English in Papua New Guinea - uni-due.delan300/Papua New Guinea_(Kullik...English in Asia and the Southern Hemisphere Prof. R. Hickey WS 2015/16 English in Papua New Guinea Jan Kullik

English in Asia and the Southern Hemisphere Prof. R. HickeyWS 2015/16

English in Papua New Guinea

Jan Kullik

Course of study: LA-MA

Type of credit: LN

Module I

Geography

Geography

Source: www.paige-west.com

http://www.paige-west.com

General Data

p Surface area: 462,840 km² (Germany: 357,021 km²)

p Population: 7,476,000 (est.)

p Population density: 16 people per sq km

p Capital: Port Moresby (338,000 inhabitants)

p Highest peak: Mount Wilhelm at 4,509 metres

Demography

p Population growth rate: 2.1 %

p Sex ratio: 104.1 males per 100 females

p Life expectancy at birth: 64.5/60.3 (females and males)

p Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births): 47.6

History

p Duration of human habitation is estimated to at least 40,000 years

p Archaeological evidence indicates that people most likely arrived by sea from Southeast Asia

p First arrivals were hunters and gatherers

p Early indications of gardening anyway

History

p 16th century: First Europeans to sight New Guinea were Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific

p 1526-27: Don Jorge de Meneses came upon the principal island and named it “Papua”

p 1545: Ynigo Ortis de Retez applied the term “New Guinea” because of a fancied resemblance between the islands’ inhabitants and the people of the African Guinea coast

History

New GuineapGoddefroy’s of Hamburg (family of merchants and ship owners) started trading coconut oil and copra in the New Guinea islandsà European influence increased rapidly

p1884: Germany formally took possession of parts of the main island p1899: German imperial government assumed direct control of the territory à Thereafter known as German New Guinea

History

http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Colonial-and-postcolonial-linguistics.pdf

http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Colonial-and-postcolonial

History

p 1914: Australian troops occupied German New Guineaà Australian military remained until 1921

p 1920: British government assumed a mandate from the League of Nations for governing the Territory of New Guinea

p Administration lasted until Japanese invasion during World War II

History

Papuap1884: British protectorate was proclaimed over the southern coast of the islandà British New Guinea

p1902: Possession was placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia

p1905: Papua Act à Australian administration until Japanese

invasion (1942)

History

p 1945-46: Administrative union between Papua and New Guinea under Australian control was built following the surrender of Japan

p 1949: The Papua and New Guinea Actà International trusteeship system and

administrative union under the title of “The territory of Papua and New Guinea” was confirmed

p Act provided a Legislative Council, judicial organization, a social service, and a system of local government

History

p 1972: Name of the territory was changed to Papua New Guinea

p 1973: The nation became self-governing

p 1975: Achievement of independence

Languages in Papua New Guinea

p More than 800 indigenous languagesà most widely spoken indigenous language

is ‘Enga’ (approximately 200.000 speakers)p Three official languages:à Hiri Motuà Englishà Tok Pisin

Hiri Motu

p Originally called Police Motup Spoken by the local police force in the former

British New Guinea à expanded pidginp Officially encouraged by the government

between World War I and IIp Enjoyed a period of revitalization during

separatist movements in the 1970sà symbol of selfidentification

Hiri Motu

p Status as a major general language was given after independenceà Equal with New Guinea Pidgin

p Number of speakers has never greatly exceeded 200,000

English in Papua New Guinea

p English-in-education policy was pursued during Australian colonial rule

p Source language for lexical elements in Tok Pisin

p High social prestige is associated with knowledge of English

p Today: Only casual language use in higher and tertiary educational establishments

Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin)

p Came to New Guinea as a plantation pidgin from Samoa in the late 19th century

p After the takeover of German New Guinea in 1914, the spread of Tok Pisin continued rapidly

p It became the principal parliamentary debate language after independence (1975)

p Extent in primary education and media

Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin)

p Officially renamed to Tok Pisin in 1981

p 75-85 % is derived from English

p Today it has approximately 4 million speakersà General language of solidarityà strong means of self-identification

Sources

p http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Colonial-and-postcolonial-linguistics.pdf

p Romaine, Suzanne; Pidgin and Creole Languages; London,2015

p Youngblood Coleman, Denise; Countrywatch Review 2015, Papua New Guinea; Houston, 2015

Source: Literature reference OR My own text

http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp

English in Asia and the Southern HemisphereProf. R. HickeyWS 2015/16

Phonology of Tok Pisin

Timo Ricke


Type of credit: LN

Module I

The origins of Tok Pisin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesia






Ø 1800s: whaling expeditions

Ø Mid-19th: trading activities (sandalwood, trepang)

Ø Plantation labour (esp. In Queensland)

Ø Formation of Pacific Pidgin English (Melanesian Pidgin)

Smith, Geoff 2008: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea: phonology . In Kortmann (ed.) Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia (p. 188ff). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Origins of Tok Pisin

Ø German New-Guinea (1884-1914)

Ø Plantation labour: Samoa and Central Pacific

Ø Most labourers from New Guinea islands (linguistically diverse)

Ø Stabilisation of Pacific Pidgin

Smith, Geoff (2008): Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea: phonology . In Kortmann (Ed.) Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia (p. 188ff). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/tokpisin.html

http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/tokpisin.html

Development in New Guinea Area

Ø Early 20th: labourers returned home

Ø Local labour schemes

Ø Stabilisation of New Guinea Pidgin

Ø Two influences:

1) German language

2) Austronesian & Papuan languages



Stabilisation and expansion

Ø After WWI:

(1) Territory of New Guinea: Tok Pisin

(2) Territory of Papua: Hiri Motu

Ø 1975: Three national languages

I. English

II. Tok Pisin (de facto national language)

III.Hiri Motu



Current status

Ø Pidgin or Creole ?

Ø Translation of the NT into Tok Pisin

Ø Jacaranda Dictionary of Melanesian Pidgin (1957)

Ø Translation of the constitution of Papua New Guinea

Ø Newspaper: Wantok Niuspepa (1969)




Tok Pisin in the Context of Pidgin & Creoles

Dana Bertram

Course of study: LA-Ba

Source:Romaine, Suzanne 1988 (2000): Pidgin and Creole Languages. Pearson Education Limited

Tok Pisin in the Context of Pidgin and Creoles

Pidgin:-Also referred to as contact language-(simplified) means of communication-Deveolps between groups of speakers of two or more languages-Mixture of languages, mostly a simplifies primary language (lexifier) with elements of other languages included-Not a native language of a speech community (only spoken as L2)

Creole:-Stable language that has developed from a Pidgin language

-status of development many pidgin languages debatable, no clear distinction-Important factor: official use and standardisation

-Negative connotation of the term Pidgin (context of Colonialism)à many languages have been named differently by their speakers, e.g. Tok Pisin

Pidgin and Creole Languages


Pidgin formation



Types of Creolization



Pidgin formation

Stable Pidgin:-Simple and complex structures-Social norms and consensus concerning linguistic correctness

Expanded Pidgin:-Complex grammar -Developing word formation component-Increase in speech tempo

-Used in almost all domains of everyday life, as well as for (artistic) self expression

àTok Pisin



Influences



Influences



Phonology of Tok Pisin

Timo Ricke


Type of credit: LN

Module I

Video of NBC in Papua New Guinea

Ø https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRCUjpRoGg8


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRCUjpRoGg8

The lexicon of Tok Pisin

Ø English words• Spak (E: spark) à ‘drunk‘• Baksait (E: backside) à the back, not butt• Suffix –im (E: him) à Kilim (kill (him))

Ø German words• Beten: ‘pray’• Rausim: ‘take off, expel’ à German: heraus• Gumi: ‘rubber’• Binen: ‘Biene’ (Plural: binen ol)

Smith, Geoff 2008: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea: phonology . In Kortmann (ed.) Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia (p. 188ff). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/tokpisin.html


The lexicon of Tok Pisin

Ø Samoan Words• Lotu: ‘church service‘

Ø Words from New Guinea islands• Kurita: ‘octopus’• Pukpuk: ‘crocodile‘• Umben: ‘fishing net‘

Smith, Geoff (2008): Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea: phonology . In Kortmann (Ed.) Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia (p. 188ff). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Phonology

http://home.hib.no/al/engelsk/seksjon/Projects/links/Charts/Charts.html

Ø English consonants (RP)

http://home.hib.no/al/engelsk/seksjon/Projects/links/Charts/Charts.html

Phonology


Ø Tok Pisin consonants (based on Mihalic, 1971)

Ø No /2/, /3/, /z/, /$/, /g/, /1$/

Consonants

English Tok Pisin

/p/ pig pik

/t/ time taim

/k/ kill kilim

/s/ sun san

/m/ man man

/n/ name nem

/t/ tongue tang

/r/ rope rop

/y/ you yu


Voiced plosives

Ø Voiced or voiceless in initial or medial position

Ø Always devoiced in final position


English Tok Pisin

/b/-/b/ bag bek

/b/-/p/ bow panara

/d/-/t/ done tan

English Tok Pisin

/g/-/k/ bag bek

/g/-/k/ big bikpela

/d/-/t/ road rot

Voiced fricatives

Ø Voiced fricative /v/

Ø Sometimes /v/ gets replaced by /f/


English Tok Pisin

/v/-/f/ five faif

English Tok Pisin

/v/ Village vilis

Voiced affricates

Ø Voiced /ªg/

Ø /ªg/ often becomes /s/ in medial and final position


English Tok Pisin/ªg/ join joinin

English Tok Pisin/ªg/ - /s/ judge jasim/ªg/ - /s/ bridge bris

Phonemes not in Tok Pisin


Ø Dental fricatives

phoneme English Tok Pisin/2/ > /t/ think ting

something samting

thousand tausen/2/ > /s/ mouth maus

/3/ > /d/ this dispela/3/ > /t/ brother brata


Ø Palato-alveolar fricatives


phoneme English Tok Pisin/$/ > /s/ shine sain

shoot sut(im)

fish pis/(d)g/ > /s/ engine ensin

change senis


Ø Palato-alveolar affricate

Ø Alveolar-fricative


phoneme English Tok Pisin/1$/ > /s/ church sios

change senis

cheese sis

phoneme English Tok Pisin

/z/ > /s/ cheese sis

razor resa

cousin kasin

Glottal fricative

Ø variable use

Ø Hypercorrection


phoneme English Tok Pisin

/h/-/h/ house haus/h/-# aus

Phoneme English Tok Pisin#-# afternoon apinum#-/h/ hapinum

Vowels

Ø English vowels

Ø Tok Pisin vowels

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_talk:IPA_for_English/Archive_11https://tokpisininaustralia.wordpress.com/features-of-the-dialect/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_talk:IPA_for_English/Archive_11

https://tokpisininaustralia.wordpress.com/features

Vowels

Ø Phoneme /a/

Ø Phoneme /e/


phoneme English phoneme Tok Pisin

/æ/ man /a/ man

/a:/ start /a/ statim/>/ hot /a/ hatpela/v/ lucky /a/ laki/=:/ turn /a/ tanim

phoneme English Phoneme Tok Pisin

/e/ head /e/ het

/æ/ fat /e/ fetpela/eq/ Mary /e/ meri/ei/ Plate /e/ plet

Vowels

Ø Phoneme /i/

Ø Phoneme /o/


Phoneme English phoneme Tok Pisin/i/ give /i/ givim/i:/ steal /i/ stilim

phoneme English phoneme Tok Pisin/qu/ hold /o/ holim/o:/ call /o/ kolim/>/ belong /o/ bilong/=:/ dirty /o/ doti

Vowels

Ø Phoneme /u/


phoneme English phoneme Tok Pisin/u/ put /u/ putim

/u:/ shoot /u/ sutim

Diphtongs

phoneme English Tok Pisin/ai/ sign sain/iq/ beer bia/au/ outside autsait/oi/ boy boi


Stress

Ø Stress normally on the first syllable

Ø Words with stress not on initial syllable:

Ø Stress as a means of disambiguation Ø


Tok Pisin English Stress

sekan shake hands se’kan

sanap stand up sa’nap

Tok Pisin English Tok Pisin English

‘nating nothing na’ting I think, probably

‘palai lizard pa’lai fly

Stress

Ø Reduction of stressed syllables

Ø Cliticisation of certain words


Tok Pisin mi kam na was ken long dispela diwai

English I came and watched at the tree

Tok Pisin mi kam na was ken l’sla diwai

Tok Pisin ol salim em go long haus

English They sent him home

Tok Pisin ol salim em go l’aus

English in Asia an the Southern HemisphereProf. R. HickeyWS 2015/16

Tok Pisin – Morphology and Syntax

Dana Bertram

Course of study: LA-BA

Source: Smith, Geoff: Tok Pisin: Morphology and Syntax , in Kortmann “Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia, 2008 p. 488 f.

Tok Pisin: Morphology

Tok Pisin has not transferred a productive inflectional morphology from the lexifier (e.g. English)

Affixes:1.Transitive marker –im2.The –pela suffix3.The –s pluralising suffix

Other word formation processes1.Compounding2.Reduplication3.Phrasal elements in verbs


The Transitive Marker – im

- One of the most characteristic features of Melanesian Pidgin English- Derived from the English pronoun him

- Obligatory to transitive verbs- Verbs with only a few exceptions have two forms (transitive & intransitive),

distinguished by presence or absence of –im




- Additionally, the intransitive form may be reduplicated occasionally:

Source: Smith, Geoff: Tok Pisin: Morphology and Syntax , in Kortmann “Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia, 2008 p. 489

- The suffix –im can also be used to mark other semantic distinctions:

For example, the transitive verb kaikai ‘to eat’ is unmarked by -im, while kaikaim is glossed as ‘bite’ in most accounts (e.g. Mihalic 1971)

- The verb gat “to have” does not take the –im affix at all



- In modern Tok Pisin, esp. spoken by first language speakers, the final –m of -im is frequently elided à transitive verbs are marked by –i


- recently, many English verbs have been borrowed into Tok Pisin, which are then combined with the –im marker as well:


The –pela Suffix


- Derived from the English word fellow, which was in frequent use during early contact has entered all varieties of Melanesian Pidgin in different forms

- In many Pidgins/Creoles à -fala - In Tok Pisin à -pela, almost always reduced to –pla

Two forms:- -pela as marker of monosyllabic adjectives incl. numerals- -pela as plural marker on pronouns


The –pela Suffix: Adjectival

Source: Smith, Geoff: Tok Pisin: Morphology and Syntax , in Kortmann “Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia, 2008 p. 490f.

- Apparent redundancy, however, no sign of the –pela suffix becoming obsolescent:

- Category of adjectives in Tok Pisin somewhat problematic: overlap between adjectives and static verbs

- Number of common monosyllabic adjectives which do not take –pela and only appear directly after the noun they’re referring to

- Number of adjectives with more than one syllable that take –pela (esp. numerals and colours)

- Dispela “this” and sampela “some” contain bound morphs à *dis and *sam do not occur independently

à Status of -(p)ela as a suffix open to question


The –pela Suffix in the Pronoun Paradigm


- Apparent re-interpretation of the English fellow as a plural marker on pronouns

- There are, however, other, competing means of signalling plurality

à System of Plurality somewhat complex and considerably different from the English system:


The –pela Suffix in the Pronoun Paradigm


- No distinction between object and subject and no gender distinctions- Variable use of 3rd Pers. Singular –em and –en after long and bilong:

unstressed form vs. emphasis

- Distinction between Singular, Dual, often Trial (becoming less common), and Plural

- Inclusive and exclusive forms for 1st Person Dual, Canonical form is tupela -> homophonous with the numeral two

- Reduced forms are used with increasing frequency: Mipela à mipla, mila or mla mitupela and yutupela à mitla and yutla.


The –s Pluralising Suffix


- Nouns are usually pluralised by the use of the word ol (3rd Person Pl. Pronoun)- Unsystemic use of the English –s Suffix - Few lexical items include the unanalysed plural suffix from either English or

German à never became widely-used

- Highly variable use of –s pluralising suffix in urban Tok Pisin à interference phenomenon

- Animacy has influence à larger number of humans than animates taking –s - Count nouns take –s suffix more often than mass nouns

- Use of –s marker considerably evident with words which have been recently added from English: gels “girls”, bois “boys”, frens “friends”, perents“parents”, wiks “weeks”, stiudents “students”, tichas “teachers” ..

à Bilingual context


Other word formation processes


- Tok Pisin has an extensive and sophisticated facility for producing new words through internal productive processes

- Compounding- Multifuntionality- Reduplication


Other word formation processes: Compounding


- Wide variety of patterns for the production of compound nouns- 20+ “programmes” for the production of compound expressions

wantok from wan ‘one’ and tok ‘talk’ means ‘person who speaks the same language, friend.’à model for further examples such as wanwok ‘workmate’ , wanskul ‘person in the same school.’

- adjective-noun compounds à someone who has that characteristic- Noun-adjective compounds à someone with certain properties


Other word formation processes: Multifunctionality


- Formation of new parts of speech from existing lexical itemsà Highly productive in early stages of pidgin development

- 20+ paradigms for multifunctionality- E.g. a noun becoming an intransitive verb:

- for example, jas ‘judge’ > jas ‘to be a judge’


Other word formation processes: Reduplication


- 12 patterns of reduplication- Has been more prominent in earlier stages

- Distributive meaning:

- Complete or partial reduplication to indicate plurality:


Other word formation processes: Phrasal elements in Verbs


- Many Tok Pisin words incorporate an element derived from an English adverb, mostly up, down and out aramap ‘to cover (up)’, litimap ‘to lift (up)’, painaut ‘to f nd out’,singaut ‘shout, call (out)’, kamdaun ‘come down’, etc.

- Status as distinct morphemes debatable - Used as single unanalysed lexemes

- Some of these forms have become part of the root- karamapim ‘to cover (up)’, litimapim ‘to lift (up)’.

- However: The words aut ‘out’, daun ‘down’ and ap ‘up’ do exist as independent items, some forms exist written as one or as two words

- godaun & go daun

Tok Pisin: Syntax


- The canonical word order of Tok Pisin is S-V-O

- Some noteworthy syntactical features, concerning: 1. The particle i2. The Verb phrase3. The Noun Phrase4. Complementation5. Focus and Topicalisation

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The particle i

- “predicate marker”- One of the most common lexical items in Tok Pisin- Often appears before the predicate, but also frequently before verbs in other

contexts

- Traditionally, i appears between 3rd person subjects and predicates, but not used after 1st and 2nd persons:

- Recent studies: great deal of variability in the use of i , suggestions it might cease from being used

- Important factors: - geographical location- collocation

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Verb phrase: Tense, mood and aspect- Absence of inflections à a number of particles are placed before and after

the verb

- Future is marked by the particle bai - typically placed before fi rst and second person subjects and after third person singular:

mi bai kam ‘I will come’, em bai kam ‘he/she/it will come’; but: bai yu go ‘you will go’, etc

- Derived from “by and by”- Reduction:

- Considerably more complex usage and high variation

- The Past is often expressed with the unmarked form of the verb- The preverbial particle bin (derived from “been”) is used to mark past

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Verb phrase: Tense, mood and aspect

- number of aspectual distinctions are made with other pre-and post-verbal particles

- Laik (reduced forms lai, la) , indicates ‘wanting to do something’ or ‘being about to do something’

- Pinis, derived from the English “finish” marks completed action post-verbally

- Save (reduced form sa), derived from the Portuguese sabir “to know” marks habitual action, is used with considerable redundancy

- Continuous or durative aspect is marked by wok long or (i) stap

- Directionality is indicated by i kam or i go, - i go an also be used to indicate an action continuing for a long time

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Verb phrase: Tense, mood and aspect

- The most common modals are mas (à obligation), ken (àpermission) and inap (à possibility)

- Mas (from the English “must”) can express obligation to do something, but also an assumption

- Ken generally implies permission while inap implies capability, however they can be used interchangeably

- some speakers in heavily anglicized areas borrow English modals such as shud “should”

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Noun Phrase

- The noun phrase in TP consists of a pronoun or a noun, bare or accompanied by modifiers

Pronouns

- generally invariable in form

- only exception: the alternative form -en of the third person singular emafter long or bilong

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Noun Phrase – Modifiers

Quantifiers include :-numerals and the terms

olgeta ‘all’, planti ‘many’, sampela ‘some’ and liklik ‘few, small’-wanpela ‘one’, dispela ‘this’, narapela ‘another’ and ol (plural).-demonstrative ia, -possessive constructions with bilong-and restrictive relative clauses or adjectives

-both wanpela ‘one’ and sampela ‘some’ are also frequently used in a way analogous to articles

Tok Pisin: Syntax


The Noun Phrase – Modifiers

- Dispela ‘this’ appears to be further along the grammaticalisation route, and is undergoing considerable reduction and loss of stressed syllables

à displa, disla, sla

Conclusion

p Three official languages à Englishà Tok Pisinà Hiri Motu

p Tok Pisin can be seen as the national languageà 4 million speakers

p Tok Pisin has developed through stages of creolization- jargon à stabilized pidgin à expanded pidgin à creole


References

Ø Romaine, Suzanne (1988) 2000: Pidgin and Creole Languages. London: Longman.

Ø Smith, Geoff 2008: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea: phonology. In Kortmann (ed.) Varieties of English. Vol 3: The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Ø Smith, Geoff 2008: Tok Pisin: Morphology and Syntax. In Kortmann (ed.) Varieties of English. Vol.3. The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Ø Youngblood Coleman, Denise; Countrywatch Review 2015, Papua New Guinea; Houston, 2015

Ø https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MelanesiaØ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_talk:IPA_for_English/Archive_11Ø http://home.hib.no/al/engelsk/seksjon/Projects/links/Charts/Charts.h

tmlØ https://tokpisininaustralia.wordpress.com/features-of-the-dialect/Ø http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp-

content/uploads/2013/03/Colonial-and-postcolonial-linguistics.pdfØ http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/tokpisin.html


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_talk:IPA_for_English/Archive_11

http://home.hib.no/al/engelsk/seksjon/Projects/links/Charts/Charts.h

https://tokpisininaustralia.wordpress.com/features-of-the-dialect/

http://www.culcc.uni-bremen.de/wp


Documents

English in Papua New Guinea - uni-due.delan300/Papua New Guinea_(Kullik...English in Asia and the Southern Hemisphere Prof. R. Hickey WS 2015/16 English in Papua New Guinea Jan Kullik