ENGLISH SYNTAX university notes

8/10/2019 ENGLISH SYNTAX university notes

1/20

ANGLEKA SKLADNJA

That-clause in phrase and sentence structureSentence structure:

SC (predicate clauses)

His impression was that he could make his own terms.

What struck me was that he was so placid over his loss.

The regulation is that all the workers be x-rayed.My advice is that you should apply for the job.

- often joined to main clauses without the conjunction that

The fact is ohn is one of the best students in !nglish.

The reason is he works very hard.

DO (object clauses)

- mainly verbs introducing reported speech or epressing mental activities (admit! agree! believe! claim!

confess! deny! fear! imagine! "now! say! state! suppose###)

" gather that he is the boss here.

He pointed out that a great social revolution has now taken place.

- with some verbs (assure! inform! persuade! tell###) the personal O may precede the

that-clause

They told us that he would give up his position.- to-phrase placed before the that-clause

#ob announced to us that he was going to get married next month.

- the $ in that-clause usually in the indicative mood! ecept with the verbs epressing wish! order or command

$hrase structure:

%pposition in &$s (appositive clauses)

The fact that he is now old and weak must be taken into consideration.

They opposed the proposal that another board should be elected.

$ost' in %dj$s

- thatafter some predicate adjectives is often optional

He is afraid $that% things might get worse.

" am sorry $that% " couldn&t meet you at the station.- a that-clause postmodifying adjectives denoting emotion epresses cause or reason the $ is either in the

indicative mood or it contains the putativeshould

" am ama'ed(angry)furious)shocked that he behaves)should behave like that.

PP in phrase and sentence structure$hrase structure:

(can ta"e its own modifiers)

right in the centre* a month from today

$ost' in &$s

the department of !nglish* a man behind us

$re' in &$s (usually hyphenated)

an after-dinner nap* his on-the-job training

$ost' in %dj$s

afraid of dogs* ready for anything* rich in oil

$ost' in %$s

there in the corner* first of all

Sentence structure:

a second O to a verb having a DO

They accused him of theft. They saved her from drowning.

SC

+he was at a loss. ohn was in a hurry.

OC

They found him in good health. He always leaves his room in a mess.

% (of various "inds)

He stood before the fire. We left in a hurry. What are you doing at present,

The girl couldn&t speak for fear.


2/20

S (rarely)

fter your arrival will be soon enough. or him to understand our view was impossible.

The difference between wh-pronous and subordinators*nli"e subordinating conjunctions! wh-pronouns and adverbs perform a syntactical function also in the subordinate

clause they introduce#

Tell me who did it. /o you know whom she asked for advice, Tell me where he works.

+he interrogatives who! whomand whereperform , functions:

) that of subordinating conjunction joining the subordinate to the main clause

,) that of S (who)! DO (whom)! and % (where) in the subordinate clause they introduce#

Position of D *nless there is also an .O in the sentence! the DO normally follows its $ immediately

He sent the copies of the contract. /id he send the copies of the contract,

+he DO may be separated from its $ by the adverbial particles in! on! off! out! up (on condition the DO is

represented by a &$ with a noun at )

Turn off the gas $Turn the gas off.% ) Turn it off.

+he DO may be separated from its $ by different types of %s (when the &$ by which the O is represented is

lengthy)

The dog ate voraciously the food that " placed before him.0et me introduce to you my friend ohn #rown and his wife.

+he had seen* while she spoke* only ames with his new girlfriend.

+he DO may occur in initial position:

- in pronominal /uestions

What are you reading, Which painting do you like best,

- when it is made emphatic (usually no inversion)

1ice things you&re telling me. What beautiful eyes she has2 The house she kept in perfect order.

- when it connects , statements

3ou promised you would help him. This you cannot deny.

He decided on a letter. That letter he addressed to the managing director.

Ad!erbial clause of result or conse"uence0inite clauses of result or conse/uence:

Denote the result of the action epressed in the main clause

%nswer the /uestion With what result,

Connected with the main clause by the phrasal conjunctionso thator by that

He left after seven so that he must have caught the 4.56 train.

They 7uarrelled loudly so that they didn&t hear the knocking at the door.

+he must be blind that she doesn&t reali'e what a drunkard he is.

.n collo/uial style the subordinating conjunctionso thatis often reduced toso(indistinguishable from the co-

ordinating conjunctionso however! we may say thatsois a subordinating conjunction if it can be replaced by

so that)They live only three blocks away from us so $that% they often come to see us.(subordinator)

"t was late* so we went home.(co-ordinator)

%lways follow the main clause

8+o that " couldn&t see his face he sat behind me.

He sat behind me so that " couldn&t see his face.

&on-finite clauses of result or conse/uence:

.nfinitival clauses functioning as $ost's in &$s! %dj$s! or %$s

# &$s

a) enough1 noun (or noun 1 enough) 1 infinitival clause

We haven&t got enough money to buy a new house.

b) too 1 adjective 1 a(n) 1 noun 1 infinitival clause

9olitics is too serious a business to be played with.

c)such $a%1 noun 1 as 1 infinitival clause

such1 as1 infinitival clause


3/20

" hope you are not such a fool as to lend him money.

His la'iness was such as to make one despair.

,# %dj$s

a) adjective 1 enough1 infinitival clause

"&m lucky enough to know her.

b) too 1 adjective 1 infinitival clause used as SC

3esterday " was too tired to play tennis.

c)so1 adjective 1 as1 infinitival clause

+he was so lucky as to escape.

2# %$s

a) too 1 adverb 1 infinitival clause

+he ran too slowly to win the first pri'e.

b) adverb 1 enough1 infinitival clause

+he plays the piano well enough to perform at a concert.

#n!ersion for st$listic reasons.nversion for stylistic reasons occurs when an element of the sentence other than the S is placed at the beginning of

the sentence to produce a greater effect# .n such cases inversion is not due to the grammatical structure of the

sentence but to the spea"er3s wish to produce a certain stylistic effect# .f the $ does not contain an auiliary or a

modal verb! the verb do)does)didmust be used with transitive verbs#.nversion for stylistic reasons occurs:

# when an emphatic % with a negative or restrictive meaning (at no time* by no means* in vain* no sooner...than*

little* never* not* nowhere* not once* on no account: hardly* barely* rarely* seldom* scarcely ) is placed in initial

position

#y no means are you indebted to me. 1ever in my life have " been more surprised.

"n vain did he try to put out the fire. +eldom does this treatment provide satisfactory results.

,# when a restrictive % beginning with only(only by chance* only then * only with difficulty* only yesterday) opens

the sentence

;nly by chance did he discover the truth. "n only one instance has he disappointed them.- &O+4: 5hen onlyopens a subordinate clause! inversion occurs in the main clause# ;nly when he returned from his voyage did he learn the news.

2# when an emphatic % with a positive meaning is placed in initial position (common in literary 4nglish)!specially did we enjoy the view from the top. ;ften did she mention their generosity.

+o hard did he work that he was absolutely exhausted. Well do " remember that day2

6# when an % (usually of place) epressed by a $$ opens the sentence and the S contains a noun the $ must

contain an intransitive verb (full inversion)

mong those present were /r. ohnson and his wife. #elow the lay the blue driatic.

"n the middle of the room stood a table set for six. ;n the tree was tied a large flag.(the $ in the passive)

7# when the sentence begins with the %s now! then! hereand thereon condition that the S contains a noun (or a

clause) and the $ is in the indefinite present or past tense

1ow is the time to go. Then came the 7uestion of transport. Here is the book you are looking for.

There goes the champion. There go all my hopes.

- .f the S is epressed by a personal pronoun! inversion does not ta"e place#

There he comes.8# when an % containing an adverbial particle epressing direction (away* back* down* in* off* round* up###) opens

the sentence! but only when the S contains a noun

"n stepped the headmaster. ;ut rushed the cats. /own fell the vase and broke into pieces.

9# in elliptical sentences afterso(neither! nor)! when the preceding statement is applied to a new S (affirmative

statements open withso negative with neither! nor! no more)

They work hard. +o do we. " cannot stand that guy. 1either)1or)1o more can ".- &O+4: +here is no inversion when the preceding statement is applied to the same S# He seems a clever fellow. +o he is.

# sometimes when a SC containing an adjective or the demonstrative pronounsuchis placed at the beginning of

the sentence the adjective may be premodified by an intensifier or postmodified by indeed

air was she as the roses in May. +uch is life2 +uch are the results2


4/20

;# in sentences containing passive structures when special emphasis is laid on the verb in the form of the past

participle

4nclosed is a che/ue for oose adjuncts or disjuncts are those elements which are not incorporated in sentence structure# Conse/uently! they

do not perform the function of a sentence element but are independent elements used to epress the independent

opinion of the spea"er towards the situation described in the clause# +hey normally occur in initial and in medial

position only rarely do they occur in final position# .n speech! loose adjuncts are mar"ed off by a pause! in writing

usually by a comma#

>oose adjuncts are reali?ed by:

%$s (actually* anyway* $most% certainly* clearly* $7uite% definitely* essentially* evidently* $un%fortunately* indeed*

luckily* naturally* obviously* strangely* surely* undoubtedly)

ortunately* he was only slightly injured in the accident. He was* undoubtedly* a hero.

$$s (of course* in fact* to my regret* to my disappointment* in any case* at any rate* at all events* on the whole*

in short* in brief)

3ou&ve done your best* of course* to prevent the catastrophe.To my regret " reali'ed that they had gone before we arrived.

&$s (rarely) (no doubt* no wonder)

He is* no doubt* a born actor. 1o wonder he has failed the exam.

non-finite clauses with the $ epressed by an infinitive or participle

To tell the truth* " find him a bore. rankly speaking* " don&t like the idea of marrying.

finite comment clauses (" believe* " expect* " suppose* " guess* " dare say* " am afraid* " am sure* " should say)

3ou must have been badly hurt* " guess. He was* this cannot be doubted* a hero.

" dare say they&ll have to pay high interest in the loan. 3ou must be hungry* " suppose.

interjections epressing emotions (joy! indignation! surprise! pain! anger)

;h* it&s you* Mary2 =osh* " must have lost my keys. Well* it&s 7uite simple.

/ear me* she has caused you a lot of trouble2 forms of direct address (to attract somebody3s attention)

re you coming* dear, 3ou&re right* ames. How are you* ane, +top it* children2

Pattern ###& S ' P ' S( ) lin*in+ or e"uational pattern+he $ contains a lin"ing verb (copula) at # such verbs function as a "ind of lin" or e/uation between the S and the

SC# +he lin"ing verb epresses the categories of person! number! tense! aspect! mood and sometimes voice# +he

most widely used lin"ing verb that patterns with the SC is be it is completely devoid of its leical meaning# Other

lin"ing verbs (appear* become* fall###) have partly preserved their leical meaning# %ll these verbs are of incomplete

predication# .f we drop the SC (the nominal part of the predicate)! which is an essential element in this pattern! the

meaning of the clause is destroyed (@Water is.)#

>in"ing verbs are divided into , classes:

a) those epressing that the S remains in a certain state: appear* be* feel* keep* lie* look* prove* remain* rest* seem*smell* sound* stand* taste

b) those epressing that the S passes into a certain state: become* come* fall* get* grow* run* turn

$attern +hree has , main subdivisions:

+hree %: the SC reali?ed by an %dj$

" am ready. The judge grew angry. The story sound familiar. The steak tasted awful.

The bottle is broken.(ambiguous brokenmay be interpreted as an adjective or as a participle)

+hree A: the SC reali?ed by a &$ (the is usually a noun)

- the SC in number agreement with the S

/r. +mith is our neighbour. His son became a doctor. ew prisoners turned traitors.

- some sentences can be turned round without changing their meaning

His name is >obert.(>obertfunctions as SC) >obert is his name.(>obertfunctions as S)- a SC reali?ed by a &$ with a pronoun at is not very common

"t is me. "t is us. This is nothing. ohn is himself $again%.


5/20

+here is in fact! a mar"ed tendency to use both the e/uational patterns ... % and ... A with verbs of complete

predication# +hus verbs preserving their leical meaning pattern with a SC and perform the function of lin"ing

verbs# 'ost of such verb 1 adjective combinations epress a state#

They arrived exhausted. Her uncle died young. The man returned disappointed.

Despite the fact that the $s in the above sentences convey a meaning of their own (They arrived.)! the principal

item of information comes from the SC (exhausted)#

Some transitive verbs functioning as lin"ing verbs (consider* find* report) occur in the passive voice (particularly

journalistic 4nglish)#

Her brother is considered missing. The prisoner was found guilty. The explorer was reported dead.

Pre,odif$in+ nouns in the inflected case5ith reference to the the inflected genitive may denote some other meanings besides possession (my uncle&s

bungalowB my uncle owns a bungalow)#

+hus it may occur as:

subjective genitive (denoting the doer of an action)

my friend&s departure(B my friend departed) the general&s order(B the general ordered)

objective genitive (denoting the O of an action)

the spy&s arrest(B they arrested the spy) the rebel&s punishment(B they punished the rebel)

genitive of measure

a moment&s silence(B the silence lasted a moment) a day&s work(B the work lasted a day) genitive of origin

the old man&s tale(B the old man was the author of the tale)

+hakespeare&s sonnets(B +hakespeare was the author of the sonnets)

classifying genitive

children&s language(B children speak such language) a woman&s dress(B women wear such dresses)

Posts in APs and in Ad%Ps$ost's in %$s:

adverb enough

distinctly enough* oddly enough* carefully enough

$$s (functioning as apposition to the )here in ?ranj* over there near the bridge* high above the clouds

infinitives or infinitival clauses

somewhere to go this afternoon* too slowly to finish in due time* well enough to read books* nowhere for me to

put anything

clauses introduced by as epressing cause or concession

"ncessantly as she talked she made me nervous.(cause)

7uickly as he reacted he still could not prevent the collision.(concession)

$ost's in %dj$s:

adverb enough

re you warm enough,

$$sanxious about one&s health* bad at sports* faster by a minute* bound for merica* absent from the class*

engaged in a project* proud of one&s father* intent on co-operating* accustomed to hard work* sei'ed with panic

infinitives or infinitival clauses (adjectives that ta"e an .&0# or an .&0# Clause as $ost' normally denote some

attitude such as pleasure! surprise or annoyance)

glad)pleased to hear of your success* shocked)sorry to learn about your accident* too tired to go out* cool

enough to drink* too hot for the child to drink

that-clauses

" am afraid that the dog might bite the baby. " am glad that you are well again.

" am proud that you succeeded. " am sorry that " won&t be able to see you then.

dependent /uestions (only few adjectives can be postmodified by dependent /uestions)

We are curious what decision he will take. He was not certain whether)if he could rely on them.

" am not sure whether he managed to book a seat on the plane for 0ondon.

re you conscious what responsibilities you assume with the adoption of the girl,

The wa$s of e.pression (


6/20

%dj$s

This pullover will keep you warm. ane made >ochester very happy.

&$s

They named the baby 0ucas. We find him a bore.

$$s

We found the flat in good condition. +he found him in despair.


" hear her sing. (bare infinitive) We have never observed him do it otherwise. participles or participial clauses

We found her sitting on the porch. " heard my name called twice.

finite clauses

3ou may call it what you like. Henry ord made his firm what it is today.

The wa$s of reali/in+ concession finite clauses of concession

Clauses of concession denote some obstacle which does not prevent the reali?ation of the action epressed in

the main clause they answer the /uestion"n spite of what,Clauses of concession are introduced by the

following subordinators: although* $even% though* for all* even if* whether...or* whereas* while* no matter how*

in spite of)despite the fact that* notwithstanding thatand by compound relative pronouns and adverbs in@ever

(whoever* whatever* whichever* whenever* wherever)#

a) %>+O*! +O*

lthough it was cold and rainy* we enjoyed the trip.

He speaks !nglish with a perfect accent though he has never been to !ngland.

!ven though the film got good reviews* it did not attract a big audience.

b) 0O %>> (informal)

or all your arguments you won&t convince me.

He hasn&t lost his optimism for all the obstacles he has met with.

c) 4E4& .0 (.0)

!ven if you offered him a million* you still could not bribe him.

" cannot be angry with him even if " try.

d) 54+4###O (introducing alternative conditional-concessive clauses) We must pay taxes whether we like it or not.

e) 544%S

Whereas she never openly disagrees with her husband* she never hesitates to tell him what is on her mind

when they are at home.

f) 5.>4

While he has an expert knowledge of his subject* he cannot explain it clearly to others.

g) 5O4E4 (5%+4E4###)

Whoever else lets you down* "&ll remain true.

He will pursue his goal whatever your feelings might be.

However tired he is* he never falls asleep without reading a detective story.

h) &O '%++4 5O (5%+###)

1o matter who he is* he will pay for what he has done. 1o matter how much money he earns* his wife is never satisfied.

i) .& S$.+4 O0F4%D>4SS O0FD4S$.+4F&O+5.+S+%&D.& +4 0%C+ +%+

They elected him in spite of the fact that he was a foreigner.

j) %&+4DF%&+.&F%D'.++4D +%+

=ranted that what you say is true)=ranting this to be true* there is still a lot of evidence against him.

non-finite clauses of concession

&on-finite clauses of concession are introduced by the same subordinators as the finite clauses of concession

(but not by whereas) these clauses have the structure of@ingparticipial and past participial clauses#

a)@ingparticipial clauses of concession

lthough admitting his mistake* he refuses to apologi'e.

!ven if still working* the engine is not reliable.

b) past participial clauses of concession

!ven though troubled by the financial situation* he never mentioned his difficulties to his wife.

His opponents* though beaten* have not been silenced.


7/20

a predicate adjective or noun! or an adverb in initial position postmodified by a clause introduced by as or

though

/a'ed as she was* she managed to explain how the accident happened.

Harmless though he appears* he enjoys intrigue.

#eggar as $though% he was* the old man was very clean.


8/20

% few nouns followed by thatappositive clauses are not of the above-mentioned origin# +hey are factive nouns!

called after the main representative in the group the fact# ere belong: axiom* circumstance* hypothesis* idea* news*

notion* principle* reason* theory* thesis#

His re7uest that he be freed from paying taxes was refused.

The fact that he always cheats at playing cards makes me furious.

The idea that he might betray them never crossed their mind.

%n appositive clause may be separated from the &$ to which it is in apposition#

#efore he left* news came that his father had been sent to hospital.

#n!ersion for +ra,,atical reasons0or some reasons the position of the S and the $ is sometimes inverted and the $ precedes the S#

$artial inversion occurs when only the operator is placed before the S# +his type of inversion is much more

common than full inversion and occurs in the majority of cases#

re you coming, 1owhere else will you see that.

0ull inversion occurs when the whole $ (not only a part of it) is placed before the S# +his is usually the case when

the verb is an intransitive one (fly* rush* stand###)#

way flew the bird. "n rushed the children.

.nversion for grammatical reasons ta"es place:

# as a syntactical device used to form interrogative sentences (/uestions) generally partial inversion

Have you been to !ngland yet, Aan you repair a safety fuse, May " ask you a favour,- if the $ contains no auiliary or modal verb! the auiliary dois used

/o you know him, Why did you lie to me,

- full inversion occurs with the verb beand (rarely) with the verb haveepressing possession (Ar4)

Were you at home last night, Have you any relatives in !ngland,

,# as a mar"er of subordination in conditional clauses introduced without a conjunction if the $ contains an

anomalous finite (were* had* should)

Were you in my place* you would at in the same way.

Had he known it* he wouldn&t have given his consent.

+hould she be late once again* she will be dismissed.

2# in simple eclamatory sentences epressing a wish

#e it so2(+o be it.) 0ong live our 9resident2 May you be happy2

6# in short clauses without an O G in the middle of reported speech and after itB/ear me*C said red* B" had no idea you were such a determined character2C

B" have already taken a whole box of pills* but " am none the better*C said the patient.- &O+4: &o inversion occurs as a rule in such sentences when the S is a personal pronoun and another verb (continue*

whisper)! notsay! is used# B+omething must be wrong with me*C he whispered.

B1o*C she answered* B" can&t accept it.C

7# in sentences with the introductory subject there the real S is placed after the $ which agrees with it in number

and in person

There are different opinions on this 7uestion. There have been many accidents on that road.

There is a good film at the ?omuna tonight.

Pattern 2#& S ' P ' D ' ( ) co,ple. transiti!e pattern.n this pattern of comple transitivity the DO and the OC refer to the same person or thing# (+he OC is related tothe DO in a similar way as the SC to the S)#

$attern Si has , main subdivisions:

Si %: the OC reali?ed by an %dj$

- the commonest comple transitive verbs used in this pattern: beat* believe* boil* break* bury* colour* consider*

cut* drive* dye* eat* find* get* hold* keep* leave* like* make* open* paint* render* set* shake* slam* turn* want*

wash* wish

- these verbs may be divided into , groups:

a) verbs denoting mental activity: believe* consider* like* find* hold* keep* prefer* think* want

b) resultative verbs (the OC denotes the result of the action performed by the verb): beat* boil* break* colour*

cut* get* open* pack* paint* push* raise* set* shake* shout* slam

" considered it impossible. They boiled the eggs soft.

Si A: the OC reali?ed by a &$ (hardly ever with a pronoun at )

- some of the verbs used in this pattern: appoint* believe* call* choose* consider* crown* elect* find* leave* make*


9/20

name* think

They appointed him ambassador. We call him a nuisance.

Since this is a transitive pattern! passive transformation is possible# +he OC becomes the SC but it can never

become the S#

They appointed him Military =overnor.He was appointed Military =overnor.

They consider him reliable.He is considered reliable.

#ntroductor$ or anticipator$ THEREThereis a "ind of anticipatory or formal subject used to introduce the real S (postponed S) which is usually

indefinite# +he anticipatory subject therethough originating from the adverb of place there! differs from the latter in

many respects# .t is not stressed and has completely lost its local meaning# +hus it can even pattern with the adverb

thereand here(There were few people there.)#

+he real S introduced by the anticipatory thereis normally epressed by a &$ containing the indefinite article! an

indefinite determiner! pronoun or a numeral#

There is a letter for you on the desk. There are some)a few)several)four letters for you on the desk.

Occasionally only the real S is reali?ed by a &$ containing the definite article#

nd there was the old hatred between the two families.

+he proofs that therefunctions as S are:

a) its position before the $

b) its use in /uestion tags There&s some dust under the table* isn&t there,

2 main patterns of sentences introduced by the anticipatory there:

there1 be1 ($re') 1 (pro)noun 1 ($ost')

- in sentences of this type the verb behas the meaning HeistI! hence the name Heistential sentencesI

There was a little pause. There&s no stopping for him. There are still a few seats.

There are two ways of solving this e7uation.

- the real S cannot be placed in initial position

@1o stopping is for him.

there1 be1 ($re') 1 (pro)noun 1 epression of place

There is some fresh milk in the fridge. There are still two patients in the waiting-room.

- some of these sentences are reversible (the real S can be placed in initial position) but such structures sound

clumsy and are hardly acceptable+ome fresh milk is in the fridge.

there1 be1 ($re') 1 (pro)noun 1 $ost' containing a present (or past) participle 1 epression of place

There is a thunderstorm approaching from the west. ( thunderstorm is approaching from the west.)

There were millions of people killed in the +econd World War.

+he $ in eistential sentences is normally epressed by the verb be! occasionally by a few other intransitive verbs

(come* happen* live* seem) and modal verbs (can* may* must)#

There comes a time when you have to face reality. There happened to be a doctor on the ship.

There can be no doubt about his guilt. There may be some printing errors in this book.

%greement:

.n sentences with theanticipatory therethe verb agrees with the real S that follows it#

There is an orange in the fruit-bowl. There are some oranges in the fruit-bowl.&egation in eistential sentences:

.n short negative answers to eistential /uestions! the negative notis used#

"s there any beer left, 1o* there is not.(There isn&t.)

.n complete negative statements nois used#

There is no place like home. There are no lectures on +aturdays.

owever! notis used instead of nobefore much! manyand numerals if the negation refers to these#

There&s not much time left. There are not many books on this subject. There are not two patients but three.

%fter there&s noa gerund or a gerundial clause is used as real S to indicate impossibility#

There&s no denying the fact that she is a gifted pianist.

S$ntactical difference between subordinate and co-ordinate con%unctionCo-ordinating conjunctions: and* but* or* nor* for#5ith the eception offor! co-ordinating conjunctions join not only co-ordinate clauses but also other syntactical

units that are e/ual in ran"#


10/20

% co-ordinating conjunction joining two clauses may be followed by another co-ordinating conjunction or conjunct

(and so* and therefore* and thus* and yet* but still* or else###)# .n such compound conjunctions the main meaning is

epressed by the second conjunction#

.t is typical of co-ordinating conjunctions and most conjuncts that they cannot be transposed with their clause to the

beginning of the comple sentence as is the case with the subordinating conjunctions#

He was early and he went to his office on foot. 8nd he went to his office on foot* he was early.(co-ordinating

conjunction)

He is ill* however* he never complains. 8However he never complains* he is ill.

He never complains though he is ill. Though he is ill he never complains.(subordinate conjunction)Co-ordinating conjunctions occur only in initial position in the second clause#

% comma often appears before a co-ordinating conjunction! especially if the clauses are long#

Double ne+ationDouble negation in 4nglish is typical of substandard (uneducated) 4nglish#

" don&t find it no trouble. He can&t remember nothing. He never finds no difficulty in getting another job.

.n Slovene double negation is a common grammatical feature# +he occurrence of a negated element in sentence

structure automatically brings the negation of the $# +hus there may be two! three or even more negated elements in

a simple Slovene sentence#

1iDesar ne tvegate. Eideti je* da nima nikogar na svetu.

Difference between En+lish and Slo!ene ne+ation+here is a great difference between 4nglish and Slovene as far as the number of negative elements in a simple

sentence is concerned# .n Slovene double negation is a common grammatical feature# +he occurrence of a negated

element in sentence structure automatically brings the negation of the $# +hus there may be two! three or even more

negated elements in a simple Slovene sentence#

" know nobody in this village.)" don&t know anybody in this village. 1ikogar ne po'nam v tej vasi.

1obody ever tells him anything. 1ihDe mu nikoli niDesar ne pove.

He has never given anybody anything. 1ikoli ni nikomur niDesar dal.

Ad!erbial clause of ,anner0inite clauses of manner:

%dverbial clauses of manner epress the manner in which an action is done they answer the /uestionHow,Clauses of manner are introduced by the subordinators as! as if(as though)! but# .t is often impossible to ma"e a

clear demarcation line between adverbial clauses of manner and those of comparison! since comparison may on the

whole be interpreted as the manner in which an action is performed# +he ambiguity arises particularly in clauses

introduced by as! since the leical meaning of the conjunction asis that of comparison# Only those clauses that

have no correlative in the main clause are classified as clauses of manner#

%S

They keep the house as it was in the poet&s lifetime.

He likes to drink tea with milk as is customary in !ngland.

0eave the things exactly as they are. /o exactly as " tell you.

%S .0 (%S +O*)

- these clauses of manner epress a supposed present or past fact- the subjunctive wereor the modal past tense or the modal past perfect is used

He spends his money as if he were rich. He had red eyes as of he had been crying.

>.J4

- a very informal alternative for as if

"t rained like it would never stop. He spoke of our manager like he were a close friend.

A*+

- but occurs primarily in formal style after a negative main clause

" never pass that house but " think of the happy days we spent in it.

&on-finite clauses of manner:

infinitival clauses of manner

- introduced by as ifor as though

- normally follow the main clause

+he nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him.

He sighed deeply as though to emphasi'e his exasperation.


11/20

gerundial clauses of manner

- gerund preceded by the prepositions by! inor without

Mr. ones raised his money by selling his wife&s jewellery.

He left without saying goodbye.

participial clauses of manner (mainly used in written 4nglish)

- follow the main clause

- emphasi?e the simultaneousness of the action epressed by the participle with that of the main clause

+he came into the house* calling her husband. The girls walked out together* talking and laughing.

Tom went downstairs* holding on to the banister on the way down.

Pres and Posts of the ad%ecti!al and ad!erbial 3s in the co,parati!e de+ree+he adjectival (and adverbial) in the comparative degree may be premodified by: a bit* just)7uite a bit* a little

bit* far* a lot)lots* a good)great deal* a little* much* no* slightly* somewhat* still#

This morning he is far)a lot)lots)a good deal)a great deal) a little)much)no)somewhat)slightly)still better.

This morning he arrived far)a lot)lots)a good deal)a great deal) a little)much)no)somewhat)slightly)still earlier.

Thanis used as a conjunction to introduce clauses of comparison functioning as $ost's to adjectival and adverbial

s in the comparative degree#

%dj$s:

This metal is heavier than you may imagine. These oranges taste better than they look.

- the $ost' epressed by the comparative clause may be separated from the adjective by a nounThis is a heavier metal than you may imagine.

%$s:

+he loves him more than he deserves. We normally expect more from life than we actually get.

He arrived sooner than he had expected. 1obody can appreciate his work better than " do.

A+ree,ent of S and P with collecti!e nouns% collective noun is a word for a group of persons! animals! or objects considered as a single unit# owever! the

singular form of some collective nouns may have either a singular or a plural concept# ere belong: army*

assembly* audience* band* board* class* committee* company* council* clergy* club* crew* crowd* enemy* faculty*

family* firm* government* group* jury* labour* panel* party* public* team# .f the collective noun that occurs as S is

regarded as a unit the $ is in the singular if attention is being paid to the individual members of the unit! the $ is in

the plural#His audience is middle-class people. The audience are re7uested not to leave the hall before the national anthem

is finished.

My family does not share your opinion. My family are early risers.

The panel consists of seven speakers. The panel were asked to give their opinions.

+he collective nounsfruitand hairta"e a singular $ in the meaning HsadjeI! HlasjeI but they are either singular or

plural when they denote single specimens (HsadeKI! HlasI)#

What colour is her hair, +he has a few grey hairs. He has found a hair in his soup.

They eat a lot of fruit. The fruit is not ripe yet. "n the basket there were apples* pears* peaches and other fruits.

Posts in NPs

$$sthe birds in the tree* the sky above us* a cause for anger

- the O in a $$ often a gerund or a gerundial clause

his intention of marrying* the gossip about his escaping

- most common: of-phrase denotes various relations to the :

a) possession

the furniture of the old couple* the name of the new-born baby

b) the doer of the action epressed by the (the subjective of-phrase)

the departure of Miss Hicks (Miss Hicks departed)! the arrival of our guests(our guests arrived)

c) the O of the action epressed by the (the objective of-phrase)

the export of raw materials(they export raw materials)! the exchange of goods(thee exchange goods)

d) the /uality or characteristics of the

a glance of approval* a feeling of hunger* a pile of woode) apposition to the

the city of 3ork* the 7uestion of what ought to be done* the problem of how to get the money


12/20

&$s (nouns denoting age! colour! price! si?e)

a girl your age* a dress that colour* our exams next week

appositions

- apposition B a special "ind of noun $ost' which gives the another name loose (separated by commas) or

close

Mr. Aoppel* our secretary* has been on leave for three weeks. We children adored our grandfather.

the product polythene* you idealist* >ichard the Thirs

adverbs

the example below* the flat upstairs* the woman down there(% itself premodified)

adjectives

a) of >atin and 0rench origin in some titles and set phrases

+ecretary =eneral* sum total* the heir apparent* 9rince >egent* ttorney =eneral* letters patent

b) joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (advertising 4nglish! literary style)

an armchair old but comfortable* a story interesting and instructive* a peach sweet and juicy

c) themselves postmodified by a $$ or some other $ost'

a nation eager for change* a gentleman worthy of respect* a problem rather difficult to solve

d) concerned(H"ogar se tiLeI)! involved(H?adeven! v tej ?adeviI)!present(HprisotenI)!proper(Hv pravem

pomenu! pristenI)

the students concerned* the problem involved* those present* apan proper

cardinal numeralsparagraph three* line five* World War ;ne

infinitives and infinitival clauses

There&s no time to spare. =ive me something to eat.

- for-phrase indicating the S of the .&0#

"t was the rule for men and women to sit apart. There&s no need for him to worry.

participles and participial clauses

- present ptc#

/o you know the boys playing, Who is the greatest scholar living,

The woman cleaning the windows is their housekeeper. There&s a bus coming.

- past ptc#

the problem involved* the money saved by her parents for the wedding penny saved is a penny gained. #ooks published for children should be illustrated.

adjectival clauses

- non-relative clauses

the minute after the plane took off* the year when the war broke out

The day when he passed his finals was a red-letter day in his life.

- relative clauses

student who can speak two or three languages can work as a tourist guide. (restrictive)

Mrs. Thompson* from whom " bought the plants* said that they should grow fine in this climate.(non-

restrictive)

# and the wa$s of reali/in+ it4 # and to-phrase+he .O is a second O to or for which the action of the verb is directed#+he .O relation! which is represented in Slovene by the infleion of the dative case! is epressed in 4nglish by

means of word-order: the .O is placed before the DO#

+he .O can be reali?ed by:

a &$ with a noun denoting a person or a personal pronoun in the objective case at (since the .O normally

denotes a person! it is also called a Hpersonal OI)

Why not tell ane the good news, " found him a vacant flat. +he bought herself a new bag.

- occasionally the DO denotes a thing

/r. 0ewis gave the hospital a new faFade. He gave our suggestion no consideration.

a finite clause (rarely)

Tell whoever rings me up to call back latter. He told whoever he met the glad news of his promotion.

+here is a strong resemblance in meaning between the .O and $$s withforand to! which are analysed as %s# .norder to test an .O! we supplyforor tobefore the &$ that is supposed to reali?e the .O# owever! the position of to-

phrase andfor-phrase is after the DO# +he meaning of the sentences will not change! but the test will prove whether

the &$ functions as an .O or not#

He gave the beggar a dime. He gave a dime to the beggar.


13/20

He bought himself a new coat. He bought a new coat for himself.

or-phrase:

+he .O can be replaced by it when it (.O) epresses the person (or thing) for whose benefit the action is performed#

%for-phrase is common after such verbs as bring* buy* choose* cook* do* get* make* order* play* save* write#

" cashed him some coupons. " cashed some coupons for him.

He found his father a seat. He found a seat for his father.

" have saved you some cake. " have saved some cake for you.

+hefor-phrase is sometimes used in reference to inanimate nouns as well#

" got a new frame for this picture.To-phrase:

+he use of the prepositional to-phrase (functioning as %) instead of the .O is restricted to a small group of verbs#

ere belong: announce* ascribe* attribute* communicate* convey* confide* confess* dedicate* deliver* describe*

devote* dictate* entrust* explain* introduce* leave (BprepustitiC)* mention* point out* propose* prove* relate* reply*

repeat* reveal* say* suggest#

+he communicated to them the sad news. Her mother devoted her life to her children.

Haven&t they mentioned it to you, He pointed out to us the benefits of the new bill.

+he to-phrase is also used instead of the .O:

a) when emphasis or contrast is intended

He will not show the papers to her. He will give all the information to the manager* not to his secretary.

b) when the DO is represented by a pronoun and the .O by a noun

"&ll give it to the students. 0end them to my cousin. +ell it to your friend.

c) in initial position (interrogative and eclamatory sentences)

To which of those girls did you lend the book, To such a man they could refuse nothing.

d) in initial position in relative clauses

The man to whom he gave the papers has disappeared.

Pattern 2##& S ' P ' D ' A ) transiti!e pattern +he DO followed by the % which is obligatory

+he few verbs occurring in this pattern: lay* place* put* treat

We laid the sticks straight. The boy placed the cubes in the right order.

He put the parcel on the table. They treated him justly.

Other transitive verbs may occur in this pattern! yet the % is not obligatoryThey led him to the top. We threw it away. +he showed us to the drawing room.

$assive transforms possible (containing transitive verb)

We laid the sticks straight.The sticks were laid straight.

ar*ers of co-ordination and subordination'ar"ers of co-ordination:

co-ordinating conjunctions

and* but* or* nor* for* and so* and therefore* and thus* and yet* but still* but nevertheless* or else* or otherwise###

5ith the eception offor! co-ordinating conjunctions join not only co-ordinate clauses but also other

syntactical units that are e/ual in ran"#

% co-ordinating conjunction joining two clauses may be followed by another co-ordinating conjunction orconjunct (and so* and therefore* and thus* and yet* but still* or else###)# .n such compound conjunctions the main

meaning is epressed by the second conjunction#

Co-ordinating conjunctions occur only in initial position in the second clause#

% comma often appears before a co-ordinating conjunction! especially if the clauses are long#

+he came early but he came only in the small hours.

conjuncts

Conjuncts are adverbs (conjunctive adverbs) and $$s with conjunctive force#

accordingly* also* conse7uently* however* indeed* in fact* nevertheless* otherwise* still* therefore* on the one

hand...on the other hand* yet* so###

.n collo/uial style conjuncts are far less common than co-ordinating conjunctions#

% clause introduced by a conjunct is normally separated from the preceding clause by a semi-colon# %fter the

conjunct the use of the comma is optional# owever! it is common practice to use a comma if the conjunct is in

medial or final position#

"t was late autumn: yet the days were very warm.(contrast)


14/20

punctuation

Clauses joined by punctuation alone are usually mar"ed off by a semicolon or colon# +he absence of any

punctuation would be regarded as a serious fault# owever! short co-ordinate clauses are sometimes joined by a

comma! particularly when the second clause is abridged#

since there are no conjunctions or conjuncts to indicate the semantic relationship between the two clauses! the

meaning is indicated by the words of which the clause consists# Aesides addition! the relation between such

clauses may imply cause! contrast! result! etc#

He came* he saw* he con7uered.(addition) They rarely entertain: they can&t afford it.(cause)

'ar"ers of subordination:

subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join the subordinate clause with the main clause or with a clause of a higher degree

of subordination#

+he most common of them are:

after* although* as* as soon as* because* before* if* as if* even if* even though* in case* in order that* lest* on

condition that* on the ground$s% that* providing* provided $that%* seeing* since* so that* supposing* that* in that*

than* though* till* unless* until...

%ccording to their morphemic structure! they are: simple! compound! phrasal and participial#

wh-pronouns and adverbs (interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs)

a ?ero mar"er

.n clauses introduced by a ?ero mar"er the mar"er of subordination is understood though not epressed# .t isnormally the subordinating conjunction thator a relative pronoun in the objective case#

3ou know $that% you can rely on him.

inversion

Ad!erbial clause or purpose0inite clauses of purpose:

.ndicate the purpose of the action epressed in the main clause

%nswer the /uestion What for, or what purpose,

.ntroduced by the subordinators in order that* for the purpose that* so that* so as toand by the negative

subordinating conjunctionsfor fear that* lest

Since those introduced by that(so that* in order that) epress what is desired! the $ usually contains the modalverbs (subjunctive e/uivalents) may)mightorshould(in collo/uial 4nglish canand couldalso very common)

They are working night and day so that they may open the subway at the scheduled time.

They were working night and day so that they might open the subway at the scheduled time.

.n the phrasal conjunctionso that! eitherso! or thatmay be optionally deleted (a clause of purpose introduce by

sooften resembles a clause of result however! clauses of purpose may be moved to initial position! and clauses

of result may not)

+he turned her head $so% that she might look him straight in the face.

" can translate that article into +lovene so $that% you may understand it better.

&egative clauses of purpose epress what is to be prevented introduced byso that...not* for fear that(Bda

neC)* lest(normally used in formal style) the $ contains mightandshould

The boy hid behind the tree so that we might)should not see him.We whispered so that we should not wake the baby.

The vase was packed carefully lest it should break during transportation.

&on-finite clauses of purpose:

infinitival clauses of purpose

- the number of verbs which can be followed by an infinitival clause of purpose is not restricted and their

leical character may be /uite different

+he rang up her mother to ask her to dinner. He went to /ubrovnik to paint the sea.

- may follow the verb bewhen it is used with adjuncts of place (down* here* off* there* up###)

"&ll be there to help you. +he&ll be over to talk to you about the party.

- purpose can be epressed by a to-infinitive alone! or occasionally by in order1 to-infinitive andso as 1 to-

infinitive which emphasi?e the idea of purpose

" had to keep shaking my head $so as)in order% to stay awake.- negative purpose is not epressed by a negative to-infinitive alone

"&ll go there at one so as )in order not to be late.

- the S of the infinitival clause is! as a rule! the S of the finite verb in the sentence

My parents saved money to go abroad.


15/20

- the S of the infinitival clause may also occasionally be the person denoted by the O of the subordinate clause

Tom says that he is taking you to meet some interesting people tomorrow.

- in other cases if the S of the infinitival clause is different from the S of the finite verb in the sentence! it must

be epressed by the prepositionfor

My parent saved money for Mary to go abroad.

gerundial clauses of purpose

- preceded by prepositions such asfor* for the purpose of* with the object of* with a view to

This aeroplane is used for transporting goods.

The manager gave instructions with a view to improving the 7uality of the products.- belong to formal 4nglish (in spo"en 4nglish infinitival clauses of purpose are preferred)

- the answer (to What...for, or what purpose,) in which purpose is epressed by the use offoris followed by

a gerundial clause

What do you use a hammer for, " use a hammer for knocking in nails.

NP and its characteristics% &$ is structured around its ! which is a noun! a pronoun or any substantively used part of speech# +he words in

front (to the left) of the are $re's! and the words after it (to the right of it) are $ost's# $re's and $ost's are

dependent on the # +he is always obligatory! the $re's and $ost's are optional#

+he structure of a &$ can therefore be written: ($re'(s)) ($ost'(s))

% &$ is either:a) simple G consisting of one word (the ) only

boys* people* you* everybody* nothing

b) comple G consisting of the and one or more $re's andFor $ost's

those three books on the shelf

% &$ can reali?e different elements in sentence structure:

the S

the SC

the O (DO! .O)

the OC

the %

Ad!erbial ad%unct 0A1 and the wa$s of reali/in+ it+he % is usually an optional element in sentence structure! and characteri?es an action as to its /uality or /uantity!

or indicates the time! place! cause! purpose! etc# with which the action is connected#

The children play. The children play happily)every day)in the garden.

5ith some eceptions %s are not grammatically necessary! as e# g# SCs are# &evertheless they usually add some

very important information#

Mary broke the vase. Mary broke the vase on purpose.

Mary&s brother got married. Mary&s brother got married last +aturday.

+he adverbial adjunct (called for simplicity3s sa"e the adjunct) is obligatory only in the sentence patters

S $ % and S $ DO % where the sentence does not ma"e sense without it#

The car is in the garage.(@The car is.) +he put some flowers into the vase. (@+he put some flowers.)

+he % is reali?ed by: %$s

They fought bravely. There is a letter-box right outside. The weather changed almost suddenly.

$$s

" was shivering with cold. The tears ran down her cheeks. " met them by chance.

&$s (simple or comple)

- the nouns functioning as s are often premodified by determiners! numerals! or by last* next

He works nights. They will cost you a fortune. He was in 9aris last month.


The emigrant returned home to die. ohn has come to help you move the furniture.

participles or participial clauses

0aughing he turned round. ll things considered* he is making good progress. finite clauses (adverbial clauses)

He did not stop reading though it was getting dark. When dawn broke* we finally went to bed.


16/20

verbless clauses

+he storm over! he set out# +hough rich! he lives li"e a beggar#

% great admirer of $icasso! he was loo"ing forward to seeing the complete ehibition of his wor"#

Semantic classification of %s:

+he classification of %s according to their meaning depends largely on the leical meaning of the words

represented in the %# although such classification is not grammatical! it is very helpful in analysing the position of

%s#

%s of time! place! manner! fre/uency can easily be recogni?ed and classified as such# owever! not every % can be

ascribed to a particular class and placed into its own pigeon-hole# Conse/uently! the classification of %s accordingto their meaning is anything but complete#

%ccording to their meaning %s may roughly be classified into 2 large groups:

/ualitative %s (%s of manner)

fast* hard* well* beautifully* noisily* shyly* in a friendly way* very briefly* by chance* by heart* arm in arm* in a

rush* far too 7uickly* by leaps and bounds* with considerable charm...

/uantitative %s (denote the intensity or the etent of an action)

a) %s of degree

almost* even* hardly* merely* nearly* partly* scarcely* thoroughly* very much* extremely* slightly* 7uite*

considerably...

b) %s of measure (cost! distance! weight)

a lot* three miles* two pounds* a great deal* very little* thirty pence* six yards* ten ounces... circumstantial %s

a) %s of time

now* then* tomorrow* yesterday* at noon* in the morning* on riday* a little while ago* last summer* four years

ago...

b) %s of fre/uency

always* never* ever* often* rarely* seldom* usually* regularly* very seldom* hardly ever* almost always* at

intervals* day after day* each year* occasionally* from time to time (spasmodically)* every two weeks* annually*

bimonthly...

c) %s of place and direction

here* there* everywhere* nowhere* somewhere* in the corner* on the stage* in 0ondon* at school* at university*

towards the window...

d) %s of causeon account of illness* owing to your absence* due to the weather* because of our delay...

e) %s of concession

in spite of)despite his endeavours* notwithstanding the difficulties* for all his riches...

f) %s of condition

in case of danger)fire* but for his expert knowledge...

g) %s of instrument

with a carving knife* by dint of hard labour...

h) %s of result

He has grown into a strong young man. The house was burnt to ashes.

Pro-for,sSOandNOT0for,s for ob%ect clauses1%n object clause referring to a previous affirmative statement is replaces by the pro-formso# +his occurs after theverbs: be afraid(regret)* appear* believe* expect* fancy* fear* guess* hope* notice* say* seem* suppose* think*

understand#

"s ane going to take the exam in une, $3es*% " think)guess)hope)am afraid)understand so.

re you coming, " think so: at least " hope so.

.n statements confirming what has been said by another person the pro-formsois used in initial position#

3ou can always rely upon him. +o we can.

" always maintained that you were right. +o you did.

1otis a substitute for a negative object clause after such verbs as believe* expect* guess* hope* suppose* think* be

afraid#

"s ane going to take the exam in une, " think)believe)guess)expect)hope)am afraid not.

Different ,eanin+s ofAND+he meaning of the conjunction andis rather wide# 5hen it joins phrases! it denotes primarily addition# owever!

when andjoins clauses! it may have other shades of meaning#


17/20

The sun had set and the stillness of twilight was upon everything.(addition)

He is very fond of music and $also% plays the violin.(addition)

.n the following sentences the clauses introduced by anddenote result:

There was a thunderstorm and the party was spoilt.

The wind felt like a surgeon&s knife and he pulled the cap over his ears.

There are millions of stars* and it would be impossible to enumerate all of them.

- the S in the second clause is normally not epressed (ellipsis) when it is the same as the S in the main clause

He was thunderstruck and could not utter a word. +he was hurt and left without saying a word.

.n the following clauses anddenotes contrast and could be replaced by but:3ou have your opinion and " have mine. ohn adores boxing matches and Mary hates them.

Mrs. #rown is a beauty and her daughters are 7uite plain. +he was late and he did not scold her.

.n the net sentence the first clause epresses a condition of the second clause introduced by and:

+ay it again and "&ll hit you.("f you say it again* "&ll hit you.)

Similarly: Tell me the truth and " won&t punish you.("f you tell me the truth* " won&t punish you.)

5hen two imperatives are joined by and! the second either epresses purpose or functions as object to the first

imperative#

Aome and see me some day. =o and see where he is. (purpose)

Try and do what you are told. Try and stick to his advice. (object)

E.planator$ co-ordination.n this type the clause introduced by an eplanatory conjunction or conjunct! adds a fuller eplanation to thepreceding clause# Some eplanatory conjunctions and conjuncts are: as* namely(often abbreviated to vi'.)* for

instance* for example* in other words* that is $to say%#

We still have one problem to solve* vi'. which of the two building sites is preferable.

There is another 7uestion* namely where we could get that money in a week.

non-aligned country* let us say +weden* could act as a peacemaker in that matter.

He is not a reliable man* that is to say* he rarely keeps his word.

They will arrive in two weeks& time* in other words* they will be here before une 5st.

Dependent !erbal "uestions and their function in co,ple. sentencesDependent verbal /uestions (3!+G1;/uestions) are introduced by the conjunctions ifor whether#

Only whethermay be followed by or not#.n comple sentence they may occur as:

S (subject clauses)

"f)Whether the invention will serve any practical purpose may be left an open 7uestion at this point.

"f)Whether he wrote another will is still not known.

Whether or not he will sell his house is only his business.

SC (predicate clauses)

The problem is if)whether everything has been done to save his life.

The 7uestion is if)whether he feel up to the task.

The 7uestion is whether or not he can speciali'e in computer mathematics.

DO (object clauses)

- dependent verbal /uestions function as DOs after such verbs as: ask* consider* decide* determine* discuss*doubt* find out* forget* guess* know (negative form)* notice (negative form)* prove* show* wonder

He asked me if)whether " had been there before. Time will show whether we are right or wrong.

We don&t know if)whether he&ll accept the proposal. " wonder if)whether the telegram will arrive in time.

apposition in &$ (appositive clauses)

The problem whether or not they should send the child to the kindergarten will soon have to be solved.

The 7uestion whether the atom can or cannot be split has interested scientists for decades.

$ost' in %dj$s

- only after some adjectives (certain* doubtful* sure) negation epressed or implied

" am not certain whether or not there is an elephant in our 'oo.

" am doubtful if)whether the money has been deposited yet.

" am not sure if)whether that will come out all right.

pO (in the boo": object to a preposition)

!verything depends on whether)if)$whether or not% the telegram will reach him in time.

The independent relati!e 53AT and its function


18/20

Whatis a generali?ing pronoun corresponding to that which# .t functions as a relative pronoun and an antecedent in

one word# .t is pronounced with a wea"er stress than the interrogative what#

# +he independent relative whatis used to introduce S! O! SC and OC clauses#

What he said is true.(S clause) " told him what " knew.(O clause)

This is what he said.(SC clause) 3ou may call it what you will.(OC clause)&O+4: +he generali?ing whatin affirmative sentences corresponds to not all thatin negative sentences# (What he has will be yours.) 1ot all that he has will be yours.

,# +he generali?ing whatmay sometimes be used as $re' instead of the generali?ing whatever (BkakrGenC)#

We ate what $whatever% food was available. He will give me what $whatever% help he can. He will accept what $whatever% job is offered him. " gave him what $whatever% money " had on me.

2# +he relative what in the epression what&s morerefers to the following clause#

"t was a most interesting sight-seeing tour and* what was more* it was very cheap.

He&s a fool* and what&s more* he&s as bold as brass.

(lauses introduced b$ WHILE- mostly adverbial clauses of time

- 5.>4 (Hduring the time thatI! Hat the same time thatI medtem ko)

%dverbial clauses introduced by while(whilstoccurring in written style) denote a continuous activity#

+he action is:

a) simultaneous with the action in the main clause (Hduring the time thatI)

While she was waiting for the train* she read a maga'ine.

3ou may stay in our house while you are visiting 0jubljana.

Mary listened intelligently while #ob was speaking of cattle breeding.

b) already in progress before the action in the main clause

While " was mowing the lawn he came up to me.

While going up the river we noticed number of new currents.

While he was crossing the street* a lorry knocked him down.

Whileand whenare often synonymous! whileemphasi?ing duration! whendenoting time in a broad sense#

While)When she was resting upstairs* the burglar broke into the basement.

+he subordinating conjunction whileintroducing a clause of time is homonymous with:

a) the co-coordinating conjunction whileepressing contrast (the clause introduced by whilealways follows the

main clause) ohn is a small sickly child while his sister has grown a tall* strong girl.

b) the subordinating conjunction while(HthoughI) epressing concession

While $though% we agree with most of what he says* we cannot stand his manners.

(lauses introduced b$ WHEN, WHENcon%unction in phrase and sentence structure- mostly adverbial clauses of time

Whenis the most widely used temporal conjunction#

oughly spea"ing! adverbial clauses of time introduced by whenepress that the action of the main clause and that

of the subordinate clause are either:

a) simultaneous

The stars are brightest when there is no moon. When the cat is away* the mice will play.

b) follow each other We&ll meet again when " get back from the seminar. When he had read the letter* he tore it into pieces.

Whenis translated into Slovene by H"oI (Hta"rat "oI) or H"adarI depending on whether it epresses a single or

repeated action:

"&ll ring you up when " come home. Telefoniral ti bom* ko se vrnem.

Where does he stay when he is in 0ondon, ?je stanuje* kadar je v 0ondonu,

+he subordinating conjunction whenis sometimes homonymous with:

a) the adversative co-ordinating conjunction whenintroducing an adversative co-ordinate clause denoting

an action that is in opposition (contrast) to that of the main clause# .n this case the clause introduced by

whenfollows the main clause#

3ou will never have a house of your own when you spend so much money on travel.

b) the co-ordinating conjunction when(B and then) introducing a copulative co-ordinate clause# +his also

can only follow the main clause#

" turned off the light when $and then% the baby began to cry.

c) the connective adverb when (H"dajI) introducing nominal clauses#

They asked him when he was born.


19/20

% clause of time introduced by the conjunction whenmay function as a $ost' in a &$# +his is the case when the

is a noun denoting time (the instant! the moment! the minute! the day! the wee"! the month! the year):

The week when we were in "taly* it rained every day.

Non-restricti!e relati!e clause% non-restrictive relative clause gives some additional information about the antecedent which is already

sufficiently defined# +he clause is usually separated from its antecedent and the rest of the sentence by commas#

&on-restrictive relative clauses are typical of formal 4nglish#

Mrs. Thompson* from whom " bought the plants* said that they should grow fine in this climate.

.n several cases the use or omission of the commas may result in a difference of meaning between two sentences

which are otherwise /uite identical#

His cousins* who work in +weden* are returning home for good. (he has only those cousins)

His cousins who work in +weden are returning home for good.(he has other cousins also)

.n non-restrictive relative clauses the relative pronouns and adverbs are never replaced by the ?ero mar"er even

when they are not the S of their clause# +he objective whom(rare in informal 4nglish) is regularly used in non-

restrictive relative clauses# +he possessive whosein reference to things is rarely used! of whichbeing preferred#

/r. +mith* whom he had consulted* told him to stay in bed and keep warm.

.n prepositional non-restrictive relative clauses the preposition almost regularly precedes the pronoun#

;ur granny* of whom we were very fond* died unexpectedly.

The executive* to whose garden party she was invited* has a fabulous country house.

The difference between subordinatin+ con%unctions and wh-pronouns functionin+ as subordinators*nli"e subordinating conjunctions! wh-pronouns and adverbs perform a syntactical function also in the subordinate

clause they introduce#

Tell me who did it. /o you know whom he asked for advice, Tell me where he works.

.n the above sentences the interrogatives: who! whom and whereperform , functions:

# that of subordinating conjunction joining the subordinate to the main clause

,# that of S (who)! DO (whom)! and % (where) in the subordinate clauses they introduce#

(o-ordinate and subordinate clauses of cause and reasonCausal co-ordination:

+he only co-ordinating causal conjunction isfor# .t eplains the preceding clause by giving the cause or motive forit#or! which occurs only in literary style! is regarded as being on the borderline between co-ordinating and

subordinating conjunctions# .t is classified as a co-ordinating conjunction only on the basis of its position! since it

cannot be transposed with its clause to the beginning of the sentence#

The windows were open for the day was very warm. 8or the day was very warm the windows were open.

The rivers are swollen* for it has been raining for days on end.

We are always comfortable together* for we share the same interests.

They had to take him to hospital* for he seemed to be seriously ill.

.n collo/uial style the subordinating causal conjunctions as! because andsinceare preferred#

The windows were open because it was warm.

%dverbial clauses of cause or reason:

finite clauses of cause or reason

%dverbial clauses of cause or reason indicate why an action was done and answer the /uestion Why,5hile the

subordinate clause denotes cause or reason! the main clause epresses result# +he subordinators introducing

adverbial clauses of cause are: because* as* since* seeing that* that* now that* on the ground$s% that* for the

reason that* in that#

+he pilot had to descend because he was short of fuel# %s it was raining! we stayed indoors all day#

Since she was out! . left a message for her# Seeing that his wife was not well! he postponed his journey#

Mou3ll be able to travel much more now that you have a car#

5e couldn3t go to the concert for the simple reason that we hadn3t got tic"ets#

.n that you defend his misconduct you have proved that you are no better than he is#

non-finite clauses of cause or reason

- infinitival clauses of cause or reason ($ost's to predicate adjectives)

- gerundial clauses of cause or reason (preceded by the prepositionsfor* for fear of* owing to) He was fined for driving too 7uickly through the village.

;wing to his careless driving he has had many accidents.

- participial clauses of cause or reason


20/20

'y father! not "nowing what to do! went to his lawyer# Aeing tired! he fell asleep#

Spent with grief! she died# +he wor" finished! we were able to enjoy our holiday#

NSome other ways of epressing cause or reason:

- Aesides adverbial clauses! cause or reason may also be epressed by that-clauses functioning as $ost's to

predicate adjectives denoting emotion#

" am glad)sorry)delighted $that% you have changed your mind.

- Occasionally cause or reason may be epressed by a subordinate clause introduced by as! postmodifying a

predicate adjective or an adverb

#usy as he was he hardly listened to her. Alever as he is he immediately understood the point.

(left sentences ) the e,phaticIT+he S and the O of the sentence are made strongly emphatic of placed after the introductory phrase it1 be(it is* it

was* it will be) the remaining part of the sentence then follows as a relative clause introduced by who! which! that#

.n this way a simple sentence is split or cleft into , parts! hence the epression Hcleft sentencesI#

" am to blame. "t is " who am to blame.

" met Mrs. #rown at +elfridges. "t was Mrs. #rown that " met at +elfridges.

+he emphatic itis also used when a whole subordinate clause is made emphatic#

"t&s what you do that counts $not what you say%.

% similar structure is to be found in the sentence pattern it1 be1 adjunct 1 that! in which the adjunct is made

strongly emphatic# owever! thatin this pattern is not a relative pronoun but a conjunction introducing a dependentstatement#

"t was here)there)on purpose)not without some hesitation)because he felt sorry for them that he did it.

Documents

ENGLISH SYNTAX university notes