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Copyright David Cooper 2012
ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELL
2
English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are learning English at all levels.
It is a handy companion for use in English classes.
It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use.
The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when they are used.
“ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book.
David Cooper
3
CONTENTS
Verb Tenses Reported speech
Simple Present Irregular verbs
Present Continuous American English vs British English
Simple Past Question words
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past perfect Continuous
Future tenses
Going to
Simple future – will
Future continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Verbs not used in continuous tenses
Auxiliary verb DO
Passive voice
Modal verbs
To be/get used to
Used to
Causatives
Conditionals
Prepositions
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SIMPLE PRESENT
Formula: Base verb
The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and repeated actions and facts.
Examples:
I play tennis every Saturday. Regular action.
He works in a hospital. Permanent action.
The earth is round. A fact.
The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and itineraries.
Example:
The train arrives in London at 4pm.
Note!
ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense.
Examples:
She plays the piano.
He studies English.
Structure: + base verb
- Don’t/doesn’t + base verb
? do/does + subject + base verb
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Formula: To be + verb + ing
Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The ING form does not change.
The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It is also used to express future actions.
Examples:
I’m writing a letter to my parents. Action happening now.
He’s playing football. Action happening now.
They’re watching TV. Action happening now.
I’m visiting my sister next week. Future action.
We’re going to the movies tonight. Future action.
Structure + is/are + verb + ing
- Am/is/are not + verb + ing
? is/are + subject + verb + ing
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SIMPLE PAST
Formula: Base verb + ed ( regular verbs)
The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the past and which have now finished.
Example:
We went to France on vacation last summer. (Irregular verb)
They watched a DVD last night. (Regular verb)
Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed.
In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person.
Structure: + base verb + ed Regular verbs
- Didn’t + base verb
? did + subject + base verb
7
PAST CONTINUOUS
Formula: Was/were + verb + ing
The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the past and indicates how long an action continued.
It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action interrupted it.
Examples:
I was living in London at the time. Finished action.
I was taking a shower when the phone rang. Interrupted action
Structure:
+ was/were + verb + ing
- wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing
? was/were + subject + verb + ing
8
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Formula: Have/has + past participle
The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue into the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or not important.
Examples:
I’ve seen that film three times.
She’s had flu for over a week.
We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy.
Structure:
+ have/has + past participle
- have/has not + past participle
? have/has + subject + past participle
This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that the action hasn’t been completed.
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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula: Have/has + been + verb + ing
The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue to the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is temporary.
Examples:
I’ve been studying English for three years.
He’s been living in Italy since 2010.
Structure:
+ have/has + been + verb + ing
- have/has + not + been + verb + ing
? have/has + subject + been + verb + ing
10
PAST PERFECT
Formula: Had + past participle
The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular time in the past.
It is also used to make the order of the actions clear.
Examples:
1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started.2. The students had left the class before the bell rang.
Notice!
In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second action.
In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action.
In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang was the second action.
Structure:
+ had + past participle
- hadn’t + past participle
? had + subject + past participle
Notice!
HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons.
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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula: Had + been + verb + ing
The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time or was not finished.
Example:
The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived.
Structure:
+ had + been + verb + ing
- hadn’t + been + verb + ing
? had + subject + verb + ing
12
FUTURE
IDIOMATIC FUTURE
Formula: be + going to +base verb
The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been considered in advance and some plans have been made.
It is also used to make a prediction based on information.
Examples:
I’m going to have a party.
Are you going to get married?
I think I’m going to be sick.
SIMPLE FUTURE
Structure: Affirmative: will + base verb
Negative: won’t (will not) + base verb
The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction.
It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat.
It is also used to express a strong probability.
Examples:
She’ll be thirty tomorrow. Fact
It will be sunny tomorrow. Prediction
I’ll help you with your homework. Promise
I’ll call the police! Decision
“There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.” Probability
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SHALL
Shall is used to make an offer or request.
Example:
Shall I reserve a table?
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Structure: Affirmative: will + be + verb + ing
Negative: won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing
The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the future.
It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course.
It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action.
It is also used to express a strong possibility.
Examples:
I’ll be living in Venice this time next week. An action in progress at some point in the future.
The exams will be taking place next Friday. An action taking place as a matter of course.
Will you be leaving soon? Request for information.
I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday. Strong possibility.
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FUTURE PERFECT
Structure: Affirmative: will + have + past participle
Negative: won’t (will not) + have + past participle
The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is further into the future.
Example:
Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Structure: Affirmative: will + have + been + verb + ing
Negative: won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing
The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in the future.
Example:
I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September.
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VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES
admire doubt keep possess suspect
adore envy know prefer understand
astonish exist lack reach want
be fit last remember wish
believe forget like satisfy
belong hate love seem
consist hear matter sound
contain imagine mean stop
deserve impress owe suppose
detest include own surprise
dislike involve please survive
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AUXILIARY VERB DO
DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when the verb to be is not in use.
In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person.
In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person.
Examples:
Do you like chocolate?
Does she play the piano?
We don’t study Chinese.
He doesn’t work in a bank.
Did you watch TV last night?
Did she do her homework?
Note!
When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears on the auxiliary.
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PASSIVE VOICE
Structures:
Simple present: to be + past participle
Example:
Active voice: They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice: Tequila is produced in Mexico.
Present continuous: am/is/are +being +past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone is following me.
Passive voice: I am being followed.
Simple past: was/were + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Past continuous: was/were + being + past participle
Example:
Active voice: The men were hunting a lion.
Passive voice: A lion was being hunted.
Present perfect: have/has + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone has stolen my car!
Passive voice: My car has been stolen.
Past perfect: had + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone had broken the window.
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Passive voice: The window had been broken.
Simple future: will + be + past participle
Example:
Active voice: They will build a new bridge next year.
Passive voice: A new bridge will be built next year.
Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle
Active voice: I’m going to give an exam next week.
Passive voice: An exam is going to be given next week.
The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence.
In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action.
Example 1:
Active voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(agent)
The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet.
Example 2:
Active voice: They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice: Tequila is produced in Mexico.
In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and therefore it is not important.
In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb. Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place.
Example:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written).
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Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to the tense of the main verb.
MODAL VERBS
CAN
Structure:
+ can + base verb
- can’t + base verb
? can + subject + base verb
Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot) is the negative form.
It is also used when asking for permission.
Examples:
I can speak English. Ability
He can finish work early today. Possibility
I can’t fly. Impossible
Can I leave early? Asking for permission
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can. Not be able to is the negative form.
Examples:
I am able to read. Ability
He is not able to finish early. Negative possibility
COULD
Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past.
Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability.
It is also used when asking for permission.
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Examples:
I could read when I was four.
I couldn’t swim until I was twelve.
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different.
It can also suggest criticism.
Examples:
He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one).
You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know).
CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person.
MUST
Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen.
Must not is the negative form.
Example:
It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today.
Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion.
Examples:
You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good. Recommendation
You must phone first. Obligation
You must see a doctor. Strong suggestion
HAVE TO
Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation.
Example:
You have to have a license before you can drive a car.
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SHOULD and OUGHT TO
Should and ought to express advice or recommendation.
They are also used to express obligation.
Examples:
You should see a dentist. Advice
You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess! Obligation
MAY
May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission.
Example:
May I go to the bathroom?
MIGHT
Might is formal when used to ask permission.
It is also used when you are not sure about anything.
Examples:
Might I make a suggestion? Asking for permission
I might go out tonight. Not sure
22
TO BE/GET USED TO
To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed to doing them.
Example:
When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise.
To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore.
After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ).
Notice!
Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to….
They are different in structure and meaning.
USED TO
Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done.
It cannot be used in the present.
It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore.
Example:
I used to go fishing when I was younger.
23
CAUSATIVES HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE
Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us.
It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t good.
Examples:
David had his house painted. (somebody painted it for him).
Sara had her passport stolen. (her passport was stolen from her).
Structure:
Subject + have +object +past participle
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CONDITIONALS
ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true.
Structure: If / when + present form + present form or imperative
Examples:
If you heat ice, it melts.
When you see him, say hello for me.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future.
Structure:
If + present form +future form or imperative
Example:
If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or future.
Structure:
If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If you won the lottery, what would you do ?
25
THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past.
Structure:
If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to.
( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go).
MIXED CONDITIONALS
The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are:
1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result.
Structure:
If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If I had driven faster, I could be there by now.
2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result.
Structure:
If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico.
Notice!
In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used.
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PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is.
Examples:
The school is next to the library.
He is standing behind the door.
Common prepositions of place:
behind above in
between below next to
in front of on top of outside
opposite under inside
on inside
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going.
Examples:
She climbed up the wall.
He is driving towards the airport.
Common prepositions of movement:
towards up down
through along from
to into out of
under back
27
REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said.
When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change to agree with that verb.
Examples:
“I am thirsty,” Jean said. Direct speech.
Jean said she was thirsty. Reported speech
“Can I have some water?” asked Peter. Direct speech
Peter asked if he could have some water. Reported speech
Notice!
Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into the past perfect tense.
Examples:
“Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina. Direct speech
Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer. Reported speech
Notice!
Past perfect tenses and modals do not change.
Examples:
“I hadn’t noticed that,” said John. Direct speech
John said that he hadn’t noticed that. Reported speech
“Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia. Direct speech
Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea. Reported speech
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IRREGULAR VERBS
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
be was/were been
become became become
begin began begun
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
get got got/gotten
give gave given
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go went gone
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lead led led
leave left left
let let let
lose lost lost
make made made
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read (red) read (red) pronunciation
ring rang rung
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
30
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
think thought thought
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
31
AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH
There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English.
The present perfect or simple past can be used.
Example 1:
American English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Or
I lost my passport. Did you see it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
Or
Brian isn’t here he went out.
But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the present.
Example 2:
British English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
32
In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner:
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Or
I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Or
She already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Or
“Did you eat yet?”
But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet.
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English.
33
Example:
organize British English
organize American English
The past participle of the verb get in British English is got.
But in American English it is gotten.
Example:
Your work has got much better. British English
Your work has gotten much better. American English
Other differences between American and British English are:
American British
on the weekend/on weekends at the weekend/at weekends
on a street in a street
different from / different than different from / different to
write (somebody) write to(somebody)
Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt:
American British
center centre
color colour
traveled travelled
34
QUESTION WORDS
What…? used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some matter or situation.
What time… used to ask for the time.
What…like? used to ask for a description of someone or something.
Why..? used to ask for a reason.
Where..? used to ask about a place, location, direction.
When..? used to ask about a time period.
Whose…? used to ask about possession.
Which…? used to ask about something in particular.
Who…? used to ask about a person or persons.
How…? used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done).
How much…? used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the price of something.
How many…? used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns).
Examples:
What’s your name? What time is it?
What is your family like? Why did you arrive late?
Where is the museum? When is your birthday?
Whose car is this? Which country do you live in?
Who lives next door? How do you get to school?
How many brothers do you have?
How much money do you have? How much is that jacket?
35
1
Copyright David Cooper 2012
ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELL
2
English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are learning English at all levels.
It is a handy companion for use in English classes.
It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use.
The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when they are used.
“ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book.
David Cooper
3
CONTENTS
Verb Tenses Reported speech
Simple Present Irregular verbs
Present Continuous American English vs British English
Simple Past Question words
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past perfect Continuous
Future tenses
Going to
Simple future – will
Future continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Verbs not used in continuous tenses
Auxiliary verb DO
Passive voice
Modal verbs
To be/get used to
Used to
Causatives
Conditionals
Prepositions
4
SIMPLE PRESENT
Formula: Base verb
The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and repeated actions and facts.
Examples:
I play tennis every Saturday. Regular action.
He works in a hospital. Permanent action.
The earth is round. A fact.
The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and itineraries.
Example:
The train arrives in London at 4pm.
Note!
ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense.
Examples:
She plays the piano.
He studies English.
Structure: + base verb
- Don’t/doesn’t + base verb
? do/does + subject + base verb
5
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Formula: To be + verb + ing
Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The ING form does not change.
The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It is also used to express future actions.
Examples:
I’m writing a letter to my parents. Action happening now.
He’s playing football. Action happening now.
They’re watching TV. Action happening now.
I’m visiting my sister next week. Future action.
We’re going to the movies tonight. Future action.
Structure + is/are + verb + ing
- Am/is/are not + verb + ing
? is/are + subject + verb + ing
6
SIMPLE PAST
Formula: Base verb + ed ( regular verbs)
The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the past and which have now finished.
Example:
We went to France on vacation last summer. (Irregular verb)
They watched a DVD last night. (Regular verb)
Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed.
In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person.
Structure: + base verb + ed Regular verbs
- Didn’t + base verb
? did + subject + base verb
7
PAST CONTINUOUS
Formula: Was/were + verb + ing
The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the past and indicates how long an action continued.
It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action interrupted it.
Examples:
I was living in London at the time. Finished action.
I was taking a shower when the phone rang. Interrupted action
Structure:
+ was/were + verb + ing
- wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing
? was/were + subject + verb + ing
8
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Formula: Have/has + past participle
The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue into the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or not important.
Examples:
I’ve seen that film three times.
She’s had flu for over a week.
We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy.
Structure:
+ have/has + past participle
- have/has not + past participle
? have/has + subject + past participle
This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that the action hasn’t been completed.
9
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula: Have/has + been + verb + ing
The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue to the present time.
Since is used to express the starting point.
For is used to express the duration.
This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is temporary.
Examples:
I’ve been studying English for three years.
He’s been living in Italy since 2010.
Structure:
+ have/has + been + verb + ing
- have/has + not + been + verb + ing
? have/has + subject + been + verb + ing
10
PAST PERFECT
Formula: Had + past participle
The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular time in the past.
It is also used to make the order of the actions clear.
Examples:
1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started.2. The students had left the class before the bell rang.
Notice!
In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second action.
In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action.
In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang was the second action.
Structure:
+ had + past participle
- hadn’t + past participle
? had + subject + past participle
Notice!
HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons.
11
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formula: Had + been + verb + ing
The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time or was not finished.
Example:
The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived.
Structure:
+ had + been + verb + ing
- hadn’t + been + verb + ing
? had + subject + verb + ing
12
FUTURE
IDIOMATIC FUTURE
Formula: be + going to +base verb
The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been considered in advance and some plans have been made.
It is also used to make a prediction based on information.
Examples:
I’m going to have a party.
Are you going to get married?
I think I’m going to be sick.
SIMPLE FUTURE
Structure: Affirmative: will + base verb
Negative: won’t (will not) + base verb
The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction.
It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat.
It is also used to express a strong probability.
Examples:
She’ll be thirty tomorrow. Fact
It will be sunny tomorrow. Prediction
I’ll help you with your homework. Promise
I’ll call the police! Decision
“There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.” Probability
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SHALL
Shall is used to make an offer or request.
Example:
Shall I reserve a table?
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Structure: Affirmative: will + be + verb + ing
Negative: won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing
The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the future.
It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course.
It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action.
It is also used to express a strong possibility.
Examples:
I’ll be living in Venice this time next week. An action in progress at some point in the future.
The exams will be taking place next Friday. An action taking place as a matter of course.
Will you be leaving soon? Request for information.
I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday. Strong possibility.
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FUTURE PERFECT
Structure: Affirmative: will + have + past participle
Negative: won’t (will not) + have + past participle
The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is further into the future.
Example:
Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Structure: Affirmative: will + have + been + verb + ing
Negative: won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing
The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in the future.
Example:
I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September.
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VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES
admire doubt keep possess suspect
adore envy know prefer understand
astonish exist lack reach want
be fit last remember wish
believe forget like satisfy
belong hate love seem
consist hear matter sound
contain imagine mean stop
deserve impress owe suppose
detest include own surprise
dislike involve please survive
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AUXILIARY VERB DO
DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when the verb to be is not in use.
In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person.
In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person.
Examples:
Do you like chocolate?
Does she play the piano?
We don’t study Chinese.
He doesn’t work in a bank.
Did you watch TV last night?
Did she do her homework?
Note!
When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears on the auxiliary.
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PASSIVE VOICE
Structures:
Simple present: to be + past participle
Example:
Active voice: They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice: Tequila is produced in Mexico.
Present continuous: am/is/are +being +past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone is following me.
Passive voice: I am being followed.
Simple past: was/were + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Past continuous: was/were + being + past participle
Example:
Active voice: The men were hunting a lion.
Passive voice: A lion was being hunted.
Present perfect: have/has + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone has stolen my car!
Passive voice: My car has been stolen.
Past perfect: had + been + past participle
Example:
Active voice: Someone had broken the window.
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Passive voice: The window had been broken.
Simple future: will + be + past participle
Example:
Active voice: They will build a new bridge next year.
Passive voice: A new bridge will be built next year.
Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle
Active voice: I’m going to give an exam next week.
Passive voice: An exam is going to be given next week.
The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence.
In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action.
Example 1:
Active voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive voice: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(agent)
The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet.
Example 2:
Active voice: They produce tequila in Mexico.
Passive voice: Tequila is produced in Mexico.
In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and therefore it is not important.
In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb. Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place.
Example:
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written).
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Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to the tense of the main verb.
MODAL VERBS
CAN
Structure:
+ can + base verb
- can’t + base verb
? can + subject + base verb
Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot) is the negative form.
It is also used when asking for permission.
Examples:
I can speak English. Ability
He can finish work early today. Possibility
I can’t fly. Impossible
Can I leave early? Asking for permission
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can. Not be able to is the negative form.
Examples:
I am able to read. Ability
He is not able to finish early. Negative possibility
COULD
Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past.
Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability.
It is also used when asking for permission.
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Examples:
I could read when I was four.
I couldn’t swim until I was twelve.
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different.
It can also suggest criticism.
Examples:
He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one).
You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know).
CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person.
MUST
Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen.
Must not is the negative form.
Example:
It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today.
Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion.
Examples:
You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good. Recommendation
You must phone first. Obligation
You must see a doctor. Strong suggestion
HAVE TO
Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation.
Example:
You have to have a license before you can drive a car.
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SHOULD and OUGHT TO
Should and ought to express advice or recommendation.
They are also used to express obligation.
Examples:
You should see a dentist. Advice
You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess! Obligation
MAY
May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission.
Example:
May I go to the bathroom?
MIGHT
Might is formal when used to ask permission.
It is also used when you are not sure about anything.
Examples:
Might I make a suggestion? Asking for permission
I might go out tonight. Not sure
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TO BE/GET USED TO
To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed to doing them.
Example:
When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise.
To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore.
After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ).
Notice!
Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to….
They are different in structure and meaning.
USED TO
Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done.
It cannot be used in the present.
It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore.
Example:
I used to go fishing when I was younger.
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CAUSATIVES HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE
Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us.
It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t good.
Examples:
David had his house painted. (somebody painted it for him).
Sara had her passport stolen. (her passport was stolen from her).
Structure:
Subject + have +object +past participle
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CONDITIONALS
ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true.
Structure: If / when + present form + present form or imperative
Examples:
If you heat ice, it melts.
When you see him, say hello for me.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future.
Structure:
If + present form +future form or imperative
Example:
If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or future.
Structure:
If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If you won the lottery, what would you do ?
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THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past.
Structure:
If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to.
( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go).
MIXED CONDITIONALS
The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are:
1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result.
Structure:
If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive
Example:
If I had driven faster, I could be there by now.
2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result.
Structure:
If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle
Example:
If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico.
Notice!
In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used.
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PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is.
Examples:
The school is next to the library.
He is standing behind the door.
Common prepositions of place:
behind above in
between below next to
in front of on top of outside
opposite under inside
on inside
PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going.
Examples:
She climbed up the wall.
He is driving towards the airport.
Common prepositions of movement:
towards up down
through along from
to into out of
under back
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REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said.
When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change to agree with that verb.
Examples:
“I am thirsty,” Jean said. Direct speech.
Jean said she was thirsty. Reported speech
“Can I have some water?” asked Peter. Direct speech
Peter asked if he could have some water. Reported speech
Notice!
Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into the past perfect tense.
Examples:
“Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina. Direct speech
Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer. Reported speech
Notice!
Past perfect tenses and modals do not change.
Examples:
“I hadn’t noticed that,” said John. Direct speech
John said that he hadn’t noticed that. Reported speech
“Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia. Direct speech
Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea. Reported speech
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IRREGULAR VERBS
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
be was/were been
become became become
begin began begun
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
get got got/gotten
give gave given
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go went gone
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lead led led
leave left left
let let let
lose lost lost
make made made
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read (red) read (red) pronunciation
ring rang rung
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
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spend spent spent
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
think thought thought
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written
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AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH
There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English.
The present perfect or simple past can be used.
Example 1:
American English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Or
I lost my passport. Did you see it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
Or
Brian isn’t here he went out.
But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the present.
Example 2:
British English
I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it?
Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out.
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In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner:
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Or
I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Or
She already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Or
“Did you eat yet?”
But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet.
Example 1:
I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink.
Example 2:
“What time is she leaving?”
She has already left.
Example 3:
“Have you eaten yet?”
Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English.
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Example:
organize British English
organize American English
The past participle of the verb get in British English is got.
But in American English it is gotten.
Example:
Your work has got much better. British English
Your work has gotten much better. American English
Other differences between American and British English are:
American British
on the weekend/on weekends at the weekend/at weekends
on a street in a street
different from / different than different from / different to
write (somebody) write to(somebody)
Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt:
American British
center centre
color colour
traveled travelled
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QUESTION WORDS
What…? used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some matter or situation.
What time… used to ask for the time.
What…like? used to ask for a description of someone or something.
Why..? used to ask for a reason.
Where..? used to ask about a place, location, direction.
When..? used to ask about a time period.
Whose…? used to ask about possession.
Which…? used to ask about something in particular.
Who…? used to ask about a person or persons.
How…? used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done).
How much…? used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the price of something.
How many…? used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns).
Examples:
What’s your name? What time is it?
What is your family like? Why did you arrive late?
Where is the museum? When is your birthday?
Whose car is this? Which country do you live in?
Who lives next door? How do you get to school?
How many brothers do you have?
How much money do you have? How much is that jacket?
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