emissions over

the next 20 years. Emerging economies such as China and India will have the largest

growth in Co2 emissions over the next 20 years.

214

Table 6.12: CO2 Emission in the World (2003) (Thousands Metric Tons of Carbon)

Rank Countries Total Co2 Emissions

Per capita Co2 emissions (per 1000 peoples)

1 US 5,761,050 19.48

2 China 3,473,600 2.65

3 Russia 1,540,360 10.74

4 Japan 1,224,740 9.61

5 India 1,007,980 0.93

6 Germany 8,37,425 10.15

7 U.K. 5,58,225 9.23

8 Canada 5,21,404 15.89

9 Italy 4,46,596 7.69

10 Mexico 3,85,075 3.62

World Total

22,829,463.2 4.2

Source: World Resource Institute

C. Ozone Depletion

Ozone, a deep blue gas, made up of chemically bounded oxygen atoms, is a

minor constituent of the earth’s atmosphere. It protects the land by absorbing 99 per

cent of quantity of emission of ultra-violet sun rays.

It has been discovered that the protective ozone layer is getting progressively

eroded due to the impact of increasing human activities. The major cause of the

depletion of the ozone layer is the world-wide emission of man-made compounds

called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in the refrigeration, aerosol spray and in

many other items of daily use. CFCs are, by and large, chemically inert, having no

direct effect on humans or other living organisms. CFCs escaped into the atmosphere

ultimately find their way into stratosphere where they’ break down ozone molecules

involving complex chemical reactions.

D. Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a combination of two words ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’ and it

refers to the variety of life on earth, and its biological diversity. These include

millions of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the

215

intricate ecosystems of which they are a part. Biodiversity is essential for sustainable

development, but finding sustainable ways of living is essential for the conservation

of biodiversity. Large scale development projects such as industrial plants or

hydroelectric projects have contributed substantially to the loss of biodiversity rich

areas. At least 10 per cent of its recorded flora, and possibly a large fraction of its

wild fauna, is threatened. Many may be on the verge of extinction. In last few

decades, India has lost at least 50 per cent of its forests, polluted over 70 percent of its

water bodies, built cultivated or otherwise encroached upon its grasslands, and

degraded many coastal areas. More than 150 of the known species of medicinal plants

in India have already become extinct due to unsustainable methods of harvesting.

India’s domesticated biodiversity is also under threat. Hundreds of crop varieties have

disappeared and even their genes have not been preserved.

6.4: Waste Minimisation Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste

Management Approach

In order to handle growing volumes of waste, the proper policies need to be

enacted and implemented. Integrated solid waste management is defined as the

selection and application of appropriate techniques, technologies and management

programmes to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals. This

approach consists of a hierarchical and coordinated set of actions that reduces

pollution, seeks to maximize recovery of reusable and recyclable materials, and

protects human health and the environment. Integrated waste management aims to be

socially desirable, economically viable, and environmentally sound. Integrated waste

management comprises of the following parameters;

(A) Waste Prevention/Reduction

Waste prevention/reduction is given the highest priority in integrated waste

management. This is a preventive action that seeks to reduce the amount of waste that

individuals, businesses, and other organizations generate. It is now well recognised

that sustainable development can only be achieved if society in general, and industry

in particular, produces ‘more with less’ i.e. more goods and services with less use of

the world’s resources (raw materials and energy) and less pollution and waste.

216

Society, as a whole, would benefit from a successful implementation of a waste

prevention programme.

(B) Re-use

Once the waste prevention programme has been implemented, the next

priority in an integrated waste management approach is promoting the re-use of

products and materials. Re-use consists of the recovery of items to be used again,

perhaps after some cleaning and refurbishing. Re-using materials and products saves

energy and water, reduces pollution, and lessens society’s consumption of natural

resources compared with the use of single-application products and materials.

(C) Recycling

After the re-use of materials and products, recycling comes next in the

integrated waste management hierarchy. Recycling is the recovery of materials for

melting them, repulping them, and reincorporating them as raw materials. It is

technically feasible to recycle a large amount of materials, such as plastics, wood,

metals, glass, textiles, paper, cardboard, rubber, ceramics, and leather. Besides

technical feasibility and knowhow, demand determines the types and amounts of

materials that are recycled in a particular region. Areas with a diversified economy

and industrial base usually demand more different types of raw materials that can be

recycled.

Recycling can render social, economic, and environmental benefits. Factories

that consume recyclable materials can be built for a fraction of the cost of building

plants that consume virgin materials. Recycling saves energy and water, and generates

less pollution than obtaining virgin raw materials, which translates into lower

operating costs. Recycling also reduces the amount of waste that needs to be

collected, transported, and disposed of, and extends the life of disposal facilities,

which saves money for the municipalities. Recycling can result in a more competitive

economy and a cleaner environment, and can contribute to a more sustainable

development.

In the developing world, municipalities usually lack recycling programmes.

That does not mean, however, that recycling does not exist. Informal recycling is

common throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Scavengers carry out the bulk

217

of recycling of municipal waste. Scavengers salvage recyclable materials on the

streets, before collection crews arrive, at communal refuse dumpsters and illegal open

dumps, as well as at municipal open dumps and landfills.

Scavenging provides an income to unemployed individuals, recent migrants

who have been unable to find employment in the formal sector, women, children, and

elderly individuals. Many scavengers can be considered as a vulnerable section of the

population. Due to their daily contact with garbage and their often ragged appearance,

scavengers are typically associated with dirt and squalor, and are considered as

undesirables – and sometimes even as criminals.

Despite the stereotypical view of scavengers as being marginal and the poorest

of the poor, a growing amount of evidence demonstrates that that is often not the case.

Scavenging supplies raw materials to industry and, therefore, has strong linkages with

the formal sector. In some cases, these linkages have existed for centuries, such as in

the paper industry. Paper was invented by the Chinese and, up until the nineteenth

century, it was made mainly of cotton and linen rags. Scavengers or ‘rag pickers’

recovered rags from residents and sold them to paper mills, which then recycled them.

In the nineteenth century, the paper industry switched from rags to wood pulp as its

main raw material. In developing countries today, scavengers still play an important

role in supplying wastepaper to the paper mills. Thus, the rag-pickers of the past and

the wastepaper collectors of today have never been a marginal occupation.

Scavenging can also save foreign currency by reducing imports of raw materials.

Alternatively, if industrial demand is stronger in a neighbouring country, scavenging

can become a source of foreign currency by exporting the materials recovered by

scavengers.

The structural causes of scavenging are under-development, poverty,

unemployment, and the lack of a safety net for the poor, as well as industrial demand

for inexpensive raw materials. These factors are likely to continue to exist in many

developing countries. Therefore, a public policy that supports scavenging activities

would be humane, as well as make social, economic, and environmental sense.11

218

(D) Composting

Composting is a technology known in India since times immemorial.

Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm,

moist, aerobic and anaerobic environment. Farmers have been using compost made

out of cow dung and other agro-waste. The compost made out of urban heterogeneous

waste is found to be of higher nutrient value as compared to the compost made out of

cow dung and agro-waste. Composting of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is,

therefore, the most simple and cost effective technology for treating the organic

fraction of MSW. Full-scale commercially viable composting technology is already

demonstrated in India and is in use in several cities and towns. Its application to farm

land, tea gardens, fruit orchards or its use as soil conditioner in parks, gardens,

agricultural lands, etc., is however, limited on account of poor marketing.

Main advantages of composting include improvement in soil texture and

augmenting of micronutrient deficiencies. It also increases moisture-holding capacity

of the soil and helps in maintaining soil health. Moreover, it is an age-old established

concept for recycling nutrients to the soil. It does not require large capital investment,

compared to other waste treatment options. When composting is conducted under

controlled conditions, it does not generate odours and does not attract flies or other

animals. Composting recycles nutrients by returning them to the soil.

(E) Incineration

This method, commonly used in developed countries is most suitable for high

calorific value waste with a large component of paper, plastic, packaging material,

pathological wastes, etc. It can reduce waste volumes by over 90 per cent and convert

waste to innocuous material, with energy recovery. The method is relatively hygienic,

noiseless, and odourless, and land requirements are minimal. The plant can be located

within city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation. This method, however, is

least suitable for disposal of chlorinated waste and aqueous/high moisture content/low

calorific value waste as supplementary fuel may be needed to sustain combustion,

adversely affecting net energy recovery.

The plant requires large capital and entails substantial operation and

maintenance costs. Skilled personnel are required for plant operation and

219

maintenance. Emission of particulates, SOx, NOx, chlorinated compounds in air and

toxic metals in particulates concentrated in the ash have raised concerns.

(F) Sanitary landfilling

Sanitary landfills are the ultimate means of disposal of all types of residual,

residential, commercial and institutional waste as well as unutilized municipal solid

waste from waste processing facilities and other types of inorganic waste and inert

that cannot be reused or recycled in the foreseeable future.

Its main advantage is that it is the least cost option for waste disposal and has

the potential for the recovery of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net

environmental gains if organic wastes are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning

can be utilized for power generation or as domestic fuel for direct thermal

applications. Sanitary landfills can also include other pollution control measures, such

as collection and treatment of leachate, and venting or flaring of methane. Highly

skilled personnel are not required to operate a sanitary landfill.

Major limitation of this method is the costly transportation of waste to far

away landfill sites. Down gradient surface water can be polluted by surface run-off in

the absence of proper drainage systems and groundwater aquifers may get

contaminated by polluted leachate in the absence of a proper leachate collection and

treatment system. An inefficient gas recovery process emits two major green house

gases, carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere. It requires large land area. At

times the cost of pre-treatment to upgrade the gas quality and leachate treatment may

be significant. There is a risk of spontaneous ignition/explosion due to possible build

up of methane concentrations in air within the landfill or surrounding enclosures if

proper gas ventilation is not constructed.

6.5: Social Costs of Population explosion, viz. Pollution, Poverty and

Sustainable Development

Human beings have, throughout their history, changed their surroundings—

often in ways they neither intended nor desired. Such environmental problems as

depletion of natural resources, air pollution, and exhaustion, pollution of water

supplies, and poverty have arisen at many times and places. Yet for most of history

these problems have had mainly local impacts. What is new today is the vastly greater

220

scale of the impact of human activities on the environment, to the point where the

impacts are now global. The rapid population growth, pollution, poverty and

economic development in country are degrading the environment through

uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, expansion and

intensification of agriculture, and the destruction of natural habitats. The three

fundamental demographic factors of births, deaths and migration produce changes in

population size; composition, distribution and these changes raise a number of

important questions of cause and effect. Population Reference Bureau estimated the

6.14 billion world's population in mid 2001. Contribution of India alone to this

population was estimated to be 1033 millions. It is estimated that the country’s

population will increase to 1.26 billion by the year 2016. The projected population

indicates that India will be a first most populous country in the world and China will

be second in 2050.12 Population growth influences the spatial concentration of people,

industry, commerce, vehicles, energy consumption, water use, waste generation, and

other environmental stresses. The increase of population has been tending towards

alarming situation. India is having 18 percent of the World’s population on 2.4

percent of its land area has great deal of pressure on its all natural resources. If the

world population continues to multiply, the impact on environment could be

devastating.

As the 21st century begins, growing number of people and rising levels of

consumption per capita, poverty, and other required infrastructure are often stressing

their environmental settings beyond sustainable development. Poverty is said to be

both cause and effect of environment degradation. The poor people, who rely on

natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster as they have no

real prospects of gaining access to other types of resources. Poorer people, who

cannot meet their subsistence needs through purchase, are forced to use common

property resources such as forests for food and fuel, pastures for fodder, and ponds

and rivers for water. Clean drinking water facility through taps is available to only 35

percent of urban households and 18 percent of rural households in India. Other

residents use unsafe water sources like wells, ponds and rivers. Population pressure

driven overexploitation of the surface and underground water resources by the poor

has resulted into contamination and exhaustion of the water resources. Urban

population is also using rivers to dispose of untreated sewage and industrial effluent.

221

The result is that health of those dependents on untreated water resources is increasing

at risk. In the absence of capital resources, the poor are directly dependent on natural

resources. Moreover degraded environment can accelerate the process of

impoverishment, again because the poor depend directly on natural assets. Although

there has been significant drop in the poverty ratio in the country from 55 percent in

1973 to 27.5 percent in 2004-05. Acceleration in poverty alleviation is imperative to

break this link between poverty and the environment. The poverty and rapid

population growth are found to coexist and thus seems to reinforcing each other.

Though the relationship is complex, population size and growth tend to expand and

accelerate these human impacts on the natural resources and environment. All these in

turn lead to an increase in the pollution levels. However, environmental pollution not

only leads to deteriorating environmental conditions but also have adverse effects on

the sustainable development and health of people. What is more concern, the number

of population rise will increase to such an extent in future that it will cause overall

scarcity for resources.13 Hence, population control must be moved to the top of the

human agenda if posterity should enjoy the fruits of sustainable development.

(a) Population Growth in India

Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major source of

environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support

systems. Unless the relationship between the multiplying population and the life

support system can be stabilized, development programmes, howsoever, innovative

are not likely to yield desired results. India is the second most populous country in

the world after China. Recently, the population of India has crossed the one billion

mark. According to the Census of India 2001, the population of India on 1st March

2001 was 1027 millions. At the time of independence, the country's population was

342 million. The number has multiplied three-fold in around five decades. Population

growth is generally regarded as the single most important force driving increases in

agricultural demand. While most recent expert assessments are cautiously optimistic

about the ability of global food production to keep up with demand for the next

quarter-century or half-century, food insecurity, associated with poverty, is projected

to persist for hundreds of millions of people. Nonetheless, the Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) concluded (in an assessment prepared for

222

the World Food Summit in 1996) that “with regard to poverty alleviation and food

security, the inability to achieve environmentally sound and sustainable food

production is primarily the result of human inaction and indifference rather than

natural or social factors”.14

a (I) India’s Population- The Future

Table 6.13 depicts, projected population characteristics for all-India, 2001-26,

standard run. The standard run results for all-India arise from summing the results for

the 15 major states. However, with the exception of the statistics relating to the

projected population age distributions (and the TFRs and life expectancies which are

population-weighted figures arising from state level input assumptions) the all-India

figures in Table 6.13 have been adjusted to take account of the existence of smaller

states and union territories. Together these states and territories comprised 4.51 per

cent of the population in 2001. And it has been assumed here that this proportion will

rise at the average rate experienced during 1961-2001 until it reaches 5.29 per cent in

2026. According to the standard projection, India’s population will increase from

1027 to 1419 million during 2001-26, a total rise of 38 per cent or 1.3 per cent per

year. The crude birth rate will decline appreciably because of falling total fertility. But

population ageing will mean that there will be little change in crude death rate, despite

improving mortality. Indeed, the total number of deaths will increase steadily, and by

2021-6 the death rate may have started to rise slightly. The population growth rate is

set to decline significantly because of the falling birth rate. However, the projection

implies that it will not be until 2021-6 that the quinquennial growth rate falls below 1

per cent. During 2001-6 the average annual increment to the population (the excess of

births over deaths) will probably be around 17 million; by 2021-6 there will still be an

annual addition of about 11 million.

Despite the assumption of quite masculine sex ratios at birth for some states,

the sex ratio of the total population is projected to decline slightly. This is partly

because of the more favourable levels of overall mortality that are envisaged for

females (compared to males) and partly because of population ageing.

The proportion of the total population aged 0-14 years is set to decline

considerably. During 2001-26 it falls from 34.4 to 23.2 percent. However, the

absolute size of the population aged 0-14 will also fall from about 353 to 329 million.

223

So all of the country’s future demographic growth will occur at middle and older

ages. A modest reduction in the annual number of births is projected from around 26

million during 2001-6 to 22 million during 2021-6. The median age of the population

rises appreciably from 22.7 to 31.6 years. The proportion of the population aged 60

years and over rises from about 7 to over 11 per cent.

Table 6.13: Projected population characteristics for all-India, 2001-26,

standard run

2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 Population (000s) 1,027,015 1,114,745 1,204,451 1,290,327 1,362,021 1,419,203

Males 531,227 575,816 621,132 664,172 699,706 727,552 Females 495,738 538,929 583,319 626,155 662,315 691,651

Sex ratio (m/f) 1.072 1.068 1.065 1.061 1.056 1.052 Age distribution

% aged 0-14 34.4 31.0 28.8 27.7 25.7 23.2 % aged 15-49 51.7 54.3 55.0 54.4 54.4 54.9 % aged 50-9 6.9 7.5 8.1 9.7 9.7 10.3 % aged 60+ 7.0 7.2 8.1 10.2 10.2 11.6

Median age (years) 22.7 24.0 25.6 29.6 29.6 31.6 Density (per sq.

Km) 324 352 380 430 430 448

2001-6 2006-11 2011-6 2016-21 2021-6 - Births per interval

(millions) 132.68 136.26 133.37 122.46 111.91 -

Deaths per interval (millions)

44.90 46.51 47.46 50.75 54.72 -

Population growth rate (%)

1.64 1.55 1.38 1.08 0.82 -

Crude birth rate (per 1000)

24.8 23.5 21.4 18.5 16.1 -

Crude death rate (per 1000)

8.4 8.0 7.6 7.7 7.9 -

TFR (births per woman)

2.84 2.55 2.33 2.13 1.94 -

Life expectation (males)

63.2 64.6 66.1 66.9 67.6 -

Life expectation (females)

64.8 66.8 66.7 69.7 70.7 -

Note: Except for the statistics relating to age composition and the TFRs and life expectations (which are approximately weighted averages for the state-level assumptions) the figures above have been adjusted to take account of the existence of smaller sates and union territories. The TFRs have been weighted on the projected state female populations aged 15-49. Source: Tim Dyson 2004, (Projection output).

224

The population-weighted TFRs and life expectations which emerge from the

assumptions and projections results for all-India suggest that total fertility will be

close to replacement by the quinquennium 2016-21, and below replacement by 2021-

6. However, the all-India Total Fertility Rates (TFR) does not reach 1.8 births during

the period under review. Life expectation for both sexes combined is about 69 years

by 2021-6. The female advantage then will be approximately three years.

While as per census data 2011 (Provisional), the total population of India is

1,210,193,422. The national average for sex ratio shows an increase from 933 in year

2001 to 940 in year 2011. National child sex ratio has declined from 927 in year 2001

to 914 in year 2011. Whereas density increases from 324 per sq. km in 2001 to 382

per sq. km in 2011. 15

Thus, we have today crossed one billion mark and have become the most

dominant animal on this planet. Measures aimed at increased life expectancy have

been partly responsible for this population explosion. The population explosion that is

witnessed today is nothing but a reminder to what Malthus said in 1878: “population,

when unchecked increases in geometrical ratio”. Biologically we may have succeeded

in controlling death rate and contributing to population explosion. But there is a dark

side to our triumph. We live on a finite planet consuming the ‘capital’ of the earth- the

renewable and non-renewable resources. The impact of people on eco-system is

alarming. Both developing and developed economies tax their environment. As

Ehrlich says “while over population in poor nations tend to keep them poverty

stricken, over population in rich nations tend to undermine the life-support capacity of

the entire planet”.16 Hence there is no doubt that the explosion must end. If we fail to

curb our population growth, nature will end it in her own way by killing off a large

portion of humanity.

(b) Pollution

Environmental pollution is a serious and growing hazard in India. Its impact

on human health and well being is both direct, (e.g., inhalation of polluted air and

intake of contaminated water), or indirect, by its impact on the health of

environmental resources (loss of soil fertility, corrosion of structures, death of aquatic

life, etc.). The main factors contributing to urban air quality deterioration are growing

industrialization and increasing vehicular pollution. It has been aggravated by

225

developments that typically occur as countries industrialize, growing cities, increasing

traffic, rapid economic development and industrial growth, all of which are closely

associated with higher energy consumption. Industrial pollution is concentrated in

industries like petroleum refineries, textiles, pulp and paper, industrial chemicals, iron

and steel and non-metallic mineral products. Small scale industries especially

foundries, chemical manufacturing and brick making are also significant polluters. In

the power sector, thermal power, which constitutes bulk of the installed capacity for

electricity generation, is an important source of air pollution.

Vehicle traffic is the most important source of pollution in all the mega cities.

The number of vehicles in these cities has increased manifold. This increase has been

characterized by a boom in private transport. Other reasons for high vehicular

pollution are two stroke engines, aged vehicles, Congested traffic, poor roads and

outdated automotive technologies and traffic management system.

Pollution in the coastal zone, resulting in the destruction of valuable living

natural and marine resources, and spoiling of tourist attractions like beaches is now

attracting growing attention. An important impact of climate change and global

warming may be the rise in sea level. The primary effect of sea level rise will be

increased coastal flooding, erosion, storm surges and wave activity.

Thus, we can say that environmental pollution give rise to environmental

degradation and finally environmental degradation is the consequence of rapid

urbanization. This we can proof with the help of a hypothesis:

Table 6.14 (a): State of ambient air quality and Population in 10 metro cities of

India during 1991.

City SO2 NO2 NH3 H2S SPM RSPM Population Ahmedabad 16 7 17 1 285 122 3312216

Mumbai 27 26 51 2 226 91 1259243 Calcutta 62 39 93 4 394 180 11021918 Delhi 33 46 176 1 543 204 8419084

Hyderabad 10 19 10 2 156 56 4344437 Jaipur 8 14 29 2 338 108 1518235 Cochin 11 10 74 1 115 58 1140605 Kanpur 7 13 65 1 380 135 2029889 Chennai 8 13 33 2 101 67 5421985 Nagpur 9 9 70 1 173 82 1664006

226

Table 6.14 (b): Correlation Matrix

Note: Units are in 10-6 grammes per cubic meter

Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2000.

Table 6.14 (a) shows, state of ambient air quality and population in 10 metro

cities of India during 1991. Indian cities are among the most polluted in the world. Air

in metropolitan cities has become highly polluted and pollutant concentrations

exceeds limit considered safe by the World Health Organization (WHO). Suspended

particulate levels in Delhi are many times higher than recommended by the World

Health Organisation (WHO). The urban air pollution has grown across India in the

last decade are alarming. Some of the most important air pollutants are residual

suspended particulate matter (RSPM), suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen

dioxides (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lead, sulphur dioxide (SO2) etc. The main

sources of these pollutants are growing industrialization and increasing vehicular

pollution, industrial emissions, automobile exhaust and the burning of fossil fuels kills

thousands and live many more to suffer mainly from respiratory damage, heart and

lung diseases. In the countryside, nitrates from animal waste and chemical fertilizers

pollute the soil and water, and in the cities, the air is contaminated with lead from

vehicle exhaust.

1991 Population SO2 NO2 NH3 H2S SPM RSPM

Population 1

SO2 0.81 1

NO2 0.52 0.74 1

NH3 0.71 0.46 -0.07 1

H2S 0.52 0.69 0.66 0.086 1

SPM 0.69 0.74 0.72 0.208 0.95 1

RSPM 0.80 0.77 0.51 0.608 0.50 0.68 1

227

Table 6.15 (a): Emission load and Population in Metropolitan Cities of India in 2001 (TMT; Annual)

City Matter (PM)

NOx HC CO Benzene Butadiene Population

Delhi 14 63 113 293 2.97 0.35 12791458

Mumbai 6 20 54 109 2.15 0.13 16368084

Kolkata 5 22 16 45 0.73 0.05 13216546

Chennai 4 17 44 88 1.89 0.11 6424624

Bangalore 7 27 71 118 2.95 0.15 5686844

Hyderabad 6 15 73 129 2.92 0.15 5533640

Ahmedabad 5 22 31 58 2.95 0.17 4519278

Kanpur 2 6 12 23 1.65 0.13 2690486

Varanasi 1.2 17 29 51 23 0.08 1211749 Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2002, Ministry of Statistic and

Programme Implementation & Annual Report 2002-03, CPCB, Ministry of Environment & Forests, GOI.

Table 6.15 (b): Correlation Matrix

Table 6.15 (a) depicts that growing vehicular stock results in increased

environmental emission. The transport sector contributes a major share of

environmental pollution (nearly around 70 per cent). This is because all metropolitan

cities have been facing consistent rise in vehicular stock and growth in demand for

transportation services. Travel & transportation demands are very high in the case of

mega cities, namely, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai whereas Hyderabad,

Ahmedabad, and Bangalore are also among the mega cities with respect to vehicular

2001 Population Matter (PM) NOx HC CO Benzene Butadiene

Population 1

Matter (PM) 0.92 1

NOx 0.88 0.79 1

HC 0.94 0.90 0.96 1

CO -0.39 -0.10 -0.16 -0.17 1

Benzene 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.89 -0.22 1

Butadiene 0.58 0.47 0.35 0.45 -0.48 0.23 1

228

stock. Delhi stands out among these cities with a total vehicular population equal to

the vehicular stock in the other three metros, that is, Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai,

put together. Delhi roads are predominantly occupied by two-wheelers whereas in the

case of Mumbai cars dominate. In Delhi, about 293 metric tonnes of CO are emitted.

With Delhi standing high, Hyderabad is catching up with Bangalore at a very fast rate.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is the major pollutant coming from the transport

sector, contributing almost 90 per cent of the total emission. Hydrocarbons (HC) are

next to CO. Most of the suspended particulate matter (SPM) is due to the

resuspension of dust. Air pollution comes from various natural sources as well as

anthropogenic (regarding mankind as the centre for existence) sources. The major

source of CO and HC has been anthropogenic while for others like SPM the sources

of pollution are natural ones. Another important air quality indicator is NOx, Benzene

and Butadiene.

In fact, it is observed that the growing trend of emission is due to the fact that

the vehicles are used for an extended lifetime without proper maintenance. Poorly

maintained vehicles tend to emit more pollutants than others. Improper inspection and

maintenance (I &M), use of poor quality fuels, poor road conditions, and increased

congestion add to emission. At present, in Delhi, owing to initiatives from various

sectors, some of the above mentioned factors are showing improvement. The rate of

registration of two-wheelers came down to around 50,000 per annum by 2002

although earlier they were being registered at a rate of around 0.1 million per annum.

Considering that old two-wheelers above a certain age get phased out, in Delhi the

total number of two-wheelers plying may actually be reducing.17 As a result, Delhi is

experiencing improved air quality and one of the main reason is use of gaseous fuels,

that is, CNG and LPG. Vehicles using CNG are proved to be economically viable and

environmentally superior. Currently, vehicles run on CNG are prominent in major

metropolitan cities like Delhi and Mumbai only. Improvement in the ambient air in

Delhi is attributed to the conversion of entire bus fleet to CNG. This should set trend

for the other polluting cities like Hyderabad and Bangalore.

229

Table 6.16: Ambient Noise Levels in Cities in 2000

Note: Ambient Noise Standards Prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board. All values

are described in Decibels.

Day time: 6:00 am-9:00 am

Night time: 9:00 pm-6:00 am

Source: Compiled from the Statistics released by: Urban Statistics, Handbook 2000,

National Institute of Urban Affairs

Table 6.16 reveals ambient noise levels in various cities. Through the

promulgation of the Comprehensive Air Act of 1986, noise pollution has become an

offence in India. The various prescribed limits for the urban environmental ambient

noise for different sectors by CPCB are mentioned in the table. It is clear from the

table that cities like, Chennai, Calcutta, and Mumbai crosses the prescribed limits

followed high by Bangalore, Hyderabad and Jaipur.

Thus, if we try to find out the interrelationship between Urbanization and

Environmental degradation, we obtained the following results from the above tables

and their analysis:

City Residential Commercial Sensitive Industrial

Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night

Prescribed Standards* 55 45 65 55 50 40 75 70

Bhopal 60 44 75 57 73 42 68 47

Bangalore 59-79 37-59 68-81 46-64 58-74 - 63-86 42-65

Calcutta 76-86 58-76 70-90 57-78 69-89 65-70 75-82 53-70

Chennai 57-84 45-50 74-80 69-71 46-70 47-50 69-76 63-69

Delhi 53-71 - 63-75 - 62-68 - 65-81 -

Dehradun 50 38 70 50 58 42 50 45

Hyderabad 56-73 40-50 67-84 58-73 62-78 51-67 44-77 42-70

Jaipur 46-82 43-78 64-88 51-80 60-75 55-66 59-81 48-78

Kanpur 49-69 39-59 68-82 57-76 47-61 35-57 63-78 57-63

Kochi 70 51 85 56 72 51 70 61

Lucknow 55 50 70 58 50 40 60 58

Mumbai 45-81 45-68 63-81 60-75 58-77 46-66 73-79 56-72

Varanasi 50 40 70 50 55 40 50 50

Visakhapatnam 74 59 85 70 75 57 75 51

230

1) From table 6.14 (b) correlation matrix, we find high degree of positive

correlation between state of ambient air quality and population in 10 metro cities

of India during 1991. As the main source of these pollutants is growing

industrialization with unplanned urbanization causing increase in vehicular

pollution, industrial emissions, automobile exhaust and the burning of fossil

fuels.

2) Table 6.15 (b) correlation matrix, also shows high degree of positive correlation

between emission load and population in metropolitan cities of India in 2001. As

the transport sector contributes a major share of environmental pollution (nearly

around 70 per cent). This is because all metropolitan cities have been facing

consistent rise in vehicular stock due to growth in demand for fast and

convenient mode of travel & transportation.

3) Table 6.16 depicts noise levels in various cities which show that noise pollution

crosses the prescribed limits almost in all the cities at the alarming rate as the

population moves to these mega cities in search of employment and better

standard of livings. The additional population and extra vehicles add up to the

burden of noise.

4) Table 6.5, shows the comparison of water supply, wastewater generation and

treatment in Class I Cities and Class II Towns during 1978-79, 1989-90, 1994-

95 and 2003-04. From the analysis of this table, we find that the wastewater

generation has increased three fold i.e. from 8233 million litres per day (mld) in

1978-79 to 26254 mld in 2003-04 putting together the figures of both categories

of urban centres. Although, the treatment capacity has also increased by two and

half times from 2823 mld in 1978-79 to 7044 mld in 2003-04 but the gap of

untreated volume has increased drastically. This may be due to the increase in

mass urban population and lack of proper management/incentives by the

government.

On the basis of above information and analysis of the data, it is being observed

that all air, water and noise pollution has increased in urban areas in India over a

period of time. The major reason for this has been an influx of population due to

availability of job opportunities owing to industrialization in urban areas. The

urbanization itself is defined as an index of transformation from traditional rural

231

economies to modern industrial one. It is progressive concentration of population in

urban unit. These facts provide sufficient amount of reasoning to confirm our fifth and

last hypothesis that environmental degradation is the consequence of rapid

urbanization.

(c) Poverty

High poverty levels are synonymous with poor quality of life, deprivation,

malnutrition, illiteracy and low human resource development. Poverty in India can be

defined as a situation only when a section of peoples are unable to satisfy the basic

needs of life.

Percentage of Population below Poverty line-India

Table 6.17

Comparison of Poverty Estimates Based on Mixed Recall Period

1993-94 2004-05

Rural 27.1 21.8

Urban 23.6 21.7

Total 26.1 21.8

Source: 60th Round of NSSO Survey (CSO-Govt. Of India)

Table 6.18

Comparison of Poverty Estimates Based on Uniform Recall Period

1999-2000 200405

Rural 37.3 28.3

Urban 32.4 25.7

Total 36.0 27.05 Source: 60th Round of NSSO Survey (CSO-Govt. Of India)

According to an expert group of Planning Commission, poverty lines in rural

areas are drawn with an intake of 2400 calories in rural areas and 2100 calories in

urban areas. If the person is unable to get that minimum level of calories is considered

as being below poverty line. In the cities people are suffering from acute poverty and

the living conditions is so poor that in one small room all family members are staying

and this is common feature of people who are living below poverty line. The speed of

232

population growth and levels of poverty in mega cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata,

Delhi and Hyderabad pose immense infrastructural problems. Though the percentage

of population below poverty line declined during subsequent period but still large

number of population are below poverty line. Chronic poverty is the general

phenomenon of people in urban slums. Existence of mass poverty is a reality in India

and it is included in thirty poorest nations of the world. Poverty is more visible in

mega cities as compared to intermediate cities. The divide within the urban area is

growing rapidly and inequality is more common in urban places.

Satterthwaite (2002)18 lists eight aspects of urban poverty, which are helpful in

considering issues of exclusion and the appropriate range of possible policy

responses, and also how urbanization may relate to each aspect. The different aspects

of urban poverty are;

i. Inadequate income (and thus inadequate consumption of necessities including

food and, often, safe and sufficient water; often problems of indebtedness,

with debt repayments significantly reducing income available for necessities).

ii. Inadequate, unstable or risky asset base (non-material and material including

educational attainment and housing) for individuals, households or

communities.

iii. Inadequate shelter (typically poor quality, overcrowded and insecure).

iv. Inadequate provision of ‘public’ infrastructure (piped water, sanitation,

drainage, roads, footpaths, etc.) which increases the health burden and often

the work burden.

v. Inadequate provision of basic services such as day care/schools/vocational

training, healthcare, emergency services, public transport, communications,

law enforcement.

vi. Limited or no safety net to ensure basic consumption can be maintained when

income falls; also to ensure access to shelter and healthcare when these can no

longer be paid for.

vii. Inadequate protection of poorer groups’ rights through the operation of the

law: including laws and regulations regarding civil and political rights,

occupational health and safety, pollution control environmental health,

233

protection from violence and other crimes, protection from discrimination and

exploitation.

viii. Poorer groups’ voicelessness and powerlessness within political systems and

bureaucratic structures, leading to little or no possibility of receiving

entitlements; of organising, making demands and getting a fair response; and

of receiving support for developing their own initiatives. Also, no means of

ensuring accountability from aid agencies, NGOs, public agencies and private

utilities and being able to participate in the definition and implementation of

their urban poverty programmes.

(d) Sustainable Development

There is a growing emphasis on sustainable development all over the world.

This is due to the increase in population and its use and misuse of resource adversely

affect the resiliency of natural ecosystem, because the economic process of production

and consumption draw to a lesser extent on services provided by resource of natural

physical environment. Further development activities in a country like India have

proceeded on a resource intensive path. It has seriously disrupted ecological stability

of life support system. Today many of the problems, which challenge human society,

are socio-ecological in nature. Hence the decisions concerning the use of resources

can’t be made effective without a fundamental understanding of the ways in which

ecosystem processes work. For this, knowledge of sustainable development is needed

to evaluate the consequences of a wide range of human activities and to plan

management of natural and man-made ecosystem in a sustainable manner.

The concept of sustainable development received wider recognition when the

General Assembly of the United Nations approved a World Commission on

Environment and development under the presidentship of G.H. Bruntdland, the

former Prime Minister of Norway. The commission brought out its report under the

title ‘Our common Future’ in 1987 and has discussed the concept of sustainable

development.

The commission has defined sustainable development as “development that meets the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own

needs”. An analysis of this definition leads to two concepts:

1) The essential needs of the world’s poor, and

234

2) The use of technology in meeting the needs should not disturb the environment.

In the attainment of sustainable development, it seems the factor of population

growth cannot be ignored. Increase in population increases the pressure on resources

and checks the rise in living standards in areas where deprivation is widespread.

If one considers the world scenario, the achievements of sustainable

development remains the greatest challenge facing the human race. Today, people

suffer from grossly inadequate access to the resources like education, health services,

infrastructure, land and credit facilities. The essential task of development is to

provide opportunities so that these people and the hundreds of millions who are not

better off can reach their potential.

The Clarion Call in this connection was given by the United Nations

Conference on ‘Human Environment’ held in Stockholm in June 1972. The

conference in its resolution declared that in the developing countries most of the

environmental problems are caused by underdevelopment. Millions continue to live

far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of

adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation.

Thus, any talk of sustainable development, particularly in the developing

countries, is futile unless the key issue of poverty and population explosion is taken

care of.

d (I) Policies for Sustainable Development

The damaging effects of environmental degradation can be reduced by a

judicious choice of economic and environmental policies and environmental

investments. The important policy measures for sustainable development are as

follows:

1) Reducing Poverty:

Reduction of poverty should be the foremost priority of the Government. It

should select those projects which provide greater employment opportunities to the

poor. It should expand health; family planning and education that will help reduce

population growth. Supply of drinking water, sanitation facilities, and slum clearance

should be given top priority.

235

2) Removing Subsidies:

To reduce environmental degradation at no net financial cost to the

Government, subsidies for resource use by the private and public sectors should be

removed. Because, subsidies on the use of electricity, fertilizers, pesticides, diesel,

petrol, gas, irrigation, water etc lead to their wasteful use and environmental

problems.

3) Clarifying and Extending Property Rights:

Lack of property rights over excessive use of resources leads to degradation of

environment. This leads to overgrazing, deforestation and over exploitation of

minerals. Therefore, clarifying and assigning ownership titles to private owners will

solve environmental problems.

4) Market based Approaches:

Various market based approaches should be adopted to protect environment.

Market based instruments in the form of emission tax, pollution taxes, marketable

permits, depositor fund system, input taxes, differential tax rates, user administrative

charges, subsidies for pollution abatement equipment etc should be extensively used

to protect environment.

5) Regulatory Policies:

Regulatory policies are the 'other weapons for reducing environmental

degradation. Regulators have to make decisions regarding price, quantity and

technology. They decide the technical standards, regulations and charges on air, water

and land pollutants.

6) Public Participation:

Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve

environmental conditions. For this purpose various formal and informal education

programme, environmental awareness programmes, advertisement, public

movements, afforestation, conservation of wild life etc are to be organized on a large

scale.

236

7) Trade and Environment:

The Government should formulate an environment friendly trade policy

covering both domestic and international trade. It should encourage the establishment

of less polluting industries, adoption of cleaner technologies, adoption of environment

friendly processes etc to control environmental degradation.

8) Participation in Global Environmental Efforts:

Participation in various international conventions and agreements on

environmental protection and conservation can also help to minimize damages of

environmental degradation. They include the Montreal protocol, the Basel convention,

the Rio Declaration, the Agenda 21, the Earth summits etc.

237

References

1. UN (2006): UN HABITAT 2006 Annual Report, UN Population Division.

2. M., Karpagam (2004): “Environmental Economics: A Text book”, Sterling

Publishers private Limited, New Delhi, p. 84.

3. NEERI Report (1996): “Strategy Paper on Solid Waste Management in India”,

pp.1-7.

4. Kumar, S. and Gaikwad, S.A. (2004): “Municipal Solid Waste Management in

Indian Urban Centres: An Approach for Betterment”, Urban Development

Debates in the New Millennium, Edited by K.R. Gupta, Atlantic Publishers &

Distributors, New Delhi, pp.100-111.

5. State of Environment Report India (2009): Ministry of Environment and

Forest, Government of India, pp. 152-53.

6. Chandra, Ramesh (2004): “Social Development in India”, Published by Isha

Books, Delhi, p. 290.

7. Report of the Working Group on Rivers, Lakes and Aquifers (2007): In

Environment and Forests for the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012),

Planning Commission, GOI, New Delhi, April 2007, p. 13.

8. Zerbock, Olar and Candidate, M.S. (2003): “Urban Solid Waste Management:

Waste Reduction in Developing Nations”, School of Forest Resources &

Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, p.8.

9. De, U.S. and Soni, V.K. (2009): “Climate change, Urbanization-What citizens

can do”, J. Ind. Geophys. Union (January 2009), Vol. 13, No.1, p.46.

10. Central Pollution Control Board (2010): “Status of the Vehicular Pollution

Control Programme in India”, Series: PROBES/136/2010

11. Medina, M. (2010): “Solid Wastes, Poverty and the Environment in

Developing Country Cities: Challenges and Opportunities”. United Nations

University, Working Paper No. 2010/23, UNU-WIDER. pp. 7-9.

12. Population Reference Bureau (PRB), (2001): World population data sheet,

Washington, D.C.

13. Nagdeve, A., Dewaram (2006): “Population, Poverty and Environment in

India” , Vol. 3 No. 3, Population – ENVIS Centre IIPS, Deonar Mumbai.

238

14. World Population Monitoring (2001): Population, Environment and

Development, United Nations Publication, New York, p.71.

15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k

http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/archive/00517/India_Census_2011___5

17160a.pdf

16. M., karpagam (2004) op. cit. pp 156-157.

17. GOI (2002): “Report of the expert committee on Auto Fuel Policy”,

Government of India.

18. Satterthwaite, D. (2002) Reducing Urban Poverty; Some Lessons from

Experience, International Institute of Environment and Development (IIED)

Working Paper on Poverty Reduction in Urban Areas No. 2, London: IIED,

http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdf/full/9155IIED.pdf