ENGLISH TEACHING UNCLASSIFIED: AN OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH TO THE EFL CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN THE BÍO-BÍO REGION

7/26/2019 ENGLISH TEACHING UNCLASSIFIED: AN OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH TO THE EFL CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN THE BO-BO REGION

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UNIVERSIDAD DE CONCEPCIN

FACULTAD DE EDUCACIN

ENGLISH TEACHING UNCLASSIFIED: AN OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH TO

THE EFL CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN THE BO-BO REGION

SEMINARIO PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE LICENCIADO EN EDUCACIN


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UNIVERSIDAD DE CONCEPCIN

FACULTAD DE EDUCACIN

ENGLISH TEACHING UNCLASSIFIED: AN OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH TO

THE EFL CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN THE BO-BO REGION

SEMINARIO PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE LICENCIADO EN EDUCACIN


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To be a teacher in the right

sense is to be a learner.

Sren Kierkegaard

(18131855)


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Acknowledgments


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Abstract

Since access to schools is not always granted for researchers to see in

practice what unfolds inside classrooms during English lessons, this study intends

to shed some light into the issue, disclosing what happens during English lessons of

fifty-five schools of the Bio-Bio region. The aim is to describe classroom practices,

analyze its implications, and evaluate its coherence with the guidelines of the

Ministry of Education of Chile, as well as to identify the seating arrangement pattern

that is most commonly used during these English lessons. For this purpose,

observation is the preferred research methodcarried out by student-teachers

aided by a comprehensive checklist that focuses on multiple aspects of teaching

occurring during the beginning, development, and end of each lesson. The results

reveal that teachers tend to adhere to traditional practices with regard to

methodology, classroom management, and teaching styles.


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Resumen

Dado que no siempre se concede acceso a investigadores para ingresar a

las escuelas y ver en la prctica que ocurre durante las clases de ingls, este estudio

tiene la intencin de indagar en este problema, revelando lo que ocurre durante

clases de ingls de cincuenta escuelas de la regin del Bo-Bo. El objetivo es

describir prcticas en el aula, analizar sus implicancias y evaluar su coherencia con

las guas del Ministerio de Educacin, as como tambin identificar el patrn de

disposicin de asientos ms usado durante las clases de ingls observadas. Para

este propsito, se utiliz como mtodo de investigacin la observacin en el aula

ejecutada por estudiantes de pedagoga realizando sus pasantasayudada por

una pauta cuyos criterios se enfocan en diversos aspectos de la enseanza que son

observables durante el inicio, desarrollo, y final de la clase. Los resultados revelan

que los profesores tienden a adherirse a prcticas tradicionales en cuanto a su

metodologa gestin de aula y estilos de enseanza


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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... iii

Abstract ................................................................................................................... iv

Resumen .................................................................................................................. v

Table of Contents ................................................................................................... vi

Chapter I: Theoretical Background..........................................1

I.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1

I.2 Theory and practice in language teaching .......................................................... 2

I.2.1 Methods: the theoretical foundations ........................................................... 3

I.2.2 Methodology: from theory to practice ........................................................... 5

I.3 Classroom observation ....................................................................................... 8

I.3.1 Definition and scope .................................................................................... 8

I.3.2 The broad possibilities of classroom observation ........................................ 8

I.3.3 Forms of data collection in classroom observation .................................... 10

I 3 4 Types of observation 12


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II.3 Subjects ........................................................................................................... 20

II.4 Context ............................................................................................................ 20

II.5 Instrument ....................................................................................................... 21

II.6 Data analysis ................................................................................................... 21

Chapter III: Results................................................................23

III.1 Beginning of the lesson .................................................................................. 23

III.1.1 Routine for starting the lesson ................................................................. 23

III.1.2 The lesson objective ................................................................................ 23

III.1.3 Previous content/knowledge connections ................................................ 24

III.1.4 Strategies used to motivate students ....................................................... 24

III.2 Development of the lesson ............................................................................. 25

III.2.1 Organization of activities around a context .............................................. 25

III.2.2 Organization of the physical space .......................................................... 25

III.2.3 Catching and holding students attention................................................. 26

III.2.4 Conducted Activities ................................................................................ 27

III.2.5 Instructions .............................................................................................. 27


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III.2.15 Discipline ............................................................................................... 33

III.2.16 Coherence between activities and lesson objectives ............................. 33

III.2.17 Interaction .............................................................................................. 34

III.2.18 Teacher talking time............................................................................... 34

III.2.19 Student talking time ............................................................................... 35

III.2.20 Students role......................................................................................... 35

III.2.21 Contents ................................................................................................ 36

III.3 End of the lesson ............................................................................................ 37

III.3.1 Closure .................................................................................................... 37

III.3.2 Assessment Techniques .......................................................................... 37

III.3.3 Use of English .......................................................................................... 38

III.3.4 English spoken by the teacher ................................................................. 38

Chapter IV: Analysis..............................................................40

IV.1 Classroom practices ...................................................................................... 40

IV.1.1 Beginning of the lesson ........................................................................... 40

IV.1.2 Development of the lesson ...................................................................... 42


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Chapter I: Theoretical Background

I.1 Introduction

The increasingly ubiquitous use of English language across the world has

turned it into a common feature in most countries curricula. Chile is not an

exception. In 1998, English became a mandatory subject (Ministry of Education,

1998). Before that, English was not subjected to any curriculum and English

lessons were based on the expectations of the school where it was taught. French

was also taught in a similar way; however, it gradually lost its importance within the

national framework. This was not the case of the English language. As a matter of

fact, EFL1instruction and the use of ICTs2have attracted increased attention since

Chile started signing multiple free-trade agreements to meet the requirements of a

globalized world (UNESCO, 2004). The program English Opens Doors, in 2004,

was the first milestone of the new century. Naturally, increased attention in

teaching English means increased attention in what Chilean EFL teachers are

doing.

In the current decade, SIMCE3 examinations have produced the following

results: In 2010, 11% of students who took the test certified their level of

fi i i E li h (A2 i di t th C E


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Through the years, EFL teachers have changed their methodology

according to the pedagogical trends of their time. The different approaches towards

EFL instruction have emphasized certain types of input while overlooking others.

Every approach has its pros and cons, which must be outweighed according to the

context (Kumaravadivelu, 2003b). What do Chilean teachers think about EFL

instruction? This question can be answered through multiple studies about

teachers perceptions and beliefs. In an article by Daz et al. (2010)on in-service

teachers conceptions about English teaching and learning in the Chilean public

system, the interviewees claimed to adopt a methodology that favors exchange

and negotiation of information in English. This befits the latest approaches with

regard to EFL instruction such as the Communicativeand Task-Basedapproaches

(Richards & Renandya 2002). This reflects that teachers are up-to-date with the

most recent trends; however, according to Daz et al. (2010)it is necessary to see

if there is coherence between what teachers say they do and what is actually done

within the classroom walls. Another study, which explored the beliefs of EFL

learners in different Chilean institutions, found that learners valued activities that

put communication in the first place, rather than form-focused ones. Grammar was

essential, but it was not the ultimate goal (McBride, 2009). Again, this confirms that

communicative approaches seem to be in high-esteem among teachers and EFL

learners However the question remains does theory meet practice in Chilean


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not necessarily highlight the contrast that this study intends to explore. Therefore,

we will consider the second definition that Richards & Schmidt propose, which

does not only address explicitly this dichotomy but also includes aspects of the first

definition: the part of a science or art that deals with general principles and

methods as opposed to practice (2010, p. 597). With regard to ELT, what are

these general principles or methods?

I.2.1 Methods: the theoretical foundationsThe definition of theory by the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguisticsregards theory and practices as opposites. Therefore, it is

natural to ask ourselves, how does this opposition becomes more evident in the

field of language teaching? This question leads us to speak about two concepts

that are often used interchangeably: Methodology and method. Traditionally, there

has been a tendency to regard methodology and method as synonyms, even

though they are not (Richards, 1990; Nunan, 1991; Kumaravadivelu, 2006). Ur

(2013) defines method as a set of principles and procedures based on a theory of

language and language acquisition (p. 468). Another view indicates that methods

in language teaching are conceptualized and constructed by experts in the field,

whereas methodology deals with what practicing teachers actually do in the

classroom in order to achieve their stated or unstated teach ing objectives


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teachers. In this respect, some of the most known methods in language teaching

include (Nunan, 1991; Brown, 2001; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Scrivener, 2005;

Chaves & Hernndez, 2013): the Grammar-Translation Methodwhich focuses on

analyzing the grammar rules of the language to ultimately put this knowledge in

practice through the translation of sentences from L1 (mother tongue) to L2

(second/foreign language) and vice versa; theAudio-Lingual Methodwhich aims

at the learning of the second/foreign language by means of listening activities, with

practice taking the form of drilling and repetition; Communicative Language

Teachingwhich highlights the use of activities that involve authentic

communication; Total Physical Responsewhich centers around meaning,

associating speech to physical action; Community Language Learningwhich

conceives the role of the teacher as a guide, and students, in turn, provide the

topics to be dealt with; and The Silent Waywhich emphasizes student talking

time over teacher talking time.

Whichever the method teachers might borrow elements from; there are

issues with regard to teachers perception of the method they favor. As a matter of

fact, the methods teachers claim to adopt could not be consistent with their

teaching practices (Cohen, 1990; Schoenfeld, 2012). On this issue,

Kumaravadivelu (2006) states that what the teachers actually do in the classroom


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role is to apply the method and adapt his or her teaching style to

make it conform to the method."

(Brown as cited by Richards & Renandya, 2002)

The former might explain why authors like Kumaradivelu and Richards have

referred to the concept of Post Methods era in recent years. Today, teaching has

focused on understanding the varying contexts where learning takes place and

using that knowledge to select the best approach, rather than on searching for a

method that suits all contexts. (Richards & Renandya, 2002)

I.2.2 Methodology: from theory to practice

Up to this point, it is necessary to bridge theory and practice; therefore, the

concept of methodology re-emerges once again. As we have discussed earlier, the

term refers to teachers practices in the classroom (Kumaravadivelu, 2006).Furthermore, the concept of methodology in language teaching is strongly attached

to the concept of syllabus. Explained simply, syllabus design is in charge of

deciding what, why and when, and methodology is concerned with how (Nunan

1991; Brown 2000). In that sense, methodology could be described as the

realization of the syllabus, through the act of selecting and sequencing learningactivities. Similarly, Rodgers (2001) gives a simpler definition: methodology is that

which links theory and practice (Language Teaching Methodology Defined


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most up-to-date trends in ELT. After all, teachers are the ones who ultimately are in

classrooms everyday; therefore, it is undeniable that their knowledge gained from

classroom experiences should not be relegated to a secondary role. On this

matter, Kumaradivelu (2002) indicates that teachers classroom practice is directly

or indirectly based on some theory whether or not it is explicitly articulated(p. 17)

That is to say that a theory is not the only source of teacher knowledge; as a

matter of fact, the author says that teachers can gain theoretical knowledge either

through professional education, personal experience, robust commonsense, or a

combination(p. 17). This sheds some light on why teachers have a leading role in

the so-called Post Methods era, taking responsibility for diagnosing students,

treating them with successful pedagogical techniques, and assessing the outcome

of those treatments (Richards & Renandya, 2002). Naturally, some teachers might

not be aware that theoretical knowledge could come from sources other than

teacher formation courses (Macas, 2012). Even if these sources of theoretical

knowledge are not considered formal research, they cannot be overlooked and

disregarded. As a matter of fact, Schn (1983) considers that teachers can also

provide valuable perspectives in order to address and tackle the difficulties that

teaching entails because their perspectives cannot be matched by experts whoare far removed from classroom realities (Schn as cited by Kumaravadivelu,

2003b p 10)


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their students (p. 586). With regard to their origin, the same authors state that

beliefs come from experience, observation, training, and other sources.

Undoubtedly, it results interesting that the authors also say that beliefs are source

of teachers classroom practices. Borg has devoteda great deal of his research to

explore teacher cognitions; thus, he has addressed the importance of beliefs for

teaching and how these have been understudied (e.g. Borg, 2006; Phipps & Borg,

2009). In an interview (Birello, 2012), Borg states that in the past, teacher

education sought to find behaviors that led to effective teaching. The aim was to

program teachers to behave in those effective ways so that learning was

achievedsimilarly to the methods syndrome we briefly discussed earlier.

However, it was soon discovered that teachers own ideas, preferences, and ways

of doing things got in the way. As Borg states, teaching is much more than

behavior.

All the above leads us to one inescapable conclusion: There is no method or

teacher behavior that can ensure learning in all contexts. The efforts to look for a

universally successful formula for teaching have proven fruitless because of this

diversity of realities. For the same reason, researching classroom practices might

reveal multiple approaches to ELT. Moreover, considering that not only does

context affect classroom practices, but also teacher-related factors such as teacher


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I.3 Classroom observation

I.3.1 Definition and scopeObservation is enlisted as one of the various approaches to classroom

research in teaching, as categorized by Richards & Lockhart (1996), along with

teaching journals, lesson reports, surveys and questionnaires, audio and video

recordings, and action research. In teaching, according to Wajnryb (1992), an

observation task is a focused activity to work on while observing a lesson inprogress. It focuses on one or a small number of aspects of teaching or learning

and requires the observer to collect data or information from the actual lesson. (p.

7). A similar view is shared by Richards & Lockhart (1996) with regard to the aim of

this practice, observation involves visiting a class to observe different aspects of

teaching (p. 12). Another definition, by Bailey, also highlights the essence ofclassroom observations saying that it is the purposeful examination of teaching

and/or learning events through systematic processes of data collection and

analysis (Bailey as cited by OLeary, 2014, p. 114). It is safe to say then that

observing is a more complex ability than seeing, since it has a focusin this case,

in-class teaching. In addition, it also requires collection of data by the observer.

For the purpose of this study, we will conceive observation as a task performed by

a competent third partythat is, someone whose professional field is teaching


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professional performance (p. 73), which is why classroom observations play a

crucial role in teacher evaluation (Santiago et al, 2013). In fact, observation can be

useful for different contexts: initial teacher training, in-service training and

professional development, studying pupils, curriculum development and evaluation,

job analysis, teacher appraisal, and observation by lay people (Wragg, 1999).

On a similar matter, probably one of the main reasons why observation

seems to be the preferred approach when researching or evaluating classroom

practices is that teachers are unaware of certain actions they do, or the

instructional methodologies they adopt during the lesson (Estacion et al, 2004).

Additionally, when describing the focuses that peer-observation can have,

Richards & Farrell (2011) list the following areas as possible sources of data, which

exemplifies the comprehensiveness of the information that observations can

produce:

Lesson structure: How the lesson opens, develops, and closes. The

number of activities that a lesson comprises and how the teacher sets

and sequences these activities.

Classroom management strategies: How teachers form groups,handle discipline, time the activities, or arrange seating.

Types of activities performed during the lesson: Whole-class, pair


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Student interaction: How much time students spend on task, how

often they make questions, and how or why they interact with their peers.

As it can be seen, the possible purposes for observing a lesson can be

many. Depending on the aims of researchers, these can vary and include others

not listed, such as the use of assessment techniques or the use of praising.

Researchers can focus on a broad range of observable actions or even just one; it

will all depend on the scope of the investigation. It must be noted that, just becauseof the broad range of data that can be collected, we are not saying that theoretical

research is less valuable than empirical research for investigating classroom

practices; in fact, both are necessary to form a more accurate view of what occurs

within the classroom walls (Schoenfeld, 2013).

I.3.3 Forms of data collection in classroom observationCarrying out observations does not merely involve entering a classroom,

sitting at one of the corners, and just observing whatever happens; in fact,

observers have options as to how to record the observation. Wragg (1999) lists

four possible ways of doing so: Written accounts, video, sound, and transcripts.

Special attention has been paid to describe the advantages and disadvantages ofwritten accounts, since they are the form of record that fits most the nature of the

instrument used in the present study:


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might face, such as the complexity of paying attention to particular

behaviors while other significant actions are occurring at the same time.

Video: It offers both visual and audio data which can be revisited as

many times as necessary and can be discussed with other participants.

Observers are not overwhelmed by having to make quick decisions;

therefore, they can change focus from students to teacher at ease. The

main drawbacks are related to events that can be left off camera and the

pressure that a camera puts on both the teacher and students, which

might affect the natural development of the lesson.

Sound: This form shares many similarities with video recording, such

as the option of replaying. Since recorders keep a low profile, this

method is less intimidating for the observed. The main disadvantage is

that visual data like body language or movement patterns are lost.

Transcripts: Although they require time to be transcribed, transcripts

are easily distributable and allow in-depth analysis of many aspects, such

as classroom language. Notwithstanding, the time-consuming nature of

this method and the important loss of visual and aural cues (for example,

volume and tone of voice) are cons that need to be considered.

Naturally, there are disadvantages that all of these methods share, such as


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I.3.4 Types of observation

As we have discussed, depending on the scope and purposes of classroom

research, observations can take different forms (Wragg, 1999). However, it is

noteworthy that the methods for observational data collection listed by Wragg are

general. For example, written accounts can also be further divided into categories,

and because these were the preferred method in the present study, it is necessary

to refer to some procedures of data collection. Richards & Farrell (2011) state that

depending on the focus of observation, these are the most used:

Checklists: This instrument contains a list of observable aspects, or

features, of a lesson. They serve as guidelines for the observer to

conduct a focused research.

Seating charts: This type of instrument is aimed at describing thearrangement of desks in the classroom and identifying patterns of

interaction, such as where interactions occur or where the teacher

stands.

Field notes: The purpose of this type of note-taking is to briefly record

the main events that happen during the lesson as a whole in short

sentences, or to keep a chronological record of significant events that

occur during a certain time spanfor example, every five minutes.


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respect, in a study about the lessons that can be learned from programs of teacher

development in Finland, Taylor (2011) suggests, in many schools the main

purpose for observation is quality assurance rather than sharing of effective

practice. This can lead to distrust, closing of classroom doors and lack of

constructive collaboration (p.10). This is also supported by OLeary (2006, 2011,

2014), in relation to the way observation is conceived, he says that the purpose of

assessment approaches to classroom observation is not to inform or improve

current practice but simply to make a judgment of the quality of teaching and

learning being observed (2014, p. 34). On the same matter, Santiago et al (2013)

states that, compared to Chile, teacher evaluation frameworks in other countries

involve approaches which facilitate the professional dialogue around teaching

practices (p. 78), which leads to an eventual discussion between the teacher and

evaluator with relation to what was observed. In contrast, Richards & Lockhart

(1996) prefers to restrain himself from giving the role of evaluator to observers,

stating that in order for observation to be viewed as a positive rather than a

negative experience, the observer's function should be limited to that of gathering

information (p. 12). The former restates two different views of classroom

observation: either as a chance to simply judge what teachers do or as anopportunity for professional development and research.


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just research. Opportunities like the MET project5 in New Jerseyin which 3,000

teachers volunteered to have their classes observed (Gates Foundation, 2010),

or the study carried out in Medelln on Colombian elementary EFL teachers

practices (Cadavid et al, 2004) are notable examples of how observation can help

research and, as an ultimate goal, become an opportunity to reflect on effective

teaching practices. Although these studies are from other countries, which might

compromise how relatable they are to the Chilean reality, they do serve to

construct background knowledge as to form a view of what might be found.

I.3.6 Issues on validity and reliability

Having discussed the possibilities of data collection and usefulness of

classroom observation for research, professional development, and teacher

evaluation, it is imperative to address what aspects might jeopardize the validity

and reliability of this approach to classroom research.

Up to this point, at least three issues that hamper reliability have been

foreshadowed or discussed in previous paragraphs:

How the presence of the observer can affect the natural development

of the lesson, influencing the behavior of the students or the teacher

(Richards & Lockhart, 1996; Wragg, 1996, 1999).


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unreliable data. In the case of classroom observations, a remarkable example of

how this can be done is the MET project mentioned earlier. In view of the fact that

3,000 teachers were observed and approximately 23,000 lessons were video-

taped and scored, to take full advantage of this opportunity, researchers had to

create a well-developed instrument for observation and train the observers to

accurately and justifiably judge what they observed (Joe et al, 2013; McClellan et

al., 2012). In this respect, other measures can also contribute to diminish the

pressure that being observed carries, such as deviating from the evaluative role of

observation (Richards & Lockhart, 1996)so that teachers can perform naturally

without having to worry about being judged.

I.4 Classroom management

Classroom management skills are considered to be a high concern for

teachers (Sokal et al., 2003), as they help create the conditions in which learning

takes place (Scrivener, 2005, p. 79). Nonetheless, for a long period of time the

concept of classroom management was strongly associated to discipline, and

authors such as Doyle (1986) and Miller & Hall (2005) claim that the importance of

classroom management lies on the fact that it aids in keeping classrooms in order.

Moreover, order is significant because it prompts engagement (Doyle 1986),

and in fact, the OECD (2013) states that a positive disciplinary climate helps


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conduction of activities that improve students academic engagement and

achievement, and efficient behavior management.

A similar view is shared by Richards & Renandya (2002), who state that

classroom management involves all actions teachers do in order to make a lesson

productive for language learning. They explain that planning covers the

pedagogical dimension of the lesson, while classroom management deals with

aspects of the implementation of such planning. These aspects include but are not

limited to eliciting students attention, keeping them engaged, and grouping them

according to the requirements of certain activities. Therefore, the concept of

classroom management goes beyond merely planning and following each step of

the lesson plan precisely; in fact, it must be understood as the interactive and

evaluative decisions teachers make in direct relation to the dynamics of the lesson

they are conducting. Scrivener (2005) goes beyond, affirming that classroom

management involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is done in

the classroom. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do

them, how to do them, who will do them, etc. (p. 80).

Scrivener (2005) continues to support his idea of classroom management as

involving decisions and actions by listing and grouping a set of at least twenty-eight

actions of classroom management into six skills (see TABLE 1).


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Teaching Framework6of 2008 (Ministry of Education, 2008), there are four major

areas that describe teaching practices of effective teachers. First of all, effective

teachers demonstrate their preparation, for example through the mastery of the

subject they impart, the acknowledgement of their students characteristics, and

how they adapt content to their students needs.

Groupin g and seating

Forming groupings (singles, pairs, groups, mingle, plenary)Arranging and rearranging seatingDeciding where teacher will stand or sitReforming class as a whole group after activities

Activ i t ies

Sequencing activitiesSetting up activitiesGiving & checking instructionsMonitoring activitiesTiming activities (and the lesson as a whole)

Bringing activities to an end

Author i ty

Gathering and holding attentionDeciding who does what (i.e. answer a question, make a decision, etc.)Establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriateGetting someone to do something

Crit ical moments

Starting the lessonDealing with unexpected problemsMaintaining appropriate disciplineFinishing the lesson


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Secondly, they promote a positive climate for teaching, and they

demonstrate it through having high expectations on their students, establishing

rules that promote respect, and other actions that foster a climate in which all

students are comfortable and feel secure.

Moreover, effective teachers foster the learning of all students, which

involves actions such as clearly communicating the learning objectives, optimizing

the time available for teaching, and treating the content of the subject meticulously

in order to make it comprehensible for all students. Finally, they have to fulfil

professional duties that include, but are not limited to: reflecting on their teaching

practices, keeping informed of the current educational policies, and collaborating

with their colleagues.

Although the Good Teaching Frameworkis considered by the OECD reportTeacher Evaluation in Chile,as a solid reference for teacher evaluation (Santiago

et al., 2013, p. 85), it becomes important to analyze whether Chilean teachers

follow this guideline or not, because there might be serious incongruences

between the expectations in regard to teaching practices that the Ministry of

Education holds and the actual teaching practices that take place in Chilean

classrooms, especially considering that the understanding of the Good Teaching

Framework is not well disseminated throughout the system (Santiago et al., 2013,


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19

FIGURE A.Concept map on key concepts of Chapter I illustrating how observation can be

ultimately used for collecting information on classroom practices of different nature.


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Chapter II: Design

II.1 Objectives

II.1.1 Main objective

This study is aimed at uncovering from an observational point of view what

occurs in Chilean EFL classrooms across the Bio-Bio Region.

II.1.2 Specific Objectives

1. To describe routines of English teachers in the EFL classroom during the

beginning, middle and end of the lesson.

2. To evaluate the coherence between teachers' classroom practices and the

guidelines provided by the Ministry of Education on this matter.3. To identify the physical organization of the ESL classroom and evaluate its

correspondence to the learning objectives proposed.

II.2 Research Approach

This study is framed into a non-experimental research design since there is

no manipulation of any of the aspects involved in. It is a cross-sectional descriptive

study because the observations were conducted at one point (Hernndez et al.


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to observe EFL lessons during the first semester of the year. They had to comply

with an overall of 24 chronological hours in their schools to meet the requirements

of the course.

The aim was to approach students to real English Teaching experiences, as

a form of mentoring. It must be noted that students did not intervene during the

lessons, unless asked by their mentor teacher. At the end of the observations,

student teachers, in pairs, wrote a report in which they compared and contrasted

the strategies and routines used by the teachers they observed. Later, these

experiences were put into practice through micro-teaching workshops, in which

student teachers planned and executed short lessons in front of their peers.

II.5 Instrument

The instrument given to student teachers was a checklist (see Appendix).

This checklist had already been used, perfected, and updated in keeping with the

projects FONDECYT 1060622related to University Teachers beliefs and

practicesand FONIDE 91, 2008related to Teachers Cognitions and Practices.

The checklist was divided into three parts, which correspond to the typical

three stages of a lesson: Beginning, development, and closing. Each part had

different criteria that described classroom routines, classroom management skills,

f hi id h d l i l i h i l d i


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Region, this study collected all the checklists in order to form a general view of the

current situation. The data was depicted in graphs and described briefly, which

help to note which methodological, managerial, or routine practices are executed

moreor lessfrequently. The amount of information collected was large;

therefore, only the most relevant and striking findings were analyzed. Because

observational data can be hard to interpret due to the different contexts where the

observations took place, there is plenty of room for speculation in an attempt to

explain why the subjects behaved in the ways they did. It is hoped that this study is

a start for further, more focused, research to address the reasons why certain

classroom practices are more common than others.


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Chapter III: Results

III.1 Beginning of the lesson

III.1.1 Routine for starting the lesson

One of the aspects that is part of the routine of all of the observed teachers

is greeting the students. This typically is accompanied by the teacher asking howthey are feeling (64% of the observations). In addition, checking attendance is also

done during the early stage (57%).

FIGURE 1.Routine for starting the lesson

III.1.2 The lesson objective

It is noteworthy that not always is the main aim of the lesson told to

100%

64% 57%

Greet the students Ask students how they feel Check attendance


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III.1.3 Previous content/knowledge connections

As a routine, asking the students about previous contents is relatively

common practice74% of the observed lessons.

During the observations, a good portion of teachers prefer to ask students

for examples on previous contents (55% of the lessons), while others prefer

providing these examples themselves (54% the lessons).

In a significantly high percentage of the lessons, the teacher provides

grammar exercises about previous contents (31%). Other tools to recall previous

knowledge are left behind with relatively low percentages of preference: In 10% of

the lessons, examples are shown using media; in 8% of the lessons, a concept

map is done; and in only 6% of the lessons, a text about previous contents is

provided for students to translate.

74%

55% 54%

31%

10% 8% 6%

Ask studentsabout previous

contents

Ask studentsfor exampleson previous

contents

Provideexamples of

previouscontents

Providegrammarexercises

about previouscontents

Show anexample ofprevious

contents usingmedia

Make aconcept mapon previous

contents

Provide a textabout previous

contents forstudents totranslate


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motivate students (25%). The least preferred strategies are providing material for

translation (11%) and presenting dialogues using media (9%).

FIGURE 4.Strategies used to motivate students

III.2 Development of the lesson

III.2.1 Organization of activities around a contextMost teachers still prefer to organize activities by grammatical contents as

evidenced by the 49% of lessons in which this is the tendency. Likewise, 48% of

the lessons are organized by topic. Interestingly enough, only 18% of the lessons

are organized by communicative function and seemingly, 15% are organized by

language skills.

43% 41% 40%35% 34% 33%

25%

11%9%

Model Ask open

questions

Show a

grammaticalrule

Ask for

opinions

Do

grammarexercises

Ask closed

questions

Show

pictures

Provide

material forstudents totranslate

Present a

dialogueusing media


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FIGURE 6.Organization of the physical space

III.2.3 Catching and holding students attention

FIGURE 7indicates that the most used strategy to catch students attention is

to address students by their names (83% of the observed lessons). Asking

questions to the whole group is another commonly used strategy (63%), which

makes students stay alert. Another strategy is to adapt and present topics that are

interesting for students (45%), which prompt the teacher to do some research on

students current interests according to their age. The provision of grammar

exercises is also commonly used (43%) typically gap-filling activities, which keep

the students on task. The use of humor is also present and it is seen that teachers

play jokes related to the topic that they are dealing with (39%), which eases the

classroom atmosphere. Asking opinions about the topic is also a frequently used

strategy to catch and hold attention (34%). Multimedia continues to be used

sparingly (26%) and has not yet become an integral part of ESL lessons, in spite of

21%

11%3%

Ask students to form lines Ask students to form groups Ask students to form circles


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III.2.4 Conducted Activities

In regard to the activities conducted during the lessons observed, 53% of

observed teachers provide an exercise from the book for students to solve. Second

in preference, providing a grammar exercise for students to solve is done by 50%

of observed teachers. Providing resources using multimedia is less frequently

observed, specifically in 24% of lessons. Similarly, 23% of observed teachers

provide a text for students to translate. Following in occurrence, opinions about the

topics are asked for 21% of observed lessons. Finally, the least frequent activity is

asking students to analyze the topic of the lessons, which is observed within 11%

of observed lessons.

FIGURE 8.Conducted activities

III.2.5 Instructions

53% 50%

24% 23% 21%

11%

Provide anexercise from thebook for students

to solve

Provide agrammarexercise

Provideresources using

multimedia

Provide a text forstudents totranslate

Ask opinionsabout the topic

Ask students toanalyze the topic

53% 50%

24% 23% 21%

11%

Provide anexercise from thebook for students

to solve

Provide agrammarexercise

Provideresources using

multimedia

Provide a text forstudents totranslate

Ask opinionsabout the topic

Ask students toanalyze the topic


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III.2.6 Materials and didactic resources

The available resources and materials for ESL teachers are many; even

though, there four categories that are the most recurrent: resources that promote

free interaction (for example, a task or a project), dialogues (and other forms of

role-play), grammar exercises (for example, gap-filling activities) and texts for

translation.

The most widely used type of resources are grammar exercises (48% of thelessons). Surprisingly, resources that promote free interaction are in second place

(26%). A significant part of teachers provide text for students to translate (19%).

The least used resources are dialogues (18% of the lessons).

FIGURE 10.Use of different materials and didactic resources

III 2 7 Use of technology

48%

26%19% 18%

Provide grammarexercises

Provide resources thatpromote student-studentinteraction or teacher-

student interaction

Provide texts for studentsto translate

Provide dialogues forstudents to practice

48%

26%19% 18%

Provide grammarexercises

Provide resources thatpromote student-studentinteraction or teacher-

student interaction

Provide texts for studentsto translate

Provide dialogues forstudents to practice


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35%

24%

6%

Use audio Use multimedia projector Use computer lab

FIGURE 11.Use of technology for the development of the lesson

III.2.8 Teacher roles

Regarding the teacher roles performed during lessons, and based on

Grashas work (1996), results show that the majority of teachers prefer to play the

role of Formal Authorityby ensuring students follow the correct, acceptable, and

standard ways to do things(as observed in 61% of the lessons). Next in

frequency is the preference for acting as a Personal Modelby being an example

of how to think and behave, which is played in 51% of the lessons.

61%

51%

40%

26% 26%


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III.2.9 Variety of methodological strategies

To increase students competences in the target language, teachers use a

variety of methodological strategies. Some teachers prefer to let the students

communicate freely, creating situations in which exchanging and negotiating

information are the focus. Others go for partially patterned ways of instruction,

using dialogues or other type of role-play.

Also, there are some teachers who prefer entirely guided and patternedpractice, using translation and gap-filling exercises.

The tendency to make students work on grammar-oriented exercises

continues in this aspect (In 69% of the lessons, students are exposed to grammar

and translation exercises, typically gap-fill). The use of dialogues and other

patterned resources is also a widely used strategy (43% of the lessons). The leastused methodological strategy is the exposure to communicative situation in which

students have to interact freely (24% of the lessons)

69%

43%24%

Exposure to grammar exercises, Use of dialogues, repetition and Exposure to communicative

69%

43%24%

Exposure to grammar exercises, Use of dialogues, repetition and Exposure to communicative


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FIGURE 14.Teaching learning strategies

III.2.11 Questions and answers

Not only by looking at the selection of activities can a teachers language

approach be revealed, but also by looking at the type of questions he/she asks to

the students. What might be important for one teacher may not be to another.

During the observations, most questions asked by the teacher are related to

grammar exercises and their translation to Spanish (66% of the lessons). Other

commonly asked questions are related to pronunciation (48%). Lastly, questions

related to expressions used in communicative contexts are also asked (30%).

66%48%

30%

38%

24% 21%

Teach memorization and repetitionstrategies

Teach cognitive and compensationstrategies

Teach metacognitive strategies,affective strategies and social

strategies


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communicating in the target language (35%) and making sure that students repeat

and practice conversations (35%).

FIGURE 16.Monitoring students work

III.2.13 Error correction

Another way to make teachers beliefs and approaches observable is to look

at what mistakes they tend to correct more often and what mistakes they tend to

overlook. During the observations, lexical and grammatical mistakes are given the

most importance (54% of the observed lessons). Mistakes that interfere with

communication of an idea are also given considerable importance (43%). Finally,

pronunciation mistakes are the most disregarded with the less teachers

emphasizing them (29% of the observations).

54%

70%

35% 35%

Check individual work by checkingexercises

Monitor to make sure that studentsare communicating in the targetlanguage. Walk among them,

supporting their work

Monitor work centrally and actively,making sure students repeat and

practice conversations


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of the observed lessons). A decreased number of teachers use these expressions

when students express an idea or can communicate (54%). Pronunciation is the

area which receives least expressions of praise (43%).

FIGURE 18.Praising

III.2.15 Discipline

Teachers may deal with disruption and repeated misbehavior in a number of

ways. Some teachers are reactive, coping with these problems in the heat of the

moment. Others have established routines to deal with different scenarios. On this

point, during most of the observations, teachers use consistent routines to handle

bad behavior (81% of the observed lessons).

No19%

80%

54%43%

Use expressions such as Verygood, Good job, Excellent, andWell done when students solve a

grammar exercise or gap-fillexercise

Use expressions such as Verygood, Good job, Excellent, and

Well done when students areable to express an idea or

communicate

Use expressions such as Verygood, Good job, Excellent, and

Well done when studentspronounce correctly


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this aspect, in most of the observed lessons there is coherence between lesson

activities and the proposed objectives (86% of the observations).

FIGURE20.Coherence between lesson activities and the lesson objectives proposed

III.2.17 Interaction

Interaction, either teacher-student or student-student, is a fundamental part

of an ESL lesson. It is only by interacting that English can be learned. In 61% of

observed lessons, communication is related to grammar or translation exercises. In

contrast, in only 25% of the lessons, dialogues and radio conversations are the

focus of communication.

61%

25%

Coherent

86%

Notcoherent

14%

Coherent

86%

Notcoherent

14%

61%

25%


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talk. Observations in which teachers talk for around 30 minutes are infrequent

(10%) and so are those in which the teacher talks for 40 minutes (only 5% of the

observed lessons).

FIGURE 22.Teacher talking time

III.2.19 Student talking time

As we have seen, the prevailing trend of teacher talk is between 10 to 20

minutes long. Now it is time to take a look at students interactions: in most of the

observations, student talking time is less than 20 minutes long (41% of the

observations). The lessons in which students talk for 20 to 30 minutes are fairly

frequent as well (23%). Finally, the lessons in which students talk for 30 or more

minutes are least common, but still significant (18%)

41%

44%

29%

10% 5% 0%

10 minutes long 20 minutes long 30 minutes long 40 minutes long 50 minutes long

41%


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small but still significant part of the observations, students do not assume an active

role (34%).

FIGURE 24.Do students assume an active role during the lesson?

III.2.21 Contents

Every teacher usually emphasizes certain contents or skills, based on his or

her beliefs of what is important or necessary. The observed teachers tend to focus

on grammar (75% of the observations) and vocabulary (68%). In contrast, a

considerably smaller number of teachers emphasize pronunciation (23% of the

lessons), compared to the aforementioned contents. These figures show that

grammar-oriented teaching is still the favored approach.

Yes66%

No34%

75%68%


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III.3 End of the lesson

III.3.1 ClosureOne of the most difficult skills that teachers have to master regarding

classroom management is timing. This will condition whether the lesson has a

closure or not. While in 54% of the observed lessons there is a closing stage, in

44% of them there is not. This may create loose ends between lessons, which may

prevent students from consolidating the learning outcomes.

FIGURE 26.Does the lesson have a closure?

III.3.2 Assessment Techniques

Assessment is an integral part of every lesson because it is an opportunity

to see whether students have met the learning goals. Not only is it helpful during

the final stage of the lesson, but also during the development because it helps to

Yes54%

No44%

NA3%


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III.3.3 Use of English

The use of the target language in the classroom has long been considered

as a critical issue in language teaching (Cook, 2001), as increasing teachers use

of English in the classroom might have a positive impact on students exposure to

the language. On this matter, English is spoken by teachers during most of the

observed lessons (69% of the observations). A small but still meaningful portion of

teachers does not do so (21%).

FIGURE 28.Does the teacher speak English the whole lesson?

III.3.4 English spoken by the teacher

As we have seen, the observed teachers are able to give simple instructions

in English and they speak English during most of the observations. However, it is

worth mentioning that the use of the language is somewhat restricted (44% of

observed lessons) and sometimes it does not sound natural (11%). In contrast, the

Yes69%

No21%

NA10%


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Chapter IV: Analysis

After having briefly reviewed the results that this study produced, it is time to

establish possible links between the different practices and occurrences during a

typical EFL lesson and analyze the data in depth. The comprehensiveness of the

checklists used for this study allowed us to collect information on the eight possible

sources of data that Richards & Farrell (2011) identified when using classroomobservation:

Lesson structure

Classroom management strategies

Types of activities

Teaching strategies

Teachers use of materials

Teachers use of language

Students use of language

Student interaction

From the large amount of information, two major analyses have been

produced, dealing with the three research questions that derive from the objectives


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IV.1 Classroom practices

Classically, and probably intuitively, lessons are divided into three major

stages: Beginning, development, and closing. Certain pedagogical trends have

further divided these stages into more than just three, or have changed their

names. It is the case of task-based instruction, where the sequence of a lesson is

typically broken into pre-task, task, planning, report, analysis, and practice

(Harmer, 2001). On the same matter, the PPP paradigm divided the stages into

presentation, practice, and production (Harmer, 2001). The examples could go on

and on, but in spite of any changes, the essence and purpose of these divisions

remains the same: to give teachers guidelines to plan their lessons to meet the

aims as best as possible.

As in any other lesson, in EFL classes, some classroom events such as

doing a warm-up activity, giving feedback, or delivering certain handout, happen

during specific stages. When these events happen could be determined by the

teacher or the dynamics of the lesson itself. The PPP model, for instance, is

preferred in lessons where grammar is being stressed; the task-based model, on

the contrary, is more suitable for lessons emphasizing interaction (Richards, 2006).

For the purpose of this study, the threefold paradigm of beginning, development,

and end of the lesson has been used.


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Taking attendance

Stating the lesson aim

Greeting is a basic social convention in most cultures, which promotes

respect, care, and acknowledgement of another individual. The value of greeting

when analyzing classroom routines might appear to be insignificant due to it being

such simple and common action. However, greeting was the only classroom

routine that was present in all of the observed lessons, as illustrated by FIGURE 1;

therefore, it is worthy of analysis. Greeting might be the first action that sets the

mood of the lesson; it conveys the attitude of both teachers and students towards

each other and the lesson itself. If the teacher greets his/her students

enthusiastically or if the teacher does it coldly and quickly (e.g. to get them on task

as soon as possible) will possibly make a huge difference on how the students

perceive the lesson and how receptive they will be towards what the teachers says.

Another aspect that is worth looking at is the relation between greeting and

establishing routines. Since greeting is commonly the first thing that almost all

teachers (if not all) do upon entering a classroom, it has become a deep-rooted

part of classroom etiquette. Rules such as raise your hand if you want to say

something or keep your phone on your backpack bear little difference from

stand up to greet the teachersince the three of them can be considered part of


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During the beginning of the lesson, a considerable number of teachers ask

how their students feelas represented on FIGURE 1. As with greeting, this also

promotes respect and caring because it makes students feel valued. Moreover, it

gives learners an opportunity to share part of their day and, ideally, use English.

After all, small talk can also be considered a form of classroom participation and a

learning opportunity (Ayala et al, 2011), which can encourage weaker students to

take part in the lesson in a more casual fashion. This also may help set the mood

of the lesson and create a better climate (Hattie, 2012). Imagine a lesson at 2 pm,

just after the students came back from having lunch, would they be willing to learn

if the teacher himself/herself did not show any sign of enthusiasm?

The first indication of what the lesson is going to deal with is given by the

lesson aim. Lesson aims are the backbones of every lesson plan; nonetheless,

they are not necessarily communicated to students. Based on FIGURE 2, it is still

possible to say that telling students the lesson objective is a relatively common

action. However, this practice is not a widespread routine as greeting is. Again,

teachers can decide whether or not to spend time in informing their students about

the skills they will hopefully master by the end of the lesson and their reasons for

doing or not doing so may differ. Just as it happens with taking attendance,

teachers may want to save time or make students be on task as quickly as


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importance that teachers give to grammar and the consequential effects of the

leading role of grammar in the ELT lessons are not only limited to the selection of

activities and the use of materials. In fact, it was found that it affects a diverse

range of lesson components7:

Motivational strategies

Conducted activities

Interaction

Ways of recalling prior knowledge

Praising

Error correction

Materials and resources

Questions and answers

To begin with, our findings suggest that the most common way to organize

activities is based on grammatical contents, as evidenced by FIGURE 5. In as high

as 49% of the observations, organization by grammatical content is the preferred

option. This organization can be observable in different ways: when teachers

communicate the purpose of the lesson to the students (e.g. Today, well talkabout the present simple), the type of activities they use (e.g. gap-filling, tense

shift) the type of errors they correct when students communicate (e g Its he is


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communication (Ministry of Education 2012). In spite of the former, some teachers

might privilege this organization because it allows them to hierarchically arrange

grammatical contents in order of complexity; because they consider grammar

exercises easier to conduct and check; because some teachers find difficulties

when putting grammar in context; or because there is a rigid policy with regard to

lesson planning in schools.

Another interesting finding is the high percentage of observations in which

grammar exercises are provided to catch and hold attention, as FIGURE 7 with 43%

of preference. One of the possible reasons is that by keeping students on task,

they are less likely to get distracted or disrupt the lesson. However, how does this

affect lesson structure? The answer might be that providing accuracy exercises at

the beginning of the lesson to catch attentionor during the lesson development to

hold attentionallows the teacher greater control of the lesson flow. It can be said

that these exercises are easier to conduct when compared to tasks that involve

freer practice where monitoring is imperatively necessary.

On a similar matter, as evidenced by FIGURE 4, the use of grammar as a

motivational strategy is also surprising; more specifically, showing grammatical

rules 40% of the observationsand providing grammar exercises34% of the

observations. Even though the mere fact of saying that a teacher is using


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with regard to these exercises. This could affect the lesson structure, because if

students are not really motivated, it could mean that they will not do the exercises.

The former might translate into spending more time during the development of the

lesson, which in turn could determine whether the lesson has a closure or not. In

fact, this could be an explanation to the important percentage of observations (up

to 44%) in which no form of closure was perceived, evidenced by FIGURE 26.

The presence of grammar exercises during the beginning and development

of the lesson, evidenced by FIGURE 3, FIGURE 8 and FIGURE 10, illustrates how easy

is to incorporate this type of exercises into practically any lesson stage. This does

nothing but confirming that teachers use grammar as an organizational criterion of

the lesson structure. It is possible that this happens because they are

straightforward and do not require more contextualization or preparation like

projects or tasks.

On FIGURE 3 it is observable that providing grammar exercises is a significant

occurrence when recalling prior knowledgeon 31% of the lessons, this practice

was observed. In terms of lesson structure, prior knowledge can be recalled at the

beginning, if the aim is to create a logical sequence between lessons. In addition,

recalling can also be used at any stage of the lesson if an activity requires prior

knowledge to be executed or understood, or if teachers want to clarify their


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lessons, being the second highest preference. Furthermore, it must be considered

that the first preference was to work on exercises from the course book52% of

the lessons. Although it is not possible to ascertain that these workbook exercises

were grammar-oriented, it could also be the case, which would add up to this trend.

These findings suggest that there is a major grammatical component not only

during the beginning to recall prior knowledge, but also during the development of

lessons, where most of the activities take place. This probably means that teachers

value accuracy over fluency, moving away from communicative or functional

approaches to language teaching. Apart from the reasons that have been already

given to partially explain this tendency, it can also be said that many teachers

might prefer grammar exercises because they are easily designed or adopted from

what can be found on the Internet. In contrast, projects or communicative tasks

imply careful consideration of various aspects such as time, materials andresources, difficulty, or relevance of the topic. The former is supported by FIGURE

10,where it is evidenced that the resources and materials used by teachers are of

grammatical naturea trend 48% of the lessons, rising above interactive

resources (26%), translation (19%), or dialogues (17%). The former establishes

them as the main type of didactic aid.

Up to this point, it is important to determine whether the observed teachers


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Moreover, the evidence represented on FIGURE 21suggests that the type of

teacher-student and student-student interaction is related to grammar and

translation exercises (61%) rather than more communicative resources like

dialogues or radio conversations (25%). The aforementioned might imply that

grammar is not simply an aid to consolidate communicative learning outcomes,

contradicting what the Ministry of Education expects. Depending on the way in

which students solve these exercises, there is little or no interaction compared to

other types of teaching resources seen in FIGURE 10(with the exception of providing

text for students to translate).

Other indications of the central role that accuracy plays can be inferred from

three teacher practices: questioning, error correction, and praising. From a

structural point of view, these procedures can be present during the course of any

lesson stage. Questions can be used to engage students at the beginning, to

maintain attention and participation throughout the development, or to check

understanding at the closing stage (e.g. concept check questions), among other

purposes. A similar case is error correction: teachers can correct students when

recalling prior knowledge at the beginning, to address errors that hinder the

performance of activities during the development, or by the end of the lesson, to

focus on any language problems detected during earlier stages. Likewise, praising


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mistakes, teachers choose to highlight lexical or grammatical mistakesas 54%

of the observed lessonsdisregarding pronunciation mistakes. Finally, FIGURE 18

shows that praising also denotes a marked preference to congratulate students

when they successfully answer grammar-related exercisesobserved on up to

80% of the lessons.

Considering the analysis made up to this point, there is no doubt that the

majority of teachers observed applied a hybrid method of teaching which borrows

elements from the Grammar-Translation and Audiolingual methods. Therefore, it is

evident that they are focusing on form rather than function, even though in the last

years this approach has been disregarded as focusing only on teaching the rules of

the language, and not teaching how to use them in real communication (Richards

& Renandya, 2002).

Explicit grammar teaching instruction continues to be a controversial issue,

and to say that it is completely wrong to teach grammar would be extreme. In fact,

grammar teaching can be beneficial (or detrimental) depending on age, proficiency

level, educational background, language skills, style (register) and the needs and

goals of learners (Brown, 2001; Cruz, 2013).

IV.1.3 End of the lesson

Gi h f h h l d l i h l f ll i i


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Clarification (e.g. students can address any problem they had and

ask the teacher questions to resolve any issue)

Summary (e.g. teachers can review the lesson objectives and do a

quick review of new language items)

Assessment (e.g. teachers can assess students performance or they

can ask students to assess each others performances)

Feedback (e.g. teachers can encourage students through praising.

They can also tell them how they can improve; in turn, students can

make suggestions to make future lessons better)

In this respect, it is important to highlight that our findings suggest that by

the end of the majority of the observed lessons, some form of closure was

perceived (as the ones listed above)on 54% of the lessons, as represented by

FIGURE 26. In spite of this, an equally important number of teachers do not perform

any of the actions listed above, implying that the closing stage is not presenton

up to 44% of the lessons, this was the case.

Additionally, among the focuses of observation, an item related to assessment is

present. As FIGURE 27 illustrates, on 59% of the lessons teachers use different

assessment techniques. There is no data related to the nature of these techniques;

therefore, it is not possible to ascertain whether rubrics, checklists, or even tests


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IV.2 Seating arrangement: a neglected asset in ELT

The second objective of this study is to identify the physical organization of

the EFL classroom. First of all, Scrivener (2005) considers that grouping and

seating is one of many classroom management skills. More specifically, he divides

this skill into four actions that teachers can do to modify the organization of the EFL

classroom.

Forming groupings (singles, pairs, groups, mingle, plenary)

Arranging and rearranging seating

Deciding where teacher will stand or sit

Reforming class as a whole group after activities

Depending on the nature of some activities, students might be asked to

work individually, in pairs or larger groups. Sometimes, the former involves theteacher changing the seating arrangement of the classroom to benefit the smooth

performance of the activities. In contrast, seating arrangement could also be the

effect of teachers own beliefs related to their role in the classroom (Lotfy, 2012).

Whatever the reason, this practice enables teachers to change the focus of lesson,

add variety to the interaction among students, favor teachers monitoring, improvetraffic patterns and break the predictability of sitting in the same spot every class

(Denton 1992; Scrivener 2005) Given the aforementioned possibilities that


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classroom practices. Since grammar exercises could not necessarily prompt

students to interact and move around the classroom, seating arrangement might

remain unchanged by teachers. However, there might be reasons other than the

type of activities students do that also influence how willing to introduce changes

teachers are. In fact, we have narrowed down to three factors that could determine

the decision-making in relation to the organization of the EFL classroom: teacher-

related, student-related, and school-related.

IV.2.1. The teacher-related factor

The teacher-related factor could be closely tied to aspects such as

approaches to language teaching, theoretical knowledge, and personality traits.

Teachers preferences with regard to approaches to ELT might have an

influence on the seating arrangement that they choose. For example, teachers whotend to prefer tasks or projects might be more willing to avoid using the traditional

row organization because the essence of these activities is to exchange and

negotiate meaning. Therefore, the execution of this type of activities might be

smoother if teachers arrange students in groups, where face-to-face

communication takes place more naturally. In contrast, form-focused activities

might not necessarily require a change in seating arrangement since conversation

is less likely to be needed in order to complete them. The former might be related


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potential benefits of changing seating arrangements according to the type of

activities will most certainly not resort to this asset.

Teachers personality traits are another factor that could play against using

different types of arrangement. From a practical point of view, teachers who feel

insecure about their classroom management skills could restrain themselves from

altering the organization of the classroom in order to avoid losing control of the

class while changing seats. Likewise, extroverted teachers might prefer their

students to work in groups because it might be more natural to them in spite of the

type of activity. Similarly, teachers who are inflexible might be likely to choose one

type of seating arrangement and stick to it, not considering potential benefits of

introducing some variations. Naturally, some teachers might just simply avoid

changing seating arrangement because it is out of their comfort zone of

experimentation. The aforementioned examples are just some among many others

which could also influence teachers decisions with regard to organizational

patterns, and this does nothing but highlight the importance of personality traits in

teaching.

Although it is undeniable that more teacher-related factors exist, the ones

mentioned above demonstrate that the influences on teachers seating

arrangement preferences can come from different sources. As a matter of fact, the


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looking at the descriptions that the author gives for teaching styles, it can be

noticed that these are more teacher-centered than the others.

For example, teachers who are categorized as Formal Authorityare aware

of the power that being a teacher entails; therefore, they might tend to avoid

relinquishing control to students. This could translate into lower opportunities for

students to negotiate and decide on commonly accepted rules, to set their own

learning goals, or to provide feedback for improving the subject.

ExpertPossesses knowledge and expertise that students need. Strives tomaintain status as an expert among students by displaying detailed

knowledge and by challenging students to enhance their competence.Concerned with transmitting information and ensuring that students are

well prepared.

Formal AuthorityPossesses status among students because of knowledge and role as a

faculty member. Concerned with providing positive and negative feedback,establishing learning goals, expectations, and rules of conduct for

students. Concerned with the correct, acceptable, and standard ways todo things and with providing students with the structure they need to learn.

Personal ModelBelieves in teaching by personal example and establishes a prototype

for how to think and behave. Oversees, guides, and directs by showinghow to do things, and encouraging students to observe and then to

emulate the instructors approach.


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Similarly, teachers who are described as Personal Model might also

relegate students to a secondary role. Given that this teaching style relies on

imitation of the instructors procedures and ways of behaving, this could not take

into consideration the diversity of students learning styles, needs, or interests.

Their status as more proficient English speakers might lead them to be more rigid

in relation to what they expect from their students.

In contrast, the other teaching styles described by Grasha show signs of

increased student involvement. To begin with, Expert teachers encourage students

to develop their competences, prompting them to take responsibility for their own

learning. This idea is even more evident if we look at the description of Facilitators,

since they develop students independence, initiative, and responsibility. Finally,

Delegators give even more room for students to work independently, aiming at

developing student autonomy. All in all, these three styles place the teacher in the

position of a resourceful guide who helps students, rather than an instructor who

imparts knowledge and expects their students to emulate his/her actions.

Undeniably, it is interesting those teaching styles associated to more

traditional ways of instruction remain being the most popular. It is equally thought-

provoking that teachers prefer to arrange students in rows (see FIGURE 30), which

could also be related to more traditional teaching approaches. The former indicates


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FIGURE 30.Physical organization of the majority of observed classrooms (up to 70%)

IV.2.2. The student-related factor

Introducing variations into an EFL classroom may be more complex than

merely deciding which pattern is more suitable for certain activities. In fact, as Lotfy

(2012) states, students learning styles and preferences also need to be taken into

account when thinking of rearranging the classroom layout. It is common

knowledge that no lesson will completely suit the needs of all students, which is


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working on their own. On this matter, teachers might find difficulties when

rearranging seating because of this diversity, which could restrain them from

attempting to introduce changes.

In the same way, students preferences could also discourage some

teachers from organizing the classroom differently. Each student might have a first

choice with regard to where to sit, and this is related to how comfortable they feel.

On this matter, Lotfys study on seating arrangement and classroom participation

concluded that students care for where and how they feel comfortable (p. 66).

The former prompts teachers to digress from assumptions like disruptive students

sit at the back or the opposite, participative students sit at the front, since it could

be just a matter of predilection.

For example, some students might feel exposed when working on a semi-

circle fashion. Similarly, using non-traditional seating arrangements such as semi-

circles or group clusters

Another factor that should be considered is learners special needs. Visual

impairment or auditory problems need to be taken into account when deciding

where students will sit.

IV.2.3. The school-related factor


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certain arrangements might not work as expected, even if they suit the activities,

which is why some teachers might avoid using them.

Secondly, while some schools have an English classroom, others do not.

How does this concern seating arrangement? The answer lies in the fact that EFL

teachers often have to share the room with colleagues, which might restrain them

from rearranging the classroom in order to avoid causing inconveniences. In

addition, it must be considered that form teachers might have their own policies

with regard to seating arrangements due to behavioral problems affecting the class

or personal preferences.

Lastly, school regulations might also be a reason why teachers are not.

classroom managers who reorganize seatin

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ENGLISH TEACHING UNCLASSIFIED: AN OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH TO THE EFL CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN THE BÍO-BÍO REGION