English English in Africain AfricaRaymond Hickey, Raymond Hickey, English LinguisticsEnglish Linguistics

Campus EssenCampus Essen

Website: www.uni-due.de/SVE

n Africa has a long and complicated colonial history. The west coast was first visited by the Portuguese and as of the 17th century, above all with the development of the slave trade and the discovery of the trade route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, the continent came increasingly to feel colonial pressure from England, France and Holland as major European maritime powers. This development reached its peak in the 19th century with the Scramble for Africa when the interior of the continent was carved up by the Europeans, usually with no regard for the demographic distribution of the indigenous peoples.

Introduction

n Thus the Belgians took a huge part of equatorial Africa and called it Belgian Congo (now Zaire). The Portuguese took Angola and the British lands on the east and west coasts such as Kenya, Uganda; Nigeria, Sierra Leone; what was later to become the Republic of South Africa shows an early Dutch, a later English and recently more Dutch influence; German presence was to be found above all in South-West Africa, present-day Namibia. Some countries such as Cameroon have had different periods under different colonial powers, in this case the British and the French.

Introduction

n The majority of African countries succeeded in gaining their independence from the European powers during the latter part of the 20th century. The roads to independence have been different for different countries and painful for many. The British relinquished their colonies fairly easily, e.g. Nigeria, less so Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe). Most other European powers were involved in some kind of struggle in the process: the French were tied up in a war of independence in Algeria. The Italians in Abyssinia and later the Belgians in the Congo were engaged in military conflict during their retreat from their colonies while the Portuguese loss of Angola was due largely to turbulences in the mother country.

Introduction

West African countries

English in West AfricaEnglish in West Africa

nn The term The term ‘‘West AfricaWest Africa’’ is used to refer to the set of is used to refer to the set of nations on the coast of western Africa from Gambia (in nations on the coast of western Africa from Gambia (in the north) and Cameroon (in the south). Nearly all of the north) and Cameroon (in the south). Nearly all of them are former colonies of England (hence the official them are former colonies of England (hence the official language of many of them is English) and the base for language of many of them is English) and the base for the pidgins spoken in this region is English. Note that the pidgins spoken in this region is English. Note that West Africa is used to refer to the maritime states of West Africa is used to refer to the maritime states of western Africa. It is here of course that trade contacts western Africa. It is here of course that trade contacts were most intensive from the beginning of colonial times were most intensive from the beginning of colonial times onwards and thus pidgins developed to a greater degree onwards and thus pidgins developed to a greater degree here than in other parts of Africa. However one should here than in other parts of Africa. However one should mention that on the eastern coast of Africa in Kenya and mention that on the eastern coast of Africa in Kenya and Tanzania pidgins arose on the base of English. Tanzania pidgins arose on the base of English.

English in West AfricaEnglish in West Africa

nn Furthermore, the Republic of South Africa is interesting Furthermore, the Republic of South Africa is interesting as it shows the interaction of English and Dutch in as it shows the interaction of English and Dutch in colonial times, producing the language Afrikaans which colonial times, producing the language Afrikaans which is in many respects a is in many respects a pidginisedpidginised form of Dutch.form of Dutch.

nn Because of the manner in which English was transmitted Because of the manner in which English was transmitted in West Africa, as a trade language during the colonial in West Africa, as a trade language during the colonial period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, pidginisedpidginisedforms of the language arose and have survived as forms of the language arose and have survived as vernacular varieties of English in several countries to this vernacular varieties of English in several countries to this day. The map below shows the main locations where day. The map below shows the main locations where pidgins are spoken in West Africa. pidgins are spoken in West Africa.

East African countries

English in East AfricaEnglish in East Africa

nn This area is very large encompassing countries such as This area is very large encompassing countries such as Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. The position of English is Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. The position of English is somewhat different from that in south and west Africa as somewhat different from that in south and west Africa as here there has been for centuries an indigenous lingua here there has been for centuries an indigenous lingua franca, Swahili. English was thus used as a franca, Swahili. English was thus used as a supplementary language and not a primary supplementary language and not a primary pidginisedpidginisedone as was the case in West Africa for many speakers. one as was the case in West Africa for many speakers. e.g. in a country like Nigeria with many mutually e.g. in a country like Nigeria with many mutually unintelligible indigenous languages. unintelligible indigenous languages.

English in East AfricaEnglish in East Africa

nn Because the native languages of eastern Africa Because the native languages of eastern Africa frequently belong to the Bantu group there is in many frequently belong to the Bantu group there is in many countries a common Bantu substrate as with countries a common Bantu substrate as with ShonaShona in in Zimbabwe. Furthermore English interacts with Swahili in Zimbabwe. Furthermore English interacts with Swahili in this region so that codethis region so that code--switching and mixed forms switching and mixed forms result. In general one can say that East African English is result. In general one can say that East African English is nonnon--rhoticrhotic and has a simplified vowel system with and has a simplified vowel system with frequent syllablefrequent syllable--timing, an item of transfer from the timing, an item of transfer from the Bantu substrate.Bantu substrate.

Southern African countries

English in Southern AfricaEnglish in Southern Africa

nn When discussing English in Africa it is important to When discussing English in Africa it is important to distinguish between South Africa distinguish between South Africa -- a country, officially a country, officially called the called the Republic of South AfricaRepublic of South Africa -- and Southern Africa and Southern Africa -- a region which consists of various countries. First of all, a region which consists of various countries. First of all, South Africa and then the EnglishSouth Africa and then the English--speaking countries speaking countries Zimbabwe, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, MilawiMilawi and Botswana. English is also and Botswana. English is also used in Namibia, former Southused in Namibia, former South--West Africa. West Africa.

English in Southern AfricaEnglish in Southern Africa

nn The English language was first brought to South Africa The English language was first brought to South Africa at the end of the 18th century. It spread northwards at the end of the 18th century. It spread northwards during the 19th century with the colonial exploration of during the 19th century with the colonial exploration of presentpresent--day Zimbabwe and Zambia (former Southern day Zimbabwe and Zambia (former Southern and Northern Rhodesia respectively), especially by David and Northern Rhodesia respectively), especially by David Livingstone. The area on the left of Lake Nyasa (in Livingstone. The area on the left of Lake Nyasa (in presentpresent--day Malawi) was affected by this and partly day Malawi) was affected by this and partly anglicisedanglicised. This was also true of Bechuanaland (present. This was also true of Bechuanaland (present--day Botswana) which resisted incorporation into South day Botswana) which resisted incorporation into South Africa. The area of presentAfrica. The area of present--day Namibia came under day Namibia came under German control later in the 19th century but was also German control later in the 19th century but was also affected by the spread of the English language from affected by the spread of the English language from South Africa. Mozambique remained a dependency of South Africa. Mozambique remained a dependency of Portugal (until 1975) and did not come within the sphere Portugal (until 1975) and did not come within the sphere of English. of English.

Recommended literatureRecommended literature

De De KlerkKlerk, Vivian 1996. , Vivian 1996. Focus on South AfricaFocus on South Africa. . Varieties of Varieties of English Around the World, General Series, Vol. 15English Around the World, General Series, Vol. 15Amsterdam: John Amsterdam: John BenjaminsBenjamins..

MesthrieMesthrie, , RajendRajend (ed.) 2002. (ed.) 2002. Language in South AfricaLanguage in South Africa. . Cambridge: University Press.Cambridge: University Press.

Platt, John, Heidi Weber and Platt, John, Heidi Weber and M.L.HoM.L.Ho 1984. 1984. The new The new EnglishesEnglishes. London: . London: RoutledgeRoutledge..

SchmiedSchmied, Josef 1991. , Josef 1991. English in Africa. An introductionEnglish in Africa. An introduction. . London: Longman.London: Longman.

Spencer, John (ed.) 1971. Spencer, John (ed.) 1971. The English language in West The English language in West AfricaAfrica. London: Longman. . London: Longman.

Divisions by region

West Africa1: English in Cameroon2: English in Nigeria3: English in Ghana4: English in Liberia5: English in Sierra Leone

East AfricaEnglish in Tanzania

Southern Africa(distinguish South Africa – a country – and Southern Africa – a region)1: Language in South Africa, 1: South African English2: Language in South Africa, 2: Afrikaans English3: Language in South Africa, 3: South African Indian English4: Language in South Africa, 4: Black South African English

Divisions by type

Supraregional / lingua francaNew Englishes in Africa: Pan-African features(East Africa, the north of Southern Africa: Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia)Black South African EnglishSwahili on east African coast

Pidgins and creolesWest Africa: Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon

Divisions by type

Transportation, re-settled EnglishAfrican American English: the African connectionLiberia, partially Sierra Leone

Native forms of English (settler English)South African English, Zimbabwe (white population)

Contact forms of EnglishAfrikaans EnglishCameroon English (contact with French)South African Indian English