IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

"Why are things like this? What is the effect, or result, of this?" and "What causes this?"--These questions guide authors as they analyze or argue about causal relationships, such as "What is the effect of a college education on income?" View fascinating reports on various cause/effect topics and then explore your own causal relationship. Improve your critical thinking skills.

Unlike explanations of processes, which follow a chronological order of events, cause and effect texts are deeply speculative and tentative, relying on causal reasoning and argument. Your purpose is to answer:

Why are things like this?What is the effect, or result, of this?What is the cause of this?

Analyzing cause-and-effect relationships requires you to question how different parts and sequences interact with each other over time, which is often more difficult than reporting a chronological order of events, as you do when describing a process.

The cause-and-effect relationship is a basic thinking skill and text structure for all types of reading and subject areas. Readers understand that in-text events happen (effects), along with the reason why they happen (causes). When students

recognize this relationship, comprehension is increased. Students use the understanding of this relationship in social studies, science, all school subjects, and day-to-day living, whether watching TV, playing games, or in friendships.

Definition of Cause and Effect

Think about when you woke up today. In all likelihood, you were probably woken up by the sound of an alarm clock. The loud sound of the alarm was the cause. Without the alarm, you probably would have overslept. In this scenario, the alarm had the effect of you waking up at a certain time. This is what we mean by cause and effect.

A cause-effect relationship is a relationship in which one event (the cause) makes another event happen (the effect). One cause can have several effects. For example, let's say you were conducting an experiment using regular high school students with no athletic ability. The purpose of our experiment is to see if becoming an all-star athlete would increase their attractiveness and popularity ratings among other high school students.

A cause is why an event happens. An effect is an event that happens because of a cause.Suppose that your results showed that not only did the students view the all-star athletes as more attractive and popular, but the self-confidence of the athletes also improved. Here we see that one cause

(having the status of an all-star athlete) has two effects (increased self-confidence and higher attractiveness ratings among other students).

Cause-Effect CriteriaIn order to establish a cause-effect relationship,

three criteria must be met. The first criterion is that the cause has to occur before the effect. This is also known as temporal precedence. In the example above, the students had to become all-star athletes before their attractiveness ratings and self-confidence improved. For example, let's say that you were conducting an experiment to see if making a loud noise would cause newborns to cry. In this example, the loud noise would have to occur before the newborns cried. In both examples, the causes occurred before the effects, so the first criterion was met.

Second, whenever the cause happens, the effect must also occur. Consequently, if the cause does not happen, then the effect must not take place. The strength of the cause also determines the strength of the effect. Think about the example with the all-star athlete. The research study found that popularity and self-confidence did not increase for the students who did not become all-star athletes. Let's assume we also found that the better the student's rankings in sports; that is, the stronger they became in athletics compared to their peers, the more popular and confident the student became. For this example, criterion two is met.

Let's say that for our newborn experiment we found that as soon as the loud noise occurred, the newborn cried and that the newborns did not cry in absence of the sound. We also found that the louder the sound, the louder the newborn cried. In this example, we see that the strength of the loud sound also determines how hard the newborn cries. Again, criterion two has been met for this example.

The final criterion is that there are no other factors that can explain the relationship between the cause and effect.

Why Write About Causes and Effects?

Human beings ask why perhaps more than any other question. When we listen to the nightly news and hear about the atrocities of war, we wonder, "What causes the hatred?" When we read about the violence plaguing our country, we ask, "Why does the United States lead the world in violent crimes?" When we read studies that indicate that 28 percent of women in America have been raped and that the occurrence of date rape is rising on college campuses, we ask, "Why is this happening?" When we read about environmental problems such as the depletion of the ozone layer, we wonder, "Why don't we do something about it?" Whenever we make decisions in our daily lives, we ask ourselves, "Why should I do this?"

On a daily basis, we seek to understand why events occurred by identifying the factors that led up to them. For example, if you were not doing well in school and on homework assignments, you might ask, "Did my high school class(es) sufficiently prepare me for this class? Am I studying long enough? Am I taking effective lecture notes? Am I paying too much attention to the course texts and too little to the instructor's lectures? How is my attendance? Is my part-time job interfering too much with my school work? Am I using my time to study effectively? Are some of my friends having a negative influence on my study habits? Am I taking too many courses or putting too much time into another course? What can I do to improve my memory or study skills?" After asking these and other questions, you would eventually be able to identify a variety of causes for your poor performance, and once you recognize the causal relationship, you can set about realistically to improve your grade.

Cause-and-effect assignments are among the most interesting writing projects that you will tackle in school and in professional life. In school, teachers frequently assign process assignments. For example, humanities professors may ask for an analysis of what causes particular music genres or artistic genres to capture the imagination of popular culture; history professors, the impact of cultures on world history; social science professors, the effects of inventions on culture or the effect of gun control laws on violent homicide rates; business professors,

the effects of changes in the interest rates on the economy.

Cause-and-effect texts are extremely common in professions--particularly the sciences, where researchers employ the scientific method to seek out cause-and-effect relationships. Writers commonly focus on analyzing causes or effects. A medical writer, for example, might explore the effects of a poor diet or the causes of a disease. A lawyer might argue the effect of an accident on his client. A sports writer might analyze why a team continues its losing or winning streak.

Diverse Rhetorical SituationsThe purpose of many cause-and-effect texts is to

explain the effects or causes of something. And the tone of these texts tends to be dispassionate and objective. In complex situations, however, the writer's purpose may shift from explaining to speculating or even arguing about an interpretation. Sometimes writers argue about a particular cause or effect because they want to sell you something or because they want to change your mind on a policy or interpretation.

People write about causes and effects for a variety of communication situations, and they employ a variety of media. The shape and content of cause-and-effect reports tend to be more diverse than the shape and content of texts that explain subjects, concepts, or processes, as suggested in the table below.

Purposes Audiences Voices Media

SpeculateExplainSatirizeArgueSell

Mass market audienceDecision makers

ResearchersIndividualsConsumers

First person

Passionate

ObjectiveAcademic

AdvertisementsListserv

messagesEssays

NewspapersMagazinesEditorialsWeb sites

Videos

Rhetorical Analysis of Cause and Effect Texts

Consider the context, audience, purpose, and media invoked by the following readings. Also examine how ideas are developed in these texts. Are assertions grounded in personal experience, interviews with authorities, questionnaires, Internet and library research, or empirical research?

GHB on Campus: A subtext of a larger Web site created to educate readers about the dangers of GHB, this page summarizes the deadly effects of GHB on college campuses and urges readers to forward a listserv message to their friends, which reveals the deadly effects of GHB. Interestingly, a sidebar seeks readers' input to a survey on GHB usage on college campuses. On the Project GHB home page, the authors explain that Mr. and Mrs. Short ridges began the site following the death of their son to a GHB overdose: This GHB website

started out as a quick project with the sole purpose of getting some truth about GHB on the Internet. In doing their original searches for GHB on the Internet, the Short ridges found that most websites advocate its use, etc. Some Internet pages about GHB have seemingly educated reports about GHB. They offer recipes, kits for sale, and tips for "safe" experiences.

Rewards for Justice Program: Prevention of Terrorism Advertising Campaign: The US Government summarizes the successful effects of its rewards program for preventing terrorism. Its purpose appears to be to defend the program, advertise its effectiveness, and outline future rewards.

College graduation rate below 50 percent: Written by a reporter for CNN.com, this texts summarizes academic research conducted by the Council for Aid to Education. The research analyzed why 52 percent of students in public colleges and 45 percent of students in private colleges failed to graduate in 2000. The researcher focused on greater access to college as the cause for the high dropout rate, suggesting that students who are being accepted into college are not prepared and that colleges need to do more to help these students succeed. The author's tone/voice is impersonal and objective. The audience for the original research study was universities, while this report is written for a broader audience--readers of CNN's online education pages.

The Impact of Arts Education on Workforce Preparation.Sponsored by the National Governors Association, this report's primary audience is US governors. The purpose of this summary appears to be to encourage governors to fund arts education. This summary highlights conclusions found in a lengthier review of research: www.nga.org/cda/files/050102ARTSED.pdf

This brief summary seems to present the other study's results as fact as opposed to speculation or argument based on empirical research: 

The arts provide one alternative for states looking to build the workforce of tomorrow -- a choice growing in popularity and esteem. The arts can provide effective learning opportunities to the general student population, yielding increased academic performance, reduced absenteeism, and better skill-building. An even more compelling advantage is the striking success of arts-based educational programs among disadvantaged populations, especially at-risk and incarcerated youth.

Women's Love/Hate Relationship With the Internet: This analysis of the effects of gender on Internet usage begins with a strong, personal voice, yet this student writer quickly abandons the personal voice and adopts the more objective, passive, detached voice of the social scientist. Her chief purpose is to analyze barriers women face to using the Internet and outline ways to overcome these barriers. The writer has created a Web site to support her essay, including several bibliographies.

The State of the World's Children by UNICEF: Mixing evocative pictures with extremely detailed analyses of the effects of poor nutrition on the world's children, UNICEF offers an informative and persuasive account of how countries and communities can and should help their children. Although this document is available on the Web, it lacks internal navigation links. Readers cannot tell how long the document is, either.

It's About Oil by Ted Rall . : Ted Rall's editorial, which appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle, argues that our attack on Afghanistan is best linked to America's oil needs rather than the September 11th attacks: Finally the Bushiest have the perfect excuse to do what the United States has wanted to do all along -- invade and/or install an old-school puppet regime in Kabul.

Urban Legend: Cause and Effect.: Written anonymously, this humorous account frequently passes across listservs and usenets, explaining, for example, the relationship between the Imperial Roman war chariot and the United States standard railroad gauge: The United States standard railroad gauge of 4 feet, 8.5 inches derives from the original specification for an Imperial Roman war chariot.

The Dead Grandmother/Exam Syndrome and the Potential Downfall of American Society by Mike Adams: Written for a university audience, Mike Adams pokes fun at social science methods and students' "grandmother" problems: Overall, a student who is failing a class and has a final coming

up is more than 50 times more likely to lose a family member than an A student not facing any exams.

FocusWhen dealing with causes and effects, it is

important to keep to a narrow topic. Time constraints and resources should always be kept in mind when pursuing a topic.

Example:To find the reasons for world hunger would take

years of research and/or tons of hours, so focus on a specific entity of a broad topic. Perhaps you could identify one country's efforts over the past few years.

Writers often bring focus to their work by claiming cause-and-effect relationships upfront, in their introductions. These "thesis statements" guide the writer and reader throughout the document. And they also offer clues as to the writer's voice, tone, and persona. Consider, for example, this tongue-in-cheek analysis of the The Dead Grandmother/Exam Syndrome and the Potential Downfall Of American Society.

The basic problem can be stated very simply: A student's grandmother is far more likely to die suddenly just before the student takes an exam, than at any other time of year.

While this idea has long been a matter of conjecture or merely a part of the folklore of college teaching, I can now confirm that the

phenomenon is real. For over twenty years I have collected data on this supposed relationship, and have not only confirmed what most faculty had suspected, but also found some additional aspects of this process that are of potential importance to the future of the country. The results presented in this report provide a chilling picture and should waken the profession and the general public to a serious health and sociological problem before it is too late.

DevelopmentCritical readers such as your instructors are

quick to recognize shallow reasoning. College instructors expect you to cite multiple causes or effects when you are addressing a complex phenomenon. For example, if you were exploring the effects of TV on children, your readers would most likely expect you to do more than attack the violence as being unethical or immoral. Likewise, if you were analyzing the causes of our nation's high divorce rates, your instructors would expect you to do more than cite troubles with finances as the cause of divorces.

To help you develop a stronger sense of the level of detail your readers need to understand a particular cause-and-effect relationship, consider conducting research. What have others reported about the particular cause-and-effect relationship you are exploring? Read about what others have speculated or reported about your topic.

Below are some additional suggestions for developing your cause-and-effect report.

Check for Post Hoc FallaciesCritical readers will expect you to develop the

reasoning that demonstrates the cause and effect relationship isn't due to chance. Academic readers are reluctant to assume causality between two actions because they are trained to identify post hoc ("after this") fallacies. Essentially a post hoc fallacy occurs when an author assumes Event B was caused by Event A simply because it followed Event A; the connection is false because it is equally possible that Event B was caused by some other factor. For example, let us suppose that Bill has been jilted by his girlfriend Laura. Because Laura argued with Bill last Friday night that he never spent any money on her and that she always has to pay for their dates, Bill might assume that she left him because he was cheap. However, this might not be the true reason for Laura's dumping Bill. In fact, it could be that Laura was tired of Bill's negative view of life. Perhaps she truly left Bill because she found him to be insensitive, boring, and uncommunicative.

Identify Sufficient and Necessary Causes

In some instances you may be able to explain an effect by identifying sufficient causes and necessary causes.

A sufficient cause is one that can cause the effect to take place. By itself, a sufficient cause can explain a phenomenon or trend. For instance, in order for someone to contract the AIDS virus, any of the following forms of contact is a sufficient cause:

A previously infected patient's bodily fluids must enter the uninfected person's body through either an open sore, Sexual conduct, Or a contaminated instrument such as a needle.

Frequently more than one sufficient cause is necessary to explain a phenomenon or trend. Three or four causes, for example, may be necessary to explain an effect. You cannot say, for example, that all one needs is a match to start a fire. You also need oxygen and something to burn. When describing physical phenomena such as how acid rain is produced, you may have little difficulty identifying sufficient causes. Explaining human behavior is rarely so simple, of course.

Identify Remote/Speculative Causes

When we face complicated questions and problems, we often are unable to identify sufficient causes so we must speculate about necessary causes—those causes that can result in the effect. For instance, no single cause precipitated the collapse of the Soviet Union, yet we could speculate that hunger, poor economic conditions, alienation from communism, and political corruption were all remote causes.

Because academic readers are sensitive to the complexity of most issues, they generally do not expect you to offer sufficient causes for complex problems. Instead, they expect you to speculate about possible causes and effects, while limiting the scope of your claims with qualifiers such as "usually," "may," "possible," "sometimes" or "most." No simple answer, no sufficient cause, can explain, for example, why some people become violent criminals or serial killers while others devote themselves to feeding the hungry or serving the helpless.

Establish an Appropriate Voice

You can choose from a range of tones, personas and voices. Some writers choose a contentious, argumentative tone. See, for example, Ted Rall'sits About Oil. In this short piece, Rall traces the reasons behind America's financial support for the Taliban from the 1980s to 1999, citing a variety of statistics and international political policies.

Sometimes writers will soften their tone, perhaps assuming a milder persona than they actually feel, because they fear providing the information in a more straightforward, argumentative way would cause readers to look elsewhere. For example, in Tropical Forests and Climate Change, the Canadian Development Agency offers a terrifying, well-researched analysis of global warming, yet softens its message with this caveat in the introduction:

Climate change predictions are difficult because of the complexity of the atmosphere and the interaction of the many variables involved.

Humanize Abstract IssuesNo matter how technical your subject is, you

should keep in mind that you are writing to other people. When you sense that the human story is being lost in abstract figures or academic jargon, consider adding an anecdote of how the problem you are discussing affects particular people. For example, Melissa Henderson, a student writer, began her report on the effect of crack on babies with the following portrayal of a newborn, which she composed after reading numerous essays about the effect of crack cocaine on human fetuses:

Lying restlessly under the warm lights like a McDonald's Big Mac, Baby Doe fights with all of his three pounds of strength to stay alive. Because he was born prematurely, Baby Doe has an array of tubes and wires extending from his frail body which constantly monitor his heartbeat, drain excess fluid from his lungs and alert hospital personnel in the event he stops breathing. As he lies in the aseptic incubator his rigid little arms and legs twitch and jerk as though a steady current of electricity coursed through his veins. Suddenly, without warning or provocation, he begins to cry a mournful, inconsolable wail that continues steadily without an end in sight. As the nurses try to comfort the tiny infant with loving touches and soothing whispers, Baby Doe's over-wrought nervous system can no

longer cope. Suffering from sensory overload, he withdraws into the security offered in a long, deep slumber. Welcome to the world, Baby Doe, your mother is a crack cocaine addict.

As you write drafts of your causal report, consider incorporating an anecdote—that is, a brief story about how people are influenced by your subject. For example, if you are researching the effects of a sluggish economy on our nation's poor, you might want to flesh out your statistics by depicting the story of how one homeless family lost their jobs, income, medical benefits, house, community, and hope.

Use VisualsAlthough visuals are not required--in fact, many

cause-and-effect texts do not use visuals--readers appreciate visuals, particularly ones that explain the cause-and-effect relationship being addressed. Consider, for example, this visual from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Web site on Global Warming:

Readers particularly appreciate tables and graphs. Critical readers will often skim through a document's tables before reading the text:

Visuals can be used to influence readers at an emotional level. For example, at Project GHB's Tragedy Page, each picture links to an obituary, which tells the personal story of how these young people overdosed on GHB.

OrganizationWhen analyzing causal relationships, you must

reveal to readers how different parts and sequences interact with each other over time. Rather than merely reporting the order of events in chronological fashion as we do when describing a process, you need to identify the specific reasons behind the effects or causes. Your organization needs to reflect the logic of your analysis. This is often difficult because a single cause can result in many different effects. Likewise, an effect can have multiple causes.

For example, even a simple effect such as a minor car accident can have multiple causes. Yes, we could say that John D. caused the accident because he was driving while intoxicated. Yet if we knew more about John D.'s state of mind—if we knew, for instance, that he wasn't watching where he was going because he was thinking about his wife's threat to leave him—then we could identify additional causes for the accident. It could very well be that he was exhausted after a sleepless night. Or perhaps his personal predicament had nothing to do with the accident: Maybe the loss of his job that morning or his failure to have faulty brakes replaced is a more significant cause for the accident. If we get really carried away with our reasoning, we could say that his former employers were responsible. After all, John D. would not have lost his job if the automobile manufacturer he worked for had not closed three of its American plants and moved manufacturing of some parts to plants in Mexico, Hong Kong, and Japan. In addition, we could also

find potential causes for the accident by considering the other driver, Susan K. Maybe she rushed into the busy intersection expecting everyone else to make room for her because she was already late for an in-class exam. Perhaps if Susan K. had not consumed four pots of coffee, she would have been mellower, more cautious, and less willing to risk her life to get to school on time.

Use Formatting to Highlight Your Organization

You can emphasize the most emphatic elements of your analysis by using headings and subheadings. A quick scan of any of the cause-and-effect readings highlights the popularity of headings. For example, below are the headings used by the Canadian International Development Agency for their essay on Tropical Forests and Climate Change.

Is the world's climate changing?How are we causing climate change?Impact of climate change on forestsClimate change convention and the Kyoto protocolForestry's role in mitigating climate changeCarbon trading marketsConclusionsYou may also want to play with the formatting of your text to highlight the reasoning behind your causal analysis. Consider, for example, the Canadian International Development Agency's Tropical Forests and Climate Change. These authors used callouts to define climate change terms that readers

may not understand and they used call out boxes to emphasize important points in their essay:

The Sustainable Forest Management Project in Cameroon, Trees for Tomorrow in Jamaica, and the Arenal Conservation and Development Project are CIDA-supported projects that work towards enhancing forest management in developing countries.

Expanding the area of forest cover by establishing tree plantations, agro forestry plantings, or analog forests enlarges the capacity of the terrestrial carbon sink. Trees are composed of approximately 50 percent carbon which they extract from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. The rate of carbon sequestration depends on the growth characteristics of the species, the conditions for growth where the tree is planted, and the density of the tree's wood. It is greatest in the younger stages of tree growth, between 20 to 50 years. Growth rates on commercial plantations in the tropics have been improving steadily as the results of tree improvement research have been applied. The technology to establish fast-growing plantations exists, as does the global expertise for establishing them. Growth rates of more than 30 cubic meters/hectare/year are now commonplace for intensive industrial pulp plantations in the tropics and FAO estimates that there are between 1.5 million and 2.0 million hectares of tree plantations established every year.

You may find it helpful to visually represent the

structure of your argument, perhaps even including your organizational map as a visual for readers. For example, consider the following screenshot from the EPA's site on global warming. From this image, you understand four topics are being addressed and you understand the questions that guide the EPA's causal analysis:

Introduce the Topic: Typically, texts that explore cause-and-effect relationships summarize the author's position upfront, in the introduction (see General to the Specific Strategies). For example, back in 1985, Joseph K. Skinner began his influential essay "Big Mac and the Tropical Forests" with this dramatic opening--two sentences that immediately focus your attention on the causal connection he explicates throughout his essay: Hello, fast-food chains. Goodbye, tropical forests. However, you may want to avoid explicit thesis sentences and forecasting statements if your subject is likely to threaten the beliefs of your audience or if it is an inherently emotional subject. You may occasionally find it important to establish a credible persona first by reviewing what your readers are likely to believe about a causal relationship and then by stating your own opinion.For example, assume you are writing an essay against spanking children. Now if your audience believes that spanking children is the proper way to discipline them, and if you claim in the introduction of the essay that spanking children may result in their becoming criminals, then your readers might assume you are an oddball and dismiss your essay. Yet if you intelligently discuss some of the reasons

why parents and psychologists recommend spanking and then introduce extensive research from prominent journals and reports that all violent criminals were spanked as children, your readers might be more willing to listen to your reasoning

Style: When grappling with difficult issues and concepts, your prose can understandably become unclear, dull, or cluttered. Eventually, though, as you continue to revise your drafts and further refine your message, you need to cut away the superfluous words, redundancies, and needless abstractions. You can make your language more interesting and more understandable by eliminating needless jargon; passive voice; lengthy, redundant sentences; or pompous and archaic language.

Provide Descriptive, Sensory Language: You can help your readers imagine your subject better by appealing to their senses. Whenever possible, describe how an object looks, sounds, tastes, feels, or smells. For example, in this excerpt from Carl Sagan's powerful essay on the effects of a nuclear war, "The Nuclear Winter," notice how Sagan appeals to our visual sense in his description of the effect of a single nuclear bomb on a city:

In a 2 megaton explosion over a fairly large city, buildings would be vaporized, people reduced to atoms and shadows, outlying structures blown down like matchsticks and raging fires ignited. And if the bomb exploded on the ground, an enormous crater, like those that can be seen through a telescope on

the surface of the Moon, would be all that remained where midtown once had been.

The lifeblood of effective writing is concrete and sensory language. A word, properly placed, can create a tone that angers or inspires a reader. Knowing the power of language to promote change, effective writers are selective in their use of concrete words—words that represent actual physical things like "chair" and "house"—and sensory words—words that appeal to our five senses. Selecting the right word or group of words is a crucial step in drawing your readers into your work so that they can fully understand your vision and ideas. Note the masterful use of concrete and sensory words in this passage from a Newsweek essay, "Don't Go in the Water":

"Black mayonnaise": The problem for most landlubbers, of course, is that most of the effects of coastal pollution are hard to see. Bays and estuaries that are now in jeopardy—Boston Harbor, for example, or even San Francisco Bay—are still delightful to look at from shore. What is happening underwater is quite another matter, and it is not for the squeamish. Scuba divers talk of swimming through clouds of toilet paper and half-dissolved feces, of bay bottoms covered by a foul and toxic combination of sediment, sewage and petrochemical waste appropriately known as "black mayonnaise." Fishermen haul in lobsters and crab [sic] covered with mysterious "burn holes" and fish whose fins are rotting off. Offshore, marine biologists track massive tides of algae blooms fed by nitrate and phosphate

pollution—colonies of floating microorganisms that, once dead, strangle fish by stripping the water of its life giving oxygen.

In addition to selecting an abundance of distinctive concrete words (such as sediment, sewage, and nitrate) and sensory words (foul, burn holes, feces) the authors have used powerful images and metaphors. Even more potent is the image of "black mayonnaise." Can you imagine biting into a sandwich spread with such poison?

When Speculating, Use Qualifying Language: When addressing complex issues and processes, you adopt an appropriate speculative voice by using words like "may cause" or "could also."Lorem ipsum dolor sit ametconsectetuer.

Useful Qualifying Words and Phrases: may, might, usually typically, perhaps, can, I believe it seems likely. As an example of carefully chosen qualifying words, consider the following passage from the US EPA's Web site on global warming impacts:

Rising global temperatures are expected to raise sea level, and change precipitation and other local climate conditions. Changing regional climate could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies. It could also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems. Deserts may expand into existing rangelands, and features of some of our National Parks may be permanently altered.

Most of the United States is expected to warm, although sulfates may limit warming in some areas. Scientists currently are unable to determine which parts of the United States will become wetter or drier, but there is likely to be an overall trend toward increased precipitation and evaporation, more intense rainstorms, and drier soils.

Unfortunately, many of the potentially most important impacts depend upon whether rainfall increases or decreases, which cannot be reliably projected for specific areas.

FINDING THE MAIN IDEA

How Can I Locate the Main Idea?

Once you can find the topic, you are ready to find the main idea. The main idea is the point of the paragraph. It is the most important thought about the topic.

To figure out the main idea, ask yourself this question: What is being said about the person, thing, or idea (the topic)?

The author can locate the main idea in different places within a paragraph. The main idea is usually a sentence, and it is usually the first sentence. The writer then uses the rest of the paragraph to support the main idea.

Let's use the paragraph below as an example. First find the topic, then look for the main idea.

“Summer is a wonderful time to spend at West Beach. It is a beach with light- colored, soft sand. The coastline goes on for a long way and many people enjoy walking along it. Children like to play in the surf and walk along the rocks that are visible at low tide. This is a fun beach for people of all ages. “

In this paragraph:    THE TOPIC IS WEST BEACH

THE MAIN IDEA (WHAT THE WRITER IS SAYING ABOUT THE TOPIC) IS THAT SUMMER IS A WONDERFUL TIME AT WEST BEACH Here is another example: “The movie Apollo 13 was a blockbuster for the summer of 1995. It is an exciting story about space exploration. In the movie, the astronauts get in trouble while they are trying to return to Earth. People in the audience are on the edge of their seats waiting to see what happens. What makes it even more exciting is that it is a true story.”

In this paragraph:  THE TOPIC IS THE MOVIE APOLLO 13THE MAIN IDEA IS IN THE FIRST SENTENCE: APOLLO 13 WAS A BLOCKBUSTER FOR THE SUMMER OF 1995 

While the main idea is usually in the first sentence, the next most common placement is in the last sentence of a paragraph. The author gives supporting information first and then makes the point in the last sentence.

  Here's a paragraph we can use as an example. Try to locate the topic and the main idea.

“Most teenagers and young adults do not know what they want to do for the rest of their lives. It is a big decision. There are a number of things you can do to narrow the choices. For example you can take an interest test, do some research on your own about a career, try volunteer work in the field in which you

are interested, or "job-shadow", in which you spend a day with a person who is working in a field that interests you. These are just a few helpful ideas as you begin to choose a career. 

In this paragraph:THE TOPIC IS JOBS OR CAREER CHOICESTHE MAIN IDEA IS A FEW IDEAS TO HELP THE READER CHOOSE A CAREER  

Finally, an author might put the main idea in the middle of a paragraph. The author will spend a few sentences introducing the topic, present the main idea, then spend the rest of the paragraph supporting it. This can make the main idea more difficult to find. See if you can find the topic and main idea in the paragraph below.

The United States seems to be in love with the idea of going out to eat. Because of this, a real variety of restaurants has come about specializing in all kinds of foods. McDonald's is the king of a subgroup of restaurants called fast-food restaurants. Chances are, no matter where you live, there is a McDonald's restaurant near you. There are even McDonald's in the Soviet Union. Now McDonald's is trying something new. It is called McDonald's Express and there is a test site in Peabody, Massachusetts. It is part of a Mobil gas station. This allows you to fill up with gas and fill up on food at the same time. What will they think of next?

In this paragraph: 

THE TOPIC IS MCDONALD'S THE MAIN IDEA IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE PARAGRAPH, IN THE THIRD SENTENCE: MCDONALD'S IS THE KING OF FAST FOOD

USING APPROPRIATE CONJUNCTIONS IN SENTENCES

Key Points

The presence of coordination is often signaled by the appearance of a coordinator (coordinating conjunction), e.g. and; or; but (in English).

The words "and" and "or" are the most frequently occurring coordinators in English. Coordinators, like "but," "as well as," and "then," occur less frequently, and have unique properties.

Coordination is not limited to coordinating just constituents, but rather it is quite capable of coordinating non-constituent strings.

There is a limitation on material that precedes the conjuncts of a coordinate structure that restricts the ensuing material.

The dependent   clause  is called a "subordinate clause," and the independent clause is called the "main clause" or matrix clause.

Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) such as: after; because; before; if; so that; that; when; while.

Depending on the number of coordinators used, coordinate structures can be classified as syndetic, asyndetic, or polysyndetic.

One coordinate structure can easily be nested inside another.

There are many instances of coordination where the coordinated strings are not alike.

Coordination is not limited to coordinating just constituents, but rather it is quite capable of coordinating non-constituent strings.

Gapping is an ellipsis mechanism that seems to occur in coordinate structures only.

Coordination is sensitive to the linear order of words.There is a limitation on material that precedes the conjuncts of a coordinate structure that does restrict the material that follows it.

The coordinate structure constraint is the property of coordinate structures that prevents extraction of a single conjunct or from a single conjunct.

If extraction occurs out of both conjuncts in a like fashion, the coordinate structure is acceptable. This trait of coordination is referred to as the across-the-board constraint.

In pseudo-coordinative constructions, the coordinator, generally and, appears to have a subordinating function.

The pseudo-coordinative construction is limited to a few verbs. In English, these verbs are typically go, try, and sit.

A typical property of pseudo-coordinative constructions is that, unlike ordinary coordination, they appear to violate the across-the-board extraction property.

Subordination is a principle of the hierarchical organization of linguistic units.

The syntactic units of sentences are often either subordinate or coordinate to each other.

One clause is subordinate to another if it depends on it.The dependent clause is called a subordinate clause and the independent clause is called the main clause (matrix clause).Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) such as: after, because, before, if, so that, that, when, while, etc.

The subordinate unit is called the dependent, and the superordinate unit the head.

Conjunctions explainedA conjunction is a part of speech that functions

as a connector between two sentences, clauses, phrases, or words.  We often use conjunctions in speech without realizing it. In writing, they can be effectively used in lieu of starting a new sentence. The proper use of conjunctions allows for more natural flow and rhythm in your writing. The improper use of conjunctions often results in writing that sounds choppy and disjointed.

Look at the following three sentences, for example: "I went to the store. They didn't have apples. They also didn't have hot sauce." While technically not incorrect, these sentences would sound much better as one sentence joined together by conjunctions. "I went to the store, but they had neither apples nor hot sauce."

The previous sentence used two different types of conjunctions: coordinating and correlative. Many people aren't even aware there are two types, but in an editor's world, there are major differences between the two.

Coordinating conjunctionsCoordinating conjunctions are the most

common form of conjunctions. They are so pervasive in the English language that they are used in nearly every sentence or paragraph in some form or another. Despite the frequency of these conjunctions, their use still results in common ESL mistakes. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in total and it is very likely you’ve heard all of them many times today. While you may not be able to list them off the top of your head, there is a very simple mnemonic that can help you to remember them:

FANBOYS.F – forA – andN – nor B – butO – or

Y – yetS – so

These seven words function to connect two or more items of equal syntactic importance. These items can be words, sentences, or clauses. However, there is a risk associated with using coordinators, as they can lead to what is known as a run-on sentence. This is a sentence that is too heavy and contains multiple subjects. Coordinating conjunctions can lead to rambling and nonsensical sentences if you are not careful; use them sparingly. If you've used more than two coordinating conjunctions in one sentence, you've likely got a run-on sentence.

Correlative conjunctionsCorrelative conjunctions are slightly more

obscure, but you have undoubtedly come across them in your daily speech. A correlative conjunction, as its name implies, is a pair of conjunctions that are joined together to combine two relative parts of speech.

"It was either me or him."In this sentence, "either" and "or" are the

correlative conjunctions. They bind "me" and "him" together, insinuating an inclusive relationship. The following are the primary correlative conjunctions in the English language:

Not only… but also…       as in:  She was not only mean, but also rude.

Neither…nor…                as in: They were neither fun nor exciting.

Both…and…                  as in: He was both pleased and surprised.

Whether…or…               as in: He was not sure whether he was winning or losing.

Not…but…                    as in: They did not want to waste the day, but they stayed inside.

Correlative conjunctions often function as comparative devices. While this is not their sole function, it is the most common context in which you will see them.

TermsSubordinate conjunctionSubordinating conjunctions, also called

subordinators, are conjunctions that conjoin an independent clause and a dependent clause. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while.

Coordinating conjunction

Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences.coordinator.

In grammar, a coordinator is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

In your career as a student, you’ll encounter many different kinds of writing assignments, each with its own requirements. One of the most common is the comparison/contrast essay, in which you focus on the ways in which certain things or ideas—usually two of them—are similar to (this is the comparison) and/or different from (this is the contrast) one another. By assigning such essays, your instructors are encouraging you to make connections between texts or ideas, engage in critical thinking, and go beyond mere description or summary to generate interesting analysis: when you reflect on similarities and differences, you gain a

deeper understanding of the items you are comparing, their relationship to each other, and what is most important about them.

Recognizing Comparison/Contrast in

AssignmentsSome assignments use words—like compare,

contrast, similarities, and differences—that make it easy for you to see that they are asking you to compare and/or contrast. Here are a few hypothetical examples:

Compare and contrast Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression.

Compare WWI to WWII, identifying similarities in the causes, development, and outcomes of the wars.

Contrast Wordsworth and Coleridge; what are the major differences in their poetry?

Notice that some topics ask only for comparison, others only for contrast, and others for both.

But it’s not always so easy to tell whether an assignment is asking you to include comparison/contrast.

And in some cases, comparison/contrast is only part of the essay—you begin by comparing and/or

contrasting two or more things and then use what you’ve learned to construct an argument or evaluation. Consider these examples, noticing the language that is used to ask for the comparison/contrast and whether the comparison/contrast is only one part of a larger assignment:

Choose a particular idea or theme, such as romantic love, death, or nature, and consider how it is treated in two Romantic poems.

How do the different authors we have studied so far define and describe oppression?

Compare Frye’s and Bartky’s accounts of oppression. What does each imply about women’s collusion in their own oppression? Which is more accurate?

In the texts we’ve studied, soldiers who served in different wars offer differing accounts of their experiences and feelings both during and after the fighting. What commonalities are there in these accounts? What factors do you think are responsible for their differences?

You may want to check out our handout on Understanding Assignments for additional tips.

Using Comparison/Contrast for All Kinds of Writing

ProjectsSometimes you may want to use

comparison/contrast techniques in your own pre-writing work to get ideas that you can later use for an argument, even if comparison/contrast isn’t an official requirement for the paper you’re writing. For example, if you wanted to argue that Frye’s account of oppression is better than both de Beauvoir’s and Bartky’s, comparing and contrasting the main arguments of those three authors might help you construct your evaluation—even though the topic may not have asked for comparison/contrast and the lists of similarities and differences you generate may not appear anywhere in the final draft of your paper.

Discovering Similarities and Differences

Making a Venn diagram or a chart can help you quickly and efficiently compare and contrast two or more things or ideas. To make a Venn diagram, simply draw some overlapping circles, one circle for each item you’re considering. In the central area where they overlap, list the traits the two items have in common. Assign each one of the areas that doesn’t overlap; in those areas, you can list the traits that make the things different. Here’s a very simple example, using two pizza places:

To make a chart, figure out what criteria you want to focus on in comparing the items. Along the left side of the page, list each of the criteria. Across the top, list the names of the items. You should then have a box per item for each criterion; you can fill the boxes in and then survey what you’ve discovered. Here’s an example, this time using three pizza places:

Pepper’s AmantePapa

John’sLocationPriceDeliveryIngredientsServiceSeating/eating inCoupons

As you generate points of comparison, consider the purpose and content of the assignment and the focus of the class. What do you think the professor wants you to learn by doing this comparison/contrast? How does it fit with what you have been studying so far and with the other assignments in the course? Are there any clues about what to focus on in the assignment itself?

Here are some general questions about different types of things you might have to compare. These are by no means complete or definitive lists; they’re just here to give you some ideas—you can

generate your own questions for these and other types of comparison. You may want to begin by using the questions reporters traditionally ask: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? If you’re talking about objects, you might also consider general properties like size, shape, color, sound, weight, taste, texture, smell, number, duration, and location.

Two historical periods or eventsWhen did they occur—do you know the date(s) and duration? What happened or changed during each? Why are they significant? What kinds of work did people do? What kinds of relationships did they have? What did they value? What kinds of governments were there? Who were important people involved? What caused events in these periods, and what consequences did they have later on?

Two ideas or theoriesWhat are they about? Did they originate at some particular time? Who created them? Who uses or defends them? What is the central focus, claim, or goal of each? What conclusions do they offer? How are they applied to situations/people/things/etc.? Which seems more plausible to you, and why? How broad is their scope? What kind of evidence is usually offered for them?

Two pieces of writing or artWhat are their titles? What do they describe or depict? What is their tone or mood? What is their form? Who created them? When were they created?

Why do you think they were created as they were? What themes do they address?

Do you think one is of higher quality or greater merit than the other(s)—and if so, why? For writing: what plot, characterization, setting, theme, tone, and type of narration are used?

Two peopleWhere are they from? How old are they? What is the gender, race, class, etc. of each? What, if anything, are they known for? Do they have any relationship to each other? What are they like? What did/do they do? What do they believe? Why are they interesting? What stands out most about each of them?

Deciding What to Focus OnBy now you have probably generated a huge list of similarities and differences—congratulations! Next you must decide which of them are interesting, important, and relevant enough to be included in your paper. Ask yourself these questions:

What’s relevant to the assignment?What’s relevant to the course?What’s interesting and informative?What matters to the argument you are going to make?What’s basic or central (and needs to be mentioned even if obvious)?

Overall, what’s more important—the similarities or the differences?

Suppose that you are writing a paper comparing two novels. For most literature classes, the fact that they both use Calson type (a kind of typeface, like the fonts you may use in your writing) is not going to be relevant, nor is the fact that one of them has a few illustrations and the other has none; literature classes are more likely to focus on subjects like characterization, plot, setting, the writer’s style and intentions, language, central themes, and so forth. However, if you were writing a paper for a class on typesetting or on how illustrations are used to enhance novels, the typeface and presence or absence of illustrations might be absolutely critical to include in your final paper.

Sometimes a particular point of comparison or contrast might be relevant but not terribly revealing or interesting. For example, if you are writing a paper about Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey” and Coleridge’s “Frost at Midnight,” pointing out that they both have nature as a central theme is relevant (comparisons of poetry often talk about themes) but not terribly interesting; your class has probably already had many discussions about the Romantic poets’ fondness for nature. Talking about the different ways nature is depicted or the different aspects of nature that are emphasized might be more interesting and show a more sophisticated understanding of the poems.

YOUR THESISThe thesis of your comparison/contrast paper is

very important: it can help you create a focused argument and give your reader a road map so

she/he doesn’t get lost in the sea of points you are about to make. As in any paper, you will want to replace vague reports of your general topic (for example, “This paper will compare and contrast two pizza places,” or “Pepper’s and Amante are similar in some ways and different in others,” or “Pepper’s and Amante are similar in many ways, but they have one major difference”) with something more detailed and specific. For example, you might say, “Pepper’s and Amante have similar prices and ingredients, but their atmospheres and willingness to deliver set them apart.”

Be careful, though—although this thesis is fairly specific and does propose a simple argument (that atmosphere and delivery make the two pizza places different), your instructor will often be looking for a bit more analysis. In this case, the obvious question is “So what? Why should anyone care that Pepper’s and Amante are different in this way?” One might also wonder why the writer chose those two particular pizza places to compare—why not Papa John’s, Dominos, or Pizza Hut? Again, thinking about the context the class provides may help you answer such questions and make a stronger argument. Here’s a revision of the thesis mentioned earlier:

Pepper’s and Amante both offer a greater variety of ingredients than other Chapel Hill/Carrboro pizza places (and than any of the national chains), but the funky, lively atmosphere at Pepper’s makes it a better place to give visiting friends and family a taste of local culture.

You may find our handout Constructing Thesis Statements useful at this stage.

ORGANIZING YOUR PAPERThere are many different ways to organize a comparison/contrast essay. Here are two:

Subject-by-subject: Begin by saying everything you have to say about the first subject you are discussing, then move on and make all the points you want to make about the second subject (and after that, the third, and so on, if you’re comparing/contrasting more than two things). If the paper is short, you might be able to fit all of your points about each item into a single paragraph, but it’s more likely that you’d have several paragraphs per item. Using our pizza place comparison/contrast as an example, after the introduction, you might have a paragraph about the ingredients available at Pepper’s, a paragraph about its location, and a paragraph about its ambience. Then you’d have three similar paragraphs about Amante, followed by your conclusion.

The danger of this subject-by-subject organization is that your paper will simply be a list of points: a certain number of points (in my example, three) about one subject, then a certain number of points about another. This is usually not what college instructors are looking for in a paper—generally they want you to compare or contrast two or more things very directly, rather than just listing the traits the things have and leaving it up to the reader to reflect on how those traits are similar or

different and why those similarities or differences matter. Thus, if you use the subject-by-subject form, you will probably want to have a very strong, analytical thesis and at least one body paragraph that ties all of your different points together.

A subject-by-subject structure can be a logical choice if you are writing what is sometimes called a “lens” comparison, in which you use one subject or item (which isn’t really your main topic) to better understand another item (which is). For example, you might be asked to compare a poem you’ve already covered thoroughly in class with one you are reading on your own. It might make sense to give a brief summary of your main ideas about the first poem (this would be your first subject, the “lens”), and then spend most of your paper discussing how those points are similar to or different from your ideas about the second.

Point-by-point: Rather than addressing things one subject at a time, you may wish to talk about one point of comparison at a time. There are two main ways this might play out, depending on how much you have to say about each of the things you are comparing. If you have just a little, you might, in a single paragraph, discuss how a certain point of comparison/contrast relates to all the items you are discussing. For example, I might describe, in one paragraph, what the prices are like at both Pepper’s and Amante; in the next paragraph, I might compare the ingredients

available; in a third, I might contrast the atmospheres of the two restaurants.

If I had a bit more to say about the items I was comparing/contrasting, I might devote a whole paragraph to how each point relates to each item. For example, I might have a whole paragraph about the clientele at Pepper’s, followed by a whole paragraph about the clientele at Amante; then I would move on and do two more paragraphs discussing my next point of comparison/contrast—like the ingredients available at each restaurant.

There are no hard and fast rules about organizing a comparison/contrast paper, of course. Just be sure that your reader can easily tell what’s going on! Be aware, too, of the placement of your different points. If you are writing a comparison/contrast in service of an argument, keep in mind that the last point you make is the one you are leaving your reader with. For example, if I am trying to argue that Amante is better than Pepper’s, I should end with a contrast that leaves Amante sounding good, rather than with a point of comparison that I have to admit makes Pepper’s look better. If you’ve decided that the differences between the items you’re comparing/contrasting are most important, you’ll want to end with the differences—and vice versa, if the similarities seem most important to you.

Our handout on Organization can help you write good topic sentences and transitions and make sure

that you have a good overall structure in place for your paper.

CUE WORDS AND OTHER TIPSTo help your reader keep track of where you are

in the comparison/contrast, you’ll want to be sure that your transitions and topic sentences are especially strong. Your thesis should already have given the reader an idea of the points you’ll be making and the organization you’ll be using, but you can help her/him out with some extra cues.

The following words may be helpful to you in signaling your intentions:

like, similar to, also, unlike, similarly, in the same way, likewise, again, compared to, in contrast, in like manner, contrasted with, on the contrary, however, although, yet, even though, still, but, nevertheless, conversely, at the same time, regardless, despite, while, on the one hand … on the other hand.For example, you might have a topic sentence like one of these:Compared to Pepper’s, Amante is quiet.Like Amante, Pepper’s offers fresh garlic as a topping.Despite their different locations (downtown Chapel Hill and downtown Carrboro), Pepper’s and Amante are both fairly easy to get to.

WHY TEACH CHARACTER TRAITS

Character analysis offers an easy way to add rigor to any literature discussion. Character trait studies actively engage students and help them develop an understanding of characters’ motives. Studying character traits teaches students how to make appropriate inferences from facts. Furthermore, students deepen their understanding of literature by learning to support their opinions with details from the selection. Students enjoy debating and discussing character traits as their vocabularies develop. As a teacher, you’ll enjoy the fact that these printables can be used repeatedly throughout the year simply by focusing on different characters and traits.

Common Core State Standards for Literature

The lessons in Analyzing Character Traits are perfect for helping you teach Common Core Literature Standards in Grades 3 through 5. The character development component of each standard below can be taught using some or all of the materials in this packet. However, in order to teach all aspects of each standard, you’ll need to find additional resources for the other topics described by that standard such as story settings and events.

Grade 3 - 5 Standards That Reference Character Development

Grade 3 RL 3.3 Describe characters in a story (e.g., their traits, motivations, or feelings) and explain how their actions contribute to the sequence of events.

Grade 4 RL 4.3 Describe in depth a character, setting, or event in a story or drama, drawing

on specific details in the text (e.g., a character’s thoughts, words, or actions).

Grade 5 RL 5.3 Compare and contrast two or more characters, settings, or events in a story

or drama, drawing on specific details in the text (e.g., how characters interact).

Step-by-Step Lessons for Analyzing Character Traits

1. Advanced Preparation - Locate several short read-aloud books with memorable characters. You’ll find a bibliography of suggested books on page 22. In addition, you can use short selections from a basal reading text. Biographies work well for character trait lessons, but fictional characters can also provide a rich source of discussion. Duplicate a Character Trait list for each student. You’ll find two versions on pages 6 and 7. You may want to duplicate the list on colored paper and laminate it since your students will be referring to this list frequently throughout the year. It’s also helpful to locate individual dry erase boards and markers for each student. Many of the lessons involve active participation, and dry erase boards are an easy way to involve all students. 2. Introduction to Character Traits - Begin by explaining the term “character trait.” A simple definition might be the personal qualities that a character demonstrates such as bravery or loyalty. Ask students to think of a character from a recent book and name one character trait that describes the person. Randomly call on students or have them write their responses on individual dry erase boards to show you. In general, physical qualities like height or hair color are not considered to be character traits.

3. Emotions versus Character Traits - Some students may be confused about the difference between emotions and character traits. Explain that the two terms are similar, but emotions can change from moment to moment, while character traits are developed over time. For example, a character may generally exhibit the trait of cheerfulness, yet he or she may feel the emotion of sadness when a friend moves away.

4. Distribute Character Trait List - Distribute one copy of the character trait list to each student. Emphasize that they need to store this list in a safe place and take care of it because they will be using it repeatedly throughout the year. Ask them to read over the words, but don’t stop to explain the meaning of each one. Later you’ll be focusing on a new word each day as you discuss characters in stories and biographies.

5. Character Clues Overview - Now ask students how they think authors reveal a character’s personality to readers. Point out that authors seldom use character trait words to describe characters; instead, they include clues throughout the selection. Display the Character Clues overview on page 6 and discuss each type of clue with your students. As you discuss the difference between action clues, verbal clues, and other clues, ask them to cite examples from books or stories you have recently read.

6. Character Trait Analysis - Immediately after introducing the Character Clues overview page, display the Character Clues graphic organizer on a

overhead projector or whiteboard. Read aloud a short book such as Tacky the Penguin and ask students to brainstorm a list of character trait words that describe the main character. If their Character Trait list is laminated, they can circle the words on that list. If not, they can write them on a dry erase board or add to a class list on an interactive whiteboard. Then choose one character trait and write it in the center of the graphic organizer. Read through the book another time, asking students to notice actions, words, and other clues that support this trait. Add their ideas to the class graphic organizer. Don’t worry if you can’t find a detail for every category. In this case, you might want to use the graphic organizer several times with different characters to reinforce the concept of character clues.

7. Daily Character Trait - This lesson is designed to take place during 15-minute daily mini-lessons over a period of several weeks. During that time, your students will develop a character reference chart. Distribute copies of the Character Trait Reference on page 10 and display a copy for the class.

Each day read a short selection or refer to a character in a chapter book. Identify a character trait that applies to the main character, making sure it’s one that your students might not already know, such as gullible or ambitious. Write the word in the first column and explain the meaning of the word. Have students help you write a definition for the second column. Then have students brainstorm

clues from the selection that support this character trait and record them in the Literary Examples column. Add one word a day to the chart until you’ve introduced all of the challenging words on the character trait list.

8. Character Trait Sorting - To check for understanding, place students in teams of three or four and give each team one copy of the Character Trait Sorting map on page 11 and a set of character trait word cards. Use the cards on page 12 or create your own with the template on page 13. Students cut the cards apart and stack them face down in the middle of the chart. One by one, they take turns flipping over a card, reading it aloud, and discussing it with the team. The team decides if the trait is generally thought of as a positive attribute or a negative attribute and the card is placed face up in the appropriate spot. If it’s neither positive or negative, they place it in the “Neutral” box. If they don’t know the meaning, they place it in the “Unknown” section. Students take turns flipping over and placing the cards so that everyone participates equally. Finally, discuss the team answers as a class. An alternate strategy would be to stop and have a team discussion after every word is placed on the sorting map. This will keep each discussion short and focused, preventing students from becoming bored during one long class discussion.

9. Basic Character Map - After students are comfortable with most of the words on their Character Trait list, it’s time to revisit the concept

that a single character often displays numerous character traits. The Character Map graphic organizer on page 15 is an excellent tool for working with this idea. Complete directions for introducing the Character Map to your students can be found on page 14. You can also find a completed example based on the book Goldie Socks and the Three Liberians on page 16.

10. Character Comparisons - Comparing characters is another way to deepen understanding about character traits and motives. Use the Comparing Characters Venn diagram on page 17 to compare two characters from the same story or characters from different stories. Students can even compare characters with themselves. Allow students to use physical attributes as well as character traits to describe each character.

11. Character Development - In some stories and biographies, the main character undergoes a significant transformation as a result of an event or interaction with another character. The Character Development map on page 18 offers a way to analyze a character before and after the change takes place. You may want to use the instructional sequence on page 14 to introduce this graphic organizer. It’s always best to introduce a new graphic organizer to the entire class or a guided reading group before assigning it to individuals to complete alone.

12. Character Trait Challenge - As a culminating activity, involve your students in the Character Trait

Challenge. Students work in teams of three or four to create a team poster displaying the character traits of a significant character from a biography or other literary selection.

Character Traits: absent-minded, adventurous, ambitious, argumentativebashful , bold, bossy, brave, busycaring, careless, cautious, cheerful, clumsy, compassionate, conceited, confident, considerate, content, courageous, cranky, creative, critical, cruel, curious,dainty, daring, dedicated, defiant, demanding, determined, devious, dreamer energetic, even-tempered friendly, fun-loving generous, gentle, gullible handsome, happy, hard-working, helpful, heroic, hones, humble, humorous imaginative, impatient, independent, innocent ,intelligent, inventive joyful lazy, leader, logical, lovable, loving, loyalmalicious, mannerly, messy, methodical, mischievousobedient, outgoing, optimistic patient, patriotic, persistent, pessimistic, polite, proudreckless, reserved, resourceful, respectful, rude selfish, serious, shy, sly, sneaky, spoiled, stingy, stubborn, studious, successful, suspiciousthoughtful, timid,unruly, unselfish, witty

Character Clues Authors reveal character traits by providing clues in the text.

Action Clues - Character traits are revealed through the actions and reactions of the character. Good readers carefully observe how the character behaves to make inferences about character traits. Example: Standing up to a bully shows courage.

Verbal Clues - Character traits are revealed by what the character says and how those words are delivered. Sometimes clues can be found in what characters say about each other. Example: A character who yells, “No! We’re going to do it my way!” might be considered bossy.

Other Clues - Character traits can be revealed by other clues such as physical appearance, how the character dresses, where he or she lives, interests and hobbies, and so on. Example: A tiny girl who wears frilly dresses might be considered dainty.

DESCRIBING SETTING

Eudora Welty said, "Every story would be another story, and unrecognizable if it took up its characters and plot and happened somewhere else... Fiction depends for its life on place. Place is the crossroads of circumstance, the proving ground of, What happened? Who's here? Who's coming?..."Writers describe the world they know. Sights, sounds, colors, and textures are all vividly painted in words as an artist paints images on canvas. A writer

imagines a story to be happening in a place that is rooted in his or her mind. The location of a story's actions, along with the time in which it occurs, is the setting.

Setting is created by language. How many or how few details we learn is up to the author. Many authors leave a lot of these details up to the reader's imagination.

What Setting Tells UsIn William Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," the

narrator carefully describes the house that Miss Emily lives in. This description helps us picture a decaying Mississippi town in the post-Civil War South. We also learn about Miss Emily's resistance to change.

It was a big, squarish frame house that had once been white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsome style of the seventies, set on what had once been our most select street. But garages and cotton gins had encroached and obliterated even the august names of that neighborhood; only Miss Emily's house was left, lifting its stubborn and coquettish decay above the cotton wagons and the gasoline pumps--an eyesore among eyesores.

Later we enter the house itself and, eventually, end up inside one particular room. The physical details of the setting become linked with the values, ideals, and attitudes of that place in different times.

Setting can add an important dimension of meaning, reflecting character and embodying theme.Notice how the details of the setting provide the clues for solving the murder in "A Jury of Her Peers." As a result, they illuminate the deeper meaning of the story.

ThemeWhat exactly is this elusive thing called theme?

The theme of a fable is its moral. The theme of a parable is its teaching. The theme of a piece of fiction is its view about life and how people behave.

In fiction, the theme is not intended to teach or preach. In fact, it is not presented directly at all. You extract it from the characters, action, and setting that make up the story. In other words, you must figure out the theme yourself.The writer's task is to communicate on a common ground with the reader. Although the particulars of your experience may be different from the details of the story, the general underlying truths behind the story may be just the connection that both you and the writer are seeking.

Finding the ThemeHere are some ways to uncover the theme in a

story: Check out the title. Sometimes it tells you a lot about the theme.

Notice repeating patterns and symbols. Sometimes these lead you to the theme.

What allusions are made throughout the story?

What are the details and particulars in the story? What greater meaning may they have?

Remember that theme, plot, and structure are inseparable, all helping to inform and reflect back on each other. Also, be aware that a theme we determine from a story never completely explains the story. It is simply one of the elements that make up the whole.

The play version of Susan Glaspell's "A Jury of Her Peers" is called Trifles. What do both titles suggest about the theme?

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SENTENCE

A common weakness in writing is the lack of varied sentences. Becoming aware of three general types of sentences--simple, compound, and complex--can help you vary the sentences in your writing.

The most effective writing uses a variety of the sentence types explained below.

1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a completed thought.

Examples of simple sentences include the following:Joe waited for the train."Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb The train was late."The train" = subject, "was" = verb Mary and Samantha took the bus."Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station."I" = subject, "looked" = verb Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus."Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited" = compound verb  

Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an essay, you should consider revising some of the sentences into compound or complex sentences (explained below). 

The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such as "at the bus station"), and other elements help lengthen simple sentences, but simple sentences often are short. The use of too

many simple sentences can make writing "choppy" and can prevent the writing from flowing smoothly.  

A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is referred to as "independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words

"FAN BOYS":ForAndNorButOrYetSo

Examples of compound sentences include the following:Joe waited for the train, but the train was late. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before noon

and left on the bus before I arrived. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus station.

Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay, you should consider revising some of them into complex sentences (explained below).

Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but compound sentences often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some type of relationship between the two independent clauses in the sentence, they sometimes do not indicate much of a relationship. The word "and," for example, only adds one independent clause to another, without indicating how the two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too many compound sentences that use "and" can weaken writing.

Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of complex sentences. 

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete

sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence. 

Examples of dependent clauses include the following:because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noo while he waited at the train station after they left on the bus

Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most common subordinating conjunctions:

afteralthoughasbecausebeforeeven thoughifsincethoughunlessuntil

whenwheneverwhereaswhereverwhile

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.

The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause, as in the following:

Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate the two clauses.Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the station.

While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.

After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station.

Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the dependent clause, as in the following:

Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to separate the two clauses.

I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon.

Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after they left on the bus.

Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more complex relationship than a word such as "and" conveys. 

The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a complex sentence beginning with a dependent clause and ending with an independent clause, as in "While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late."

Periodic sentences can be especially effective because the completed thought occurs at the end of it, so the first part of the sentence can build up to the meaning that comes at the end.

Beginning Sentences with "And" or "Because"

Should you begin a sentence with "and" or "but" (or one of the other coordinating conjunctions)?

The short answer is "no." You should avoid beginning a sentence with "and," "or," "but," or the other coordinating conjunctions. These words

generally are used to join together parts of a sentence, not to begin a new sentence. However, such sentences can be used effectively. Because sentences beginning with these words stand out, they are sometimes used for emphasis. If you use sentences beginning with one of the coordinating conjunctions, you should use these sentences sparingly and carefully.

Should you begin a sentence with "because"?There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with "because."Perhaps some students are told not to begin a sentence with "because" to avoid sentence fragments (something like "Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon" is a sentence fragment), but it is perfectly acceptable to begin a sentence with "because" as long as the sentence is complete (as in "Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the station.”)

SEQUENCING EVENTS

What Is It?Sequencing is one of many skills that

contributes to students' ability to comprehend what they read. Sequencing refers to the identification of the components of a story, such as the beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to retell the events within a given text in the order in which they occurred. 

The ability to sequence events in a text is a key comprehension strategy, especially for narrative texts. Finding meaning in a text depends on the ability to understand and place the details, the sequence of events, within some larger context—the beginning, middle, and end of a story. The ordering of events in a story, along with connecting words such as once upon a time, then, later, afterwards, and in the end, are good examples of textual features, an understanding of which gives the reader a way of integrating the story's individual

parts into its larger framework—and thereby understanding the author's purpose.

Why Is It Important?As students listen to or read text, they are best

served if they can understand the information as it is presented and then recall it at a later point. Beginning readers and those that have not had much opportunity to work on their sequencing skills have a tendency to retell a story by starting with the end, since it is the part that they read or heard most recently. Even more experienced readers may re-tell a story by focusing primarily on the sections that were most appealing to them rather than by giving a more complete picture of the events that occurred. (Fox and Allen, 1983)

Practicing sequencing helps remedy both of these issues and makes this aspect of reading comprehension second nature. If students are encouraged to identify the parts of a story, for instance, they will be better able to retell it to someone else, as it is a more manageable task to think of a story in pieces—the beginning, middle, and end—rather than try to recall it as one large chunk. Sequencing activities also provide an opportunity for students to examine text and story structure, which, in turn, strengthens their writing skills. 

How Can You Make It Happen?Sequencing is a skill that can be incorporated into any subject area, but it is often associated with teaching early readers. When selecting a text for a

sequencing activity, start with a piece that contains distinct events; has a clear beginning, middle, and end; and that lends itself to being retold. Familiar examples of such stories include fairy tales and fables. 

A variety of ways exist to help students hone their sequencing skills. Below are some ideas for practicing sequencing in the context of a read-aloud story or during independent reading.

Read AloudPrior to reading a story aloud, remind students that they will be working on their sequencing skills. Depending on your lesson, you might say, "As we read, let's think about what happens during the beginning, middle, and end of the story," or "After we finish reading, we're going to try to retell the story."

As you read, pause frequently to ask students to identify the events in the story and to encourage them to think about when the beginning gives way to the middle and the middle transitions to the end. 

Once you have read the story, make lists with students about the events that occurred, trying to arrange them sequentially. Sentence strips work well for this type of activity, since events can be written on individual strips and then rearranged as necessary to put the events in the correct order. Let students use these lists or strips as reminders as they retell the story by acting it out with puppets, for instance.

Independent ReadingBegin by reminding students that they will be

working on their sequencing skills. One strategy that may be helpful is to give students pieces of paper and pencils to use as they read. Students can write page numbers and a few words to remind them of important events in the story. For instance, a student who is reading Goldilocks and the Three Bears in order to retell it may jot down:Goldilocks comes inShe eats the porridgeShe breaks the chairShe falls asleepThe bears come home

This list doesn't tell the whole story, but it does provide the key elements, in order, and would serve as a good outline for someone wanting to retell it themselves. If this procedure is new to students, model it before asking them to do it on their own, using a read aloud story and recording your own ideas in a think aloud style to show students how to do this on their own.

Once students have completed reading, give them opportunities to write about their stories' sequences in a reading journal, to discuss their stories with partners, or to retell them to family members for homework.

Taking Sequencing to the Next LevelStudents will benefit from a variety of

experiences with sequencing. Practice sequencing in

different ways and with a variety of texts. Make games of sequencing practice by photocopying a short story, mixing the pages up, and asking students to reassemble them in the correct order (be sure to take the page numbers off the pages for this activity!). This type of activity can also be done with pictures by giving students a set of illustrations that tell a story or show a familiar step-by-step procedure, such as making a sandwich or getting dressed. Students then assemble the pictures so that the steps are in a logical order.

Older students who are being asked to retell a story can participate in self-evaluation by tape recording themselves as they do so. This technique allows students not only to practice the retelling but to listen to themselves and evaluate their own performances. Questions students can think about during this self-assessment include: Did I include the important aspects of the story? Are there any elements I should have included? Will my retelling make sense to someone who isn't familiar with the story?

Students can also expand on their retelling skills by rewriting plays they have read or heard and then performing those plays for their classmates or another class. This provides students with opportunities to think about sequencing in the roles of both readers and writers.

When Can You Use It?

Reading

Students can sharpen their sequencing skills as they read independently, participate in small group reading activities, or listen to you read a story. Before reading a longer story with students, make charts labeled, "beginning," "middle," and "end." Pause after each section of the story to discuss what has happened and to record information on your charts.

WritingSequencing is an important skill in writing. One

way for students to plan their writing is by creating an outline or a graphic organizer before beginning a piece. This provides opportunities for students to think about the sequence of events in a story they wish to tell or the most logical sequence in which to provide information in a nonfiction piece.

MathMath provides many opportunities for students

to think about a process for solving a given type of problem. This process can be thought of as a sequence of steps. Students can list the steps of a process, such as finding a common denominator for a pair of fractions, and work with partners to follow those steps while solving applicable problems.

Social StudiesAs students study history, they are often asked

to keep track of series of events. Sequencing is a critical skill for this type of learning. Students can practice this skill by creating timelines showing the order of events. Students who are not yet involved in the study of historical events can still practice their

sequencing skills by creating personal timelines, illustrating the course of their own lives.

ScienceScience experiments provide a great

opportunity for honing sequencing skills. Not only can students practice following a sequence of steps to investigate a particular concept but many experiments provide a dramatic way for students to try to take a set of mixed-up instructions and put them in a logical sequence. Students may find that some experiments can only be done in a specific order while others can be done in a variety of sequences. For instance, one experiment to investigate the chemical reaction between acids and bases involves pouring a small amount of baking soda into a balloon. Vinegar is then added to the balloon. The gas produced by the reaction between the baking soda and the vinegar inflates the balloon. Students might extend this experiment by altering the sequence of the steps. Ask them if the results are same if they put the vinegar in the balloon first, for example.

FORMULATING A CONCLUDING SENTENCE FOR A PARAGRAPH

Why is a concluding sentence important in a paragraph? It is needed to show that the writer has completed what he wants to say and to leave in the reader's mind a final statement of the paragraph's main idea.

What is a concluding sentence? It pulls together or summarizes the main idea of the paragraph, usually in a single sentence. The concluding sentence also provides a definite ending point for the paragraph.

What can you do to make sure that your concluding sentence is effective, that it restates the main idea and makes the reader feel thatthe paragraph is complete? Just follow these suggestions the next time you write a paragraph: -

1. End the paragraph with a concluding sentence that summarizes or restates the main idea as expressed in the topic sentence. Example: (topic sentence) -A grandfather is a very special person who has all of the good characteristics of a father but none of the faults.

Example: (concluding sentence) -He will go to any length to plan special family gatherings at which grandfather is truly a grandfather. (This sentence provides a good conclusion by restating the topic sentence.)

2. Make sure that the concluding sentence does not introduce another subject that is not covered by the paragraph, which includes the concluding sentence. (Introducing another subject, which is not covered by the paragraph, will confuse the reader and weaken the ending.)

3. Remember to tailor the conclusion to the type of paragraph you are writing. (The conclusion for each kind of paragraph should be handled differently.) Suggestions for concluding each major type of paragraph are summarized below:

A. In a "comparison/contrast" paragraph, include in the concluding sentence both of the subjects being compared/contrasted. This approach will reinforce the controlling idea of the topic sentence --in this case, the sharp contrast between two football coaches, "Bud" Wilkinson and "Bear" Bryant.

Example: (concluding sentence) -The fact that these contrasting figures were two of the most successful coaches in football history proves that there is more than one way to inspire a football team.

B. In a "descriptive" paragraph, use a concluding sentence to draw details together into a unifying

impression, which restates the impression contained in the topic sentence. In a paragraph describing someone whose appearance radiated an easy-going sense of humor, the concluding statement could be stated as follows:

Example: (concluding sentence) -Joe had the kind of laid-back humor that could brighten anyone's day.

C. In a “division/classification" paragraph, which classifies or breaks a topic into component parts, use a concluding sentence to focus the reader's attention on the topic as a whole, not on the last of the component parts discussed in the body of the paragraph. In a paragraph which analyzes the various ways to drive a one-man jet boat --sitting position, standing position, and kneeling position --the writer should conclude it with a statement that ties all of the parts (the whole paragraph) together.

Example: (concluding sentence) -The position you choose for operating a jet boat will depend on weather conditions. (This conclusion addresses all of the~ positions discussed in the paragraph.) As this example shows, don't end your division/classification paragraph with a final detail concerning only a part of your analysis. Instead, formulate a concluding sentence that refers to the whole paragraph.

D. In a paragraph, which explains through the use of examples, the writer must supply a strong concluding sentence. This sentence should not be just another example --it should restate the topic sentence (controlling idea) and summarize all of the

examples the writer has included in the paragraph. In a paragraph, which uses examples to explain how quickly a reputation can be destroyed, the conclusion should restate the same idea.

Example: (concluding sentence) -Reputation is, indeed, a fragile thing. It takes years to build but only a moment to lose. (This sentence restates the paragraph's main idea, not just one of the examples that the writer uses to show how fragile a reputation actually is.)

E. In a "narrative" paragraph~ which tells a story with a definite point the writer needs a concluding sentence to reinforce the point being made. In a story, which is intended to show, how smart a particular horse is the concluding sentence might be stated as follows:

Example: (concluding sentence) - I'll agree that horses are beautiful but I'll never be convinced that they are stupid; Silver and I know better. (It's easy to see how the Lone Ranger feels when you read that conclusion.)

In all of these examples, the concluding sentence leaves the reader with a restatement of the paragraph's main idea. Without a good concluding sentence, the writer cannot end a paragraph effectively.

Four kinds of Ineffective Conclusions1.The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It”

Conclusion.

This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

2.The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion.Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” him with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.

3.The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion.This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is

usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.

4.The “Grab Bag” Conclusion.This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

LEARNING WORDS FROM CONTEXT CLUES

You know that a large vocabulary is very useful. It helps you talk more interestingly and makes a good impression on other people. It helps you read faster and with more understanding. And it has also been found that your power to think clearly grows as your knowledge of words grows.

Does that mean that you should keep a dictionary chained to your wrist to look up new words you hear or read? It’s one way. But there is another way to learn new words. You have used it all your life. Here it is. Listen for words you don’t know. Suppose someone calls you diabolical, for example. You want to know whether that’s good or bad. What do you do? You could say What’s that? And let the other person feel superior. You could say How do you spell it? And whisk out your pocket dictionary. You could ask How diabolical am I? so that you can get another clue to the meaning.

If you choose the last method, you are trying to learn from context clues. Each time you hear or read a word in a different sentence, you get more information about what it means. Finally, you have an idea in your mind about what the word means. You have learned from the context of the word. The context is simply the words or ideas around your unknown word. Using context clues as your read is important for two reasons. 1. If you skip over the meaning of unfamiliar words, you may come to the end of the passage you are

reading with a very fuzzy idea of what you have read. On the other hand, if you stop and look up every word you don’t know, you may become irritated at the slow rate of your reading and stop altogether.

So, if you can be alert to context clues and figure out meanings as you read, you will help your speed as well as your comprehension.

2. In Section III on using the dictionary, you learned that even when you use the dictionary it is often necessary to read several definitions of a word before you can find the one that fits the meaning of the sentence.

So you will have to be alert to context clues even when you use the dictionary. Four Context Clues (Examples, Definitions, Descriptive words, Opposites)

EXAMPLESThe context of a word will sometimes give

examples that will give you a pretty clear idea of meaning. Suppose you want to know the meaning of the word gestures in the paragraph below. How many examples are given in the paragraph?

Some dogs can be trained to respond to gestures instead of sounds; for example, a hand pointing in a certain direction, an open hand, palm down, or arms outstretched can be used to mean go sit or come to a well-trained dog.

The number of examples given is ________________. R:devread/064/065/Packets/ Learning Words From Context Clues.doc

Look for words like for example, for instance, such as , like that signal examples are coming.

DEFINITIONSSometimes the writer will save you the trouble

of looking up a word by defining it for you. Underline the words in the following sentences that signal you that some sort of a definition is going to follow. Often this kind of definition will not sound much like a dictionary definition. It is a fact that a large number of small businesses fail because the owner hasn’t enough capital to tide him over slack periods and emergencies that is, it takesa certain amount of working money to keep a business going.

When you see expressions like that is or means, you will know to watch for a definition of some kind. A second kind of definition is what is called an appositive. An appositive is just a phrase that follows a word and explains it. But instead of being introduced by one of the definition-type expressions, this kind of phrase is set off on both sides by commas.

Circle the appositive in the sentence below. An aquarium needs scavenger fish, swimming garbage collectors, to keep the tank clean.

DESCRIPTIVE WORDS You can sometimes piece together the meaning

of a word by a little straight detective work. Look at the underlined word. Now which words in the following description help you understand the meaning of the underlined word? The first impression that crossed my mind was that the woman was obese. Her clothing was stretched across her vast surface of skin like a lumpy balloon stretched to the bursting point.

REFERENCES:

Identifying cause and effect relationshiphttp://writingcommons.org/index.php/open-text/genres/academic-writing/causes-effectshttp://study.com/academy/lesson/cause-and-effect-relationship-definition-examples-quiz.html

https://www.thedailycafe.com/articles/recognize-and-explain-cause-and-effect-relationshipsassessmenthttp://educators.brainpop.com/bp-jr-topic/cause-and-effect/

Finding the Main Ideahttp://www.landmarkoutreach.org/publications/spotlight/finding-main-idea

Using Conjunctions in a Sentenceshttps://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/overview-of-english-grammar-parts-of-speech-250/conjunctions-293/conjunctions-coordination-correlation-conjunction-and-subordination-130-10365/http://www.scribendi.com/advice/the_functions_of_conjunctions.en.html

Comparing and Contrastinghttp://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/comparing-and-contrasting/

Character Traitshttp://www.learner.org/interactives/literature/read/theme2.html

Different Types of Sentencehttp://www2.ivcc.edu/rambo/eng1001/sentences.htm

Sequencing Events

https://www.teachervision.com/skill-builder/reading-comprehension/48779.html

Formulating Conclusions http://aacc.edu/supportcenter/file/formulatingaconcludingsentenceforapar.pdfhttp://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/

Defining Words Through Context https://www.sinclair.edu/centers/tlc/pub/handouts_worksheets/reading/learning_words_from_context_clues.pdf

English

CommunicationSkills 3

Submitted By:Ricel Crizia L. Galindez