English 3201 Revised (2018) - P. Pinsent Edition

Examinable Literary Terms

A

Act – a major division in the action of a play. The ends of acts are typically indicated by lowering the

curtain or turning up the houselights. Playwrights frequently employ acts to accommodate changes in

time, setting, characters onstage, or mood. In many full-length plays, acts are further divided into

scenes, which often mark a point in the action when the location changes or when a new character

enters.

Action – A real or fictional event or series of such events comprising the subject of a novel, story,

narrative poem, or a play, especially in the sense of what the characters do in such a narrative. Action,

along with dialogue and the characters' thoughts, form the skeleton of a narrative's plot. Example: Jim

and Huck’s exploits down the river in Huckleberry Finn form the basic action of the novel.

Allegory – describes any writing in verse or prose that has a double meaning. This narrative acts as an

extended metaphor in which persons, abstract ideas, or events represent not only themselves on the

literal level, but they also stand for something else on the symbolic level. An allegorical reading usually

involves moral or spiritual concepts that may be more significant than the actual, literal events

described in a narrative (e.g., A Christmas Carol).

Alliteration – is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of a word, to intensify the beat.

Example: sweet smell of success, do or die, safe and sound

Allusion – is a reference to another work of literature (song, movie, novel etc.) within writing. Example:

in the movie ““Reeves says, “This is not Kansas Dorothy”. This is an allusion to the movie Wizard of Oz.

Anachronism – something out of its place in time or history. Example: Creon riding a motorcycle. Analogy – Comparison between two pairs, where one difficult comparison is explained with reference to

a simpler, but similar comparison. Example: in Huckleberry Finn, when Jim doesn’t understand why in

France people don’t speak English, Huck compares it to the fact that cows and cats don’t talk the same.

Anecdote – A short account of an interesting or humorous incident, often personal or biographical.

Antagonist – is the character, force, or collection of forces in fiction or drama that opposes the

protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story; an opponent of the protagonist. Although the

antagonist often acts against the protagonist, they do not have to be a villain, they can simply just be

the character acting against the protagonist. Example: in Oedipus, the antagonist is fate.

Apostrophe – not to be confused with the punctuation mark, apostrophe is the act of addressing some

abstraction or personification that is not physically present. There are also two other definitions: 1)

turning away from the audience to address one person and 2) words addressed to a person or thing,

whether absent or present, generally in a exclamatory tone and as a digression in a speech or literary

writing. Example: in Macbeth, Macbeth’s apostrophe to the dusk (III.ii.46-55).

Archetype – a term used to describe universal symbols that evoke deep and sometimes unconscious responses in a reader. In literature, characters, images, and themes that symbolically embody universal meanings and basic human experiences, regardless of when or where they live, are considered archetypes. Common literary archetypes include stories of quests, initiations, scapegoats, descents to the underworld, and ascents to heaven. There are also two other meanings: 1) the original pattern, or model, from which all other things of the same thing are made; prototype and 2) a perfect example of a type or group. Example: in Othello, many have said Iago is the archetype of evil. Aside – can be a written digression (a novelist’s aside to the reader). In drama, it is a speech [also known

as soliloquy] directed to the audience that supposedly is not audible to the other characters onstage at

the time.

Assonance – is the repetition of vowel sounds but not consonant sounds as in consonance in a literary

work.

Atmosphere – Atmosphere is the mood or persistent feeling implied by a literary work. An author

establishes atmosphere partly through description of setting and partly by the objects chosen to be

described. Example: the atmosphere of Macbeth is very dark or tense.

C

Cacophony – is the term in poetry refers to the use of words that combine sharp, harsh, hissing, or

unmelodious sounds. They are often difficult to speak aloud. It is the opposite of euphony. “A toad the

power mower caught, chewed and clipped of a leg, with a hobbling hop has got”

Character – is a person, or any thing presented as a person (e. g., a spirit, object, animal, or natural force) in a literary work. Example: Creon is a character in Antigone. Types of characters include: Round: fully developed, had many different character traits; Flat: stereotyped, one-dimensional, has a few traits; Static: does not change throughout a work; Dynamic: changes as a result of the story’s events. Characterization – is the method a writer uses to reveal the personality of a character in a literary work:

Methods may include what the character or narrator says about himself or herself (direct

characterization); by what others reveal about the character; or what is revealed by the character’s

actions (indirect characterization). Example: the characterization of Huck’s moral fiber is shown by his

actions while his modesty is shown by his belief that he isn’t good at all.

Chorus – (in ancient Greek drama) is a group of actors who commented on and interpreted the

unfolding action on the stage. Initially the chorus was a major component of the presentation, but over

time it became less significant, with its numbers reduced and its role eventually limited to commentary

between Acts. By the sixteenth century the chorus — if employed at all — was typically a single person

who provided a prologue and an epilogue and occasionally appeared between acts to introduce or

underscore an important event.

Climax – the decisive moment in a drama, the climax is the turning point of the play to which the rising

action leads. This is the crucial part of the drama, the part that determines the outcome of the conflict.

Example: the climax of Othello is when he openly accuses her of infidelity and refuses to listen to her

pleas of innocence because he is about to kill her.

Comic Relief – is the use of humor to lighten the mood of a serious or tragic story, especially in plays.

The technique is very common in Elizabethan works, and can be an integral part of the plot or simply a

brief event designed to break the tension of the scene. Example: the nurse serves as a comic relief in

Romeo and Juliet.

Conflict – is the struggle within the plot between opposing forces. The protagonist engages in the

conflict with the antagonist, which may take the form of a character, society, nature, or an aspect of the

protagonist’s personality. (Three types are: external, internal, and inter-personal). Example: in Macbeth,

the main type of conflict is internal as Macbeth struggles with himself over his choice.

Connotation – the associations and implications that go beyond the literal meaning of a word; which are

derived from how the word has been commonly used and the experiential association people make with

it through experience. Example: the word eagle connotes ideas of liberty and freedom that have little to

do with the word’s literal meaning.

Consonance – is the repetition of consonant sounds, but not vowels, as in assonance. Example: pitter

patter (alliteration is beginning consonant sounds and consonance is within or at end of words. Example:

purple is a darker color than beige.

Context – anything beyond the specific words of a literary work that may be relevant to understanding

the meaning. Contexts may be economic, social, cultural, historical, literary, biographical, etc.

Conventions – are any widely accepted literary device, style, or form. Example: The division of a play

into acts and scenes is a dramatic convention, as are soliloquies and asides. Flashbacks and

foreshadowing are examples of literary conventions.

D

Denotation – is the literal meaning of a word, the dictionary meaning. Opposite of connotation

Example: "Good night, sweet prince, and flights of angels sing thee to thy rest" of which the literal

meaning would be sleep.

Detail – is a minute account; circumstantial story.

Dialect – is a type of informational diction. Dialects are spoken by definable groups of people from a

particular geographic region, economic group, or social class. Writers use dialect to contrast and express

differences in educational, class, social, and regional backgrounds of their characters.

Dialogue – is the conversation between characters in a drama or narrative. It moves the action along in

a work and it also helps to characterize the personality of the speakers, which vary depending on their

nationalities, jobs, social classes, and educations. Dialogue varies in structure and tone depending on the

people participating in the conversation and the mood that the author is trying to maintain in his or her

writing.

Diction – is a writer’s choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language, which

combine to help create meaning. Formal diction consists of a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of

language; it follows the rules of syntax exactly and is often characterized by complex words and lofty

tone. Middle diction maintains correct language usage, but is less elevated than formal diction; it

reflects the way most educated people speak. Informal diction represents the plain language of

everyday use, and often includes idiomatic expressions, slang, contractions, and many simple, common

words. Poetic diction refers to the way poets sometimes employ an elevated diction that deviates

significantly from the common speech and writing of their time, choosing words for their supposedly

inherent poetic qualities. Since the eighteenth century, however, poets have been incorporating all

kinds of diction in their work and so there is no longer an automatic distinction between the language of

a poet and the language of everyday speech.

Dominant Impression (or image) – is the feature or image that strikes you the most about a piece (or

one you notice first). It also tends to remain with you the longest (dominant impression in descriptive

writing sets a focus, tone for the piece). Example: the dominant impression from Macbeth is the ruinous

effects of ambition and ruthlessness.

Dramatic Monologue – presents one side of a conversation, one voice that the reader ‘hears’.

Sometimes it narrates an event. But it may also be a conversation with oneself. It is also "a type of lyric

poem in which a character (the speaker) addresses a distinct but silent audience imagined to be present

in the poem in such a way as to reveal a dramatic situation and, often unintentionally, some aspect of

his or her temperament or personality. Example: Lady Macbeth’s dramatic monologue encouraging

Macbeth to kill the king is very memorable.

E

End rhyme – a word at the end of one line rhymes with a word at the end of another line.

Epiphany – (in fiction) when a character suddenly experiences a deep realization about himself or

herself; a truth that is grasped in an ordinary rather than a melodramatic moment. Example: Holden’s

epiphany as Phoebe is riding the carousel.

Eulogy – is a speech or writing in praise of a person, event or thing. It is also a formal speech praising

someone who has recently died. Example: Brutus’ and Marc Antony’s speech at Julius Caesar’s funeral in

Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.

Euphemism – the substitution of a mild or less negative word or phrase for a harsh or blunt one. The basic psychology of euphemistic language is the desire to put something bad or embarrassing in a positive (or at least neutral light). Thus many terms referring to death, sex, crime, and excremental functions are euphemisms. Since the euphemism is often chosen to disguise something horrifying, it can be exploited. Example: saying “pass away” instead of “die.” Euphony – is attempting to group words together harmoniously, so that the consonants permit an easy

and pleasing flow of sound when spoken, as opposed to cacophony. Example: "O star (the fairest one in

sight)."

Extended Metaphor – occurs when the same metaphor is continued over several lines or through the

entire piece. Example: in Othello, Iago and Roderigo’s interaction has an extended metaphor of money

(meaning patience and strength) over several lines.

Extended Simile – occurs when the same simile is continued over several lines or through the entire piece. Example: in Lawrence Ferlinghetti’s poem “Constantly Risking Absurdity and Death,” he begins his comparison with the simile “the poet like an acrobat” and extends that direct comparison throughout the remainder of the poem.

F

Fable – A short story particularly with animals as characters conveying a moral.

Fairy Tale - a fictional tale, marked by fantasy and magic, often appealing to the imagination.

Figurative Language – is a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in which

words mean exactly what they say. Also known as the "ornaments of language," figurative language

does not mean exactly what it says, but instead forces the reader to make an imaginative leap in order

to comprehend an author's point. It usually involves a comparison between two things that may not, at

first, seem to relate to one another (simile, metaphor….). Example: Macbeth refers to life as "a walking

shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage."

Figurative Meaning – the deeper meaning of a literary work; it is the hidden meaning, sometimes

implied, and it makes you think.

Flashback – is action that interrupts to show an event that happened at an earlier time which is

necessary to better understanding.

Flash Fiction – In brief, flash fiction is a short form of storytelling. Defining it by the number of words or

sentences or even pages required to tell a story, however, is impossible, for it differs.

Foil – a character that contrasts second character that highlights certain qualities of that first character.

Foreshadowing – is the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the piece. Example: the early appearance, conversation, and actions of the three witches in Macbeth foreshadow the atmosphere of danger and gloom running through the play. Form – The pattern or construction of a work that identifies its genre and distinguishes it from other

genres.

G

Genre – a French word meaning kind or type in form, style or subject matter. The major genres in

literature are poetry, fiction, drama, and essays. Genre can also refer to more specific types of literature

such as comedy, tragedy, epic poetry, or science fiction. Example: the genre of Antigone would be a

tragic drama.

H

Hyperbole – is an exaggeration or overstatement.

I

Iambic Pentameter – a metrical pattern in poetry which consists of five iambic feet per line. An iamb, or

iambic foot, consists of one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Pent means five, so a line

of iambic pentameter consists of five iambs – five sets of unstressed syllables followed by stressed

syllables. Most of Shakespeare’s plays and all of his sonnets were in iambic pentameter.

Imagery – is a word or group of words in a literary work which appeal to one or more of the senses:

sight, taste, touch, hearing, and smell. The use of images serves to intensify the impact of the work.

Example: throughout the play of Macbeth, Shakespeare effectively uses blood imagery to create

suspense and horror. Blood imagery is also used to describe murder, treason, and death.

Implied metaphor – the comparison is hinted at but not clearly stated. Example: “the poison sacs of the town began to manufacture venom, and the town swelled and puffed with the pressure of it…”

Internal rhyme – a word inside a line rhymes with another word on the same line.

Irony – takes many forms. In irony of situation, the result of an action is the reverse of what is expected,

such as a surprise ending. In dramatic irony, the audience knows something that the characters in the

drama do not. In verbal irony, the contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is

meant (speaker is not aware in this circumstance which differentiates it from sarcasm). Example of

dramatic irony: a good example of dramatic irony is when Macbeth plans Duncan’s murder while

feigning loyalty to the king. This is dramatic irony since while Duncan does not know of Macbeth’s plans,

the audience does. Example of verbal irony: at the end of Sinclair Ross’s short story The Painted Door,

Anne holds her husband’s gloves and says, “It doesn’t mean anything John,” while her husband hangs

dead from hypothermia on a barbed wire fence outside after learning of her infidelity.

J

Juxtaposition – placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison (often to contrast).

Comparison of things or ideas. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a

point. Example: an author might juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone

in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary.

L

Literal Meaning – means exactly what it says; a rose is the physical flower.

Literary device – The way literature sounds, looks or appeals to the senses. This broad category includes

such things as: alliteration, consonance, cacophony, imagery, etc.

Litotes – understatement; basically the opposite of hyperbole and it is often ironic. Example: calling a slow moving person “Speedy.” Lyric (poetry) – see Appendix A.

Lyrics – words to a song.

M

Memoir – is an autobiographical form of writing in which the author gives his or her personal

impressions of significant figures or events. This form is different from the autobiography because it

does not center around the author's own life and experiences.

Metaphor – An implied comparison between two unlike things. The metaphor can be stated or implied.

Example: to describe a stubborn man unwilling to leave, one could say that he was "a mule standing his

ground." This is a fairly explicit metaphor; the man is being compared to a mule. However, to say that

the man "brayed his refusal to leave" is to create an implied metaphor, because the subject (the man) is

never overtly identified as a mule.

Meter – is when a rhythmic pattern of stresses recurs in a poem. Metrical patterns are determined by

the type and number of feet in a line of verse by combining the name of a line length with the name of a

foot concisely describes the meter of the line.

Metonymy – The use of one thing to refer to what it stands for. Example: “The pen is mightier than the sword.” Monologue – is a composition, written or oral, by a single individual. More specifically, a speech given

by a single individual in a drama or other public entertainment. It has no set length, although it is usually

several or more lines long.

Mood – is the atmosphere or feeling created in the reader by a literary work, partly by a description of

the objects or by the style of the descriptions. A work may contain a mood of horror, mystery, holiness,

or childlike simplicity, to name a few, depending on the author's treatment of the work.

Motif – A recurring symbol or idea in a piece of writing that often helps to reveal a theme. Example:

Some recurring motifs in Macbeth are violence, hallucinations and prophecy.

Motivation – the reason a character is struggling so hard to achieve his or her goal, or what motivated

the author who wrote the piece (internal, external).

Myth – is an anonymous tale emerging from the traditional beliefs of a culture or social unit. Myths use

supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. They may also explain cosmic issues like creation and

death. Collections of myths, known as mythologies, are common to all cultures and nations, but the

best-known myths belong to the Norse, Roman, and Greek mythologies. Example: the story of Hercules

is a Greek myth.

N

Narrator – is the teller of a story. The narrator may be the author or a character in the story through

whom the author speaks. Example: Huckleberry Finn is the narrator of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of

Huckleberry Finn.

O

Octave – is a poem or stanza composed of eight lines. The term octave most often represents the first

eight lines of a Petrarchan sonnet.

Ode – is a poem in praise of something divine or expressing some noble idea. Example: Ode to

Newfoundland.

Onomatopoeia – is a literary device wherein the sound of a word echoes the sound it represents.

Example: crunch, drip, boom.

Oxymoron – is a combination of contradictory terms (usually 2 words side by side that are opposites).

Example: in Romeo and Juliet, "O brawling love! O loving hate!" are examples of oxymorons.

P

Parable – is a brief story, told or written, in order to teach a moral lesson. Example: most people are

familiar with the Bible parable, "The Prodigal Son".

Paradox – is a situation or a statement that seems to contradict itself, but on closer inspection, does

not. Example: paradoxes are often given by the witches in Macbeth in their fortunes and speeches. The

witches say that, "fair is foul and foul is fair." This is obviously a paradox but proves to be true by the

end of the play as many of the fair predictions of the witches turn foul for Macbeth.

Parody – is a literary work that imitates the style of another literary work. A parody can be simply

amusing or it can be mocking in tone.

Personification – is a figure of speech in which something nonhuman is given human characteristics.

Example: “The wind sang in the eaves.”

Plot – is the structure of a story. The sequence in which the author arranges events in a story. The

structure of a five-act play often includes the rising action, the climax, the falling action, and the

resolution. The plot may have a protagonist who is opposed by antagonist, creating what is called,

conflict. A plot may include flashback or it may include a subplot which is a mirror image of the main

plot. Elements of plot include: Exposition – is a narrative device, often used at the beginning of a work,

which provides necessary background information about the characters and their circumstances.

Exposition explains what has gone on before, the relationships between characters, the development of

a theme, and the introduction of a conflict. Rising action or complication – the second of the five parts

of plot structure, in which events complicate the situation that existed at the beginning of a work,

intensifying the conflict or introducing new conflict. Climax – the result of the crisis, the high point of the

story for the reader; frequently, it is the moment of the highest interest and greatest emotion, and is

the point at which the outcome of the conflict can be predicted. Falling action – the fourth part of plot

structure, in which the complications of the rising action are untangled. Resolution – the sense at the

end of a story that it is complete. Denouement - the final part of a play, movie, or narrative in which the

strands of the plot are drawn together and matters are explained or resolved (often used instead of

falling action).

Poetic Forms – see Appendix A (immediately after literary terms).

Poetic Types – see Appendix A (immediately after literary terms).

Point of View – is a way the events of a story are conveyed to the reader, it is the "vantage point" from

which the narrative is passed from author to the reader. The point of view can vary from work to work,

in first person – the narrator is telling things from his or her own perspective, or in the third person,

telling things from the perspective of an onlooker. If the speaker knows everything including the actions,

motives, and thoughts of all the characters, the speaker is referred to as omniscient (all-knowing). If the

speaker is unable to know what is in any character's mind but his or her own, this is called limited

omniscience.

Prologue – is an introductory section of a literary work. It often contains information establishing the

situation of the characters or presents information about the setting, time period, or action. In drama,

the prologue is spoken by a Chorus or by one of the principal characters. Example: the prologue in

Antigone summed up what had happened in Oedipus and Oedipus at Colonus.

Protagonist – is the main character in a story, who acts against the antagonist. Although the protagonist

is often the hero or heroine, they do not have to be heroic. Example: in Macbeth, Macbeth is the

protagonist although he ends up being less than heroic.

Proverb -– A short, pithy (meaningful, brief) saying in general use, stating a general truth or piece of

advice.

Pun – is a play on words wherein a word is used to convey two meanings at the same time. Example:

Mark Twain presents a black-and-white view on slavery in Huck Finn.

Purpose – what the writer wants to accomplish with a particular piece of writing or what the character’s

goals are. Example: Mark Twain’s purpose is writing Huckleberry Finn might have been to arouse

sympathy for slaves by his portrayal of Jim.

Q

Quatrain – is a four-line stanza which may be rhymed or unrhymed. A common quatrain is a heroic

quatrain is a four line stanza rhymed ‘abab’.

R

Refrain – is a phrase repeated at intervals throughout a poem. A refrain may appear at the end of each

stanza or at less regular intervals. It may be altered slightly at each appearance.

Rhetorical Question – is a question intended to provoke thought, but not an expressed answer, in the

reader. It is most commonly used in oratory and other persuasive genres. Example: Bugs Bunny typically

asks, "What’s up, doc?" He isn’t actually inquiring how you are, it is more of a greeting.

Rhyme Scheme – is the pattern of rhyme used in a poem, generally indicated by matching lowercase

letters to show which lines rhyme. The letter "a" notes the first line, and all other lines rhyming with the

first line. The first line that does not rhyme with the first, or "a" line, and all others that rhyme with this

line, is noted by the letter "b", and so on. The rhyme scheme may follow a fixed pattern (as in a sonnet)

or may be arranged freely according to the poet's requirements. Rhythm – are recurrences of stressed

and unstressed syllables at equal intervals, similar to meter. Example: iambic pentameter

S

Sarcasm – the act of ostensibly saying one thing but meaning another with the speaker being aware of

the difference. Example: a situation that seems to be praising someone or something but is really

provocative, taunting or cutting. Example: “You really look great!” said with an intonation that clearly

means the opposite.

Satire – is a work that uses ridicule, humor, and wit to criticize and provoke change in human nature and

institutions. There are two major types of satire: "formal" or "direct" satire speaks directly to the reader

or to a character in the work; "indirect" satire relies upon the ridiculous behavior of its characters to

make its point Example: school should be free, or cheaper.

Sestet – is any six-line poem or stanza.

Setting – is the time, place, and circumstance in which the action of a narrative takes place. The

elements of setting may include geographic location, characters' physical and mental environments,

prevailing cultural attitudes, or the historical time in which the action takes place. Example: the setting

of Macbeth is Scotland in the eleventh century; more specifically, the incidents in the play occur in seven

different settings--Forres, Inverness, Dunsinane, the forests (witches' scenes), Duncan's camp, Fife and

England.

Simile – is a figure of speech that takes the form of a direct comparison between two unlike quantities

for which a basis for comparison can be found, and which uses the words "like," "as" or “as if.” Example:

Shakespeare’s "My love is like a red, red rose…"

Soliloquy – (in drama) it is a moment when a character is alone and speaks his or her thoughts aloud.

Speaker – personage or persona responsible for the voice in a poem; like the persona, the speaker

should not be confused with the poet.

Stage Direction – (in drama) actions that appear in ( ) or italicized that describe what the character is

doing.

Stanza – is a major subdivision in a poem. A stanza of two lines is called a couplet; a stanza of three lines

is called a tercet; a stanza of four lines is called a quatrain; etc.

Stereotype – is an author's method of treating a character so that the character is immediately

identified with a group. A character may be associated with a group through accent, food choices, style

of dress, or any readily identifiable group characteristic.

Subplot – is a secondary story in a narrative. A subplot may serve as a motivating or complicating force

for the main plot of the work, or it may provide emphasis for, or relief from, the main plot Example: the

conflict between the Capulets and the Montagues in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is an

example of a subplot.

Suspense – is a literary device in which the author maintains the audience's attention through the

buildup of events, the outcome of which will soon be revealed. It results primarily from two factors: the

reader's identification with and concern for the welfare of a convincing and sympathetic character, and

an anticipation of violence.

Symbolism – is a device in literature where a person, place or thing represents an idea, principle or

quality of life (concrete represents abstract; tangible represents intangible). Example: in Macbeth, blood

represents guilt.

Synecdoche – The use of part of a thing to refer to represent the whole thing. Example: “All hands on deck” or “Ten dollars a head.” T

Theme – is a central idea or statement that unifies and controls the entire work (fiction, drama, poetry).

The theme can take the form of a brief and meaningful insight or a comprehensive vision of life; it may

be a single idea.

Thematic Statement – A thematic statement is a general sentence that captures the main idea

conveyed by the work.

Thematic Topic – A topic from which a thematic statement is derived. Example: thematic topic – power;

thematic statement – absolute power corrupts (avoid clichés when presenting thematic statements.

Thesis – the main idea or point developed/argued in an essay or other work of non-fiction.

Title (significance) – is how the title relates to the work and what new insights can be gained into the

work when one considers the title (e.g., is it symbolic? Is it related to theme? Does it create suspense?

Does it hint at thesis? Does it identify topic of essay? Etc.). Example: if a work is named "Shadows", then

you would search for use of light and dark in the piece because they would help you gain insight.

Tone – expresses the author's attitude toward his or her subject. Since there are as many tones in

literature as there are tone of voice in real relationships, the tone of a literary work may be one of anger

or approval, pride or piety - the entire gamut of attitudes toward life's phenomena.

Tragic Flaw – (in a tragedy) the action undertaken by the hero or heroine that leads to his or her

downfall. Example: Othello’s tragic flaw can be seen through his acts of impropriety against Desdemona

as a result of his jealousy. From the Greek Hamartia – meaning to miss the mark (archery).

Tragic Hero –Characteristics include (Aristotle): born into nobility; virtuous but not perfect; endowed

with an arrogant sense of self-pride (hubris); doomed to make a serious error in judgment (hamartia);

falls from great heights and high esteem (peripeteia); realizes they have made an irreversible mistake

(anagnorisis); faces and accepts fate with honor; while the audience is affected by pity and/or fear

(catharsis). Example: Oedipus of the Theban Plays is a tragic hero.

Voice – refers to the controlling presence or "authorial voice" behind the characters, narrators, and

personae of literature. It is also described as the implied author. The particular qualities of the author's

voice are manifested by her or his method of expression (an ironic narrator, a lyric persona), specific

language, and so forth.

APPENDIX (Literature Terms)

Appendix A

Poetic Forms

Ballad – song hits, folk music, and folktales or any song that tells a story are loosely called ballads. In

more exact literary terminology, a ballad is a narrative poem consisting of quatrains of iambic

tetrameter alternating with iambic trimeter. Common traits of the ballad are that (a) the beginning is

often abrupt, (b) the story is told through dialogue and action (c) the language is simple or "folksy," (d)

the theme is often tragic-- though comic ballads do exist, and (e) the ballad contains a refrain repeated

several times.

Blank verse – (also called unrhymed iambic pentameter) unrhymed lines of ten syllables each with the

even-numbered syllables bearing the accents. Blank verse has been called the most "natural" verse form

for dramatic works, since it supposedly is the verse form most close to natural rhythms of English

speech, and it has been the primary verse form of English drama and narrative poetry since the mid-

sixteenth Century. Such verse is blank in rhyme only; it usually has a definite meter. (Variations in this

meter may appear occasionally.)

Concrete – The words are arranged to create a physical shape (picture poetry) or the lines are arranged

to create a clue to the subject/content of the poem.

Couplet – is a stanza of two lines, usually rhyming. Example: When Macbeth decides to participate in the

murder, he responds in a couplet, "Away, and mock the time with fairest show: False face must hide

what the false heart doth know."

Free verse – poetry based on the natural rhythms of phrases and normal pauses rather than the artificial

constraints of metrical feet. It often involved the counterpoint of stressed and unstressed syllables in

unpredictable but clever ways. Its origins are obscure.

Narrative – are told from a defined point of view, often the poet’s, so there is feeling as well as specific

and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements of the poem.

English Sonnet – also known as the Shakespearean Sonnet. Written in iambic pentameter (14 lines), it

uses three quatrains; each rhymed differently, with a final, independently rhymed couplet that makes

an effective, unifying climax to the whole. Its rhyme scheme is abab, cdcd, efef, gg. Typically, the final

two lines follow a "turn" or a "volta," (sometimes spelled volte, like volte-face) because they reverse,

undercut, or turn from the original line of thought to take the idea in a new direction.

Italian Sonnet – also known as the Petrarchan Sonnet. Written in iambic pentameter (14 lines), it has an

eight line stanza (called an octave) followed by a six line stanza (called a sestet). The octave has two

quatrains rhyming abba, abba, the first of which presents the theme, the second further develops it. In

the sestet, the first three lines reflect on or exemplify the theme, while the last three bring the poem to

a unified end. The sestet may be arranged cdecde, cdcdcd, or cdedce.

Villanelle – poetry consisting of nineteen lines--five tercets and a concluding quatrain. The form requires

that whole lines be repeated in a specific order, and that only two rhyming sounds occur in the course of

the poem.

Poetic Types

Elegy – (in classical Greco-Roman literature) refers to any poem written in elegiac meter (alternating

hexameter and pentameter lines). More broadly, elegy came to mean any poem dealing with the

subject-matter common to the early Greco-Roman elegies--complaints about love, sustained formal

lamentation, or somber meditations. The poem tends to be longer than a lyric but not as long as an epic

and is not plot-driven. Epic – a poem that is (a) a long narrative about a serious subject, (b) told in an

elevated style of language, (c) focused on the exploits of a hero or demi-god who represents the cultural

values of a race, nation, or religious group (d) in which the hero's success or failure will determine the

fate of that people or nation. Usually, the epic has (e) a vast setting, and covers a wide geographic area,

(f) it contains superhuman feats of strength or military prowess, and gods or supernatural beings

frequently take part in the action. The poem begins with (g) the invocation of a muse to inspire the poet

and, (h) the narrative starts in medias res (starting a story at midway through and then recapping (i) The

epic contains long catalogs of heroes or important characters, focusing on highborn kings and great

warriors rather than peasants and commoners.

Epic – a poem that is (a) a long narrative about a serious subject, (b) told in an elevated style of

language, (c) focused on the exploits of a hero or demi-god who represents the cultural values of a

race, nation, or religious group (d) in which the hero's success or failure will determine the fate of

that people or nation. Usually, the epic has (e) a vast setting, and covers a wide geographic area, (f)

it contains superhuman feats of strength or military prowess, and gods or supernatural beings

frequently take part in the action. The poem begins with (g) the invocation of a muse to inspire the

poet and, (h) the narrative starts in medias res (starting a story at midway through and then

recapping (i) The epic contains long catalogs of heroes or important characters, focusing on

highborn kings and great warriors rather than peasants and commoners.

Lyric poetry – short poem (usually no more than 50-60 lines, and often only a dozen lines long) written

in a repeating stanzaic form (traditionally in ancient times the lyric was designed to be set to music).

Unlike a ballad, the lyric usually does not have a plot (i.e., it might not tell a complete story), but it

rather expresses the feelings, perceptions, and thoughts of a single poetic speaker (not necessarily the

poet) in an intensely personal, emotional, or subjective manner. Often, there is no chronology of events

in the lyrics, but rather objects, situations, or the subject is written about in a "lyric moment."

Sometimes, the reader can infer an implicit narrative element in lyrics, but it is rare for the lyric to

proceed in the straightforward, chronological "telling" common in fictional prose. However, this chain of

events is not explicitly a center of plot or extended struggle between protagonist and antagonist.

Instead it triggers a moment of contemplation and appreciation.

Narrative – are told from a defined point of view, often the poet’s, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements of the poem. They are generally longer than the lyric styles of poetry because the poet needs to establish characters and a plot. Ode – a poem in praise of something divine or expressing some noble idea. Parody – is a literary work that imitates the style of another literary work. A parody can be simply amusing or it can be mocking in tone. It is usually humorous and exaggerated. Example: Lancelot On A Bicycle is a parody of Lady of Shalott. Pastoral – Poems which give an idealized picture of country life, showing it to be peaceful, simple, pure

and happy.

Examinable Language Terms

Audience – are the people for whom a piece of literature is written. Authors usually write with a certain

audience in mind, for example, children, members of a religious or ethnic group, or colleagues in a

professional field. The term "audience" also applies to the people who gather to see or hear any

performance, including plays, Poetry readings, speeches, and concerts

Bias – is a mental leaning or inclination; partiality; prejudice; bent. Cliché – A trite phrase that has

become overused. Example: white as snow, back in a jiffy.

Capitalization – used for the first letter of a sentence or a quoted sentence, proper nouns or words

derived from proper nouns (e.g., English from England) and for titles of publications except for little

words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, when used internally (if used externally capitalize

them). *Note: There are many more rules and uses concerning people’s titles such as doctor, president

etc.

Coherency – is the quality of being logically integrated, consistent and intelligible. It is achieved with the

use of: Transitions – words or phrases that help move sentences or paragraphs smoothly from one idea

to the next; some common transitions are conjunctions (ignore the idea that you can’t begin a sentence

or paragraph with a conjunction, but do so sparingly); conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover,

nevertheless, therefore; phrases: in addition, on the other hand; single words: thus, also, first, second,

third, finally. Any words from the set of continuity marks (first, next, then), the set of conjunctive

adverbs (whereas, however, furthermore) or the adverb clauses (when, if, since). In the larger sense,

headings and sub-headings act as general transitions among thematic parts of a report. Repetition of

key word or phrase – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2)

technique for creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Parallel structure – 1) Two grammatical structures, similar in form and function, connected by a

conjunction: Paul hit the ball over the fence and the trees, 2) In speech or writing, the repetition of an

identical grammatical or stylistic structure for the sake of clarity. Pronoun reference – a word used in

place of a noun, a noun phrase or several nouns. They are often used to save repetition of a noun (e.g.,

he, she and it).

Comparison – similarities and differences between two things (novels and poems, etc.).

Composition – piece of writing.

Connectives – a connective is a word that joins other words, phrases, and clauses. A word or words that

provide a link between ideas in two different grammatical constructions.

Contrast – is to compare as to point out the differences; set off against one another.

Emotional Appeals – elements placed in a work to draw emotion from a viewer. Effective for persuasive

writing. Example: Ads depicting children in third world countries.

Emphasis – special attention, weight, or stress given to a word, phrase, etc. in pieces of literature or

when speaking as to make it stand out.

Emphatic Devices – devices used to place emphasis on a part of a sentence or a sentence in order to make it stand out to the viewer. Rhetorical Questions – “What is the meaning of life?”, “Now, doesn’t that sound like fun?” Purposeful Repetition – It is important you study for your test. If you do not study, you will not get the marks you deserve! So, not studying could cost you valuable marks. Sentence Fragments – So, like, there we were! Sentence Brevity (Short sentences) – He jumped. There was

silence. Use of Punctuation – “!”, “….”, “?”, “ –“ . Use of font – Hello, Hello! Hello (bold, italics, underlined). Use of Parallel Structure – Be sure to eat your supper, complete your homework, and study your notes before going to sleep tonight. Unusual Expressions – “Beep. I’m sorry there must be some mistake. Beep”. Effective Diction – Cornucopia, Anguish, Peril, etc. Listing - numerical order, bulleting, sequencing. Essay – see Appendix A (immediately after language terms).

Essay Types – see Appendix A (immediately after language terms).

Italics – are not really punctuation, but they can be used to indicate titles of major or complete works,

foreign words that are not usually used in English, words used as words themselves (as in when giving a

definition of the word) and words or phrases that one wishes to emphasize.

Lead – an introductory section of a news story or a news story of major importance.

Methods of Development – see Appendix B (immediately after language terms).

Organization – the clarity of the logical flow of ideas and the explicitness of the text structure or plan:

spatial – a method of paragraph or essay organization in which events are presented according to their

location (used when the author's goal is to describe); logical – ideas are arranged according to a plan;

chronological – items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur.

Parallelism – is a method of comparison of two ideas in which each is developed in the same

grammatical structure. Also, it can be a repetition of a word or grammatical structure for effect. Usually

the repetition will follow the same grammatical pattern (such as Subject-Verb-Object). Parallelism is

used for emphasis, rhythm, and poetic effect.

Punctuation – the use of certain marks to clarify meaning of written material by grouping words

grammatically into sentences and clauses and phrases , the marks used to clarify meaning by indicating

separation of words into sentences and clauses and phrases and something that makes repeated and

regular interruptions or divisions. Forms and uses: Period – (.) used to indicate the end of a sentence.

Also used at the end of a command, indirect question or for abbreviations. Dash – (--) used for

separating words in the middle of a sentence or adding words to the end of a sentence both are used for

added emphasis on a part of a sentence. Semicolon – (;) used to join related independent clauses in

compound sentences and to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include

commas. Colon – (:) used before an extended quotation, explanation, example, series, etc. and after the

salutation of a formal letter. Hyphen – (-) is probably the most debated form of punctuation, but it is

generally used to form compound words and prefixes. Quotation marks – (") used to show that the

phrase was originally said by another or to show that the sentence is being said by a character.

Exclamation points – (!) used to show emphasis or surprise. If a character is using it, they may be

shouting.

Sentence Fragment – occur when a sentence is missing a subject, verb, or main clause. Except in very

rare cases, you should avoid sentence fragments.

Sentence Types – there are four kinds of sentence types. This has nothing to do with sentence length;

rather these sentence types are created by the use of transition words (or the lack of transition words):

Simple – a complete sentence that does not use conjunctions or subordinators. Compound – formed

when two complete sentences joined with a conjunction "and," "but," "or," "so," "yet," and "for."

Complex – formed when subordinators are used. Compound-complex – formed when both a

conjunction and a subordinator are used.

Style – is a writer's distinctive manner of arranging words to suit his or her ideas and purpose in writing.

The unique imprint of the author's personality upon his or her writing, style is the product of an author's

way of arranging ideas and his or her use of diction, different sentence structures, rhythm, figures of

speech, rhetorical principles, and other elements of composition. Styles may be classified according to

period, level, or language. Colloquialism – an informal expression that is more often used in casual

conversation than in formal speech or writing. Informal – casual, sounds like it should be spoken. Formal

– very rigid structure with very ornate vocabulary. Slang – nonstandard language particular to a time and

often to a specific locale; acceptable in everyday speech, slang should be avoided in formal contexts

and, with few exceptions, in writing. Jargon – 1. Nonsensical, incoherent, or meaningless talk. 2. A

hybrid language or dialect; 3. The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession. Euphemisms -

A mild or indirect word or expression for one too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant

or embarrassing (eg. “Gently worn” clothing instead of “used” clothing).

Temporal reference points – references within a text to the conventional division of time into present,

past, and future events.

Topic Sentence – the sentence in a paragraph that gives the main idea for the paragraph and sets the

limits for the material that can be discussed. It is often, but not always, the first sentence of a paragraph

because this helps the reader follow the writer's argument Example: If the topic sentence was "I hate

cafeteria food", that paragraph would have to discuss cafeteria food and why you hate it.

Transitions – see coherency.

Unity – is the quality of having all parts of a piece relate to each other in a way that makes the piece

seem like one. A clear thesis statement is established. Topic sentences relate to and support the thesis.

All sentences in paragraph(s) support topic sentence. Careful and necessary repetition of key ideas,

phrases, etc. also used to create coherence. Closing by Return – is when the conclusion of a piece is very

similar to the introduction, often reinforcing points made at the beginning. This has a unifying effect on

the entire piece.

APPENDIX (Language Terms)

Appendix A

Types of Essay

Essay – is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion. It consists of: Introduction – should

start with a general discussion of your subject and lead to a very specific statement of your main point,

or thesis. Sometimes an essay begins with a "grabber," such as a challenging claim, or surprising story to

catch a reader's attention. The thesis should tell in one (or at most two) sentence(s), what your overall

point or argument is, and briefly, what your main body paragraphs will be about. The introduction

should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus. Body

– The body paragraphs will explain your essay's topic. Each of the main ideas that you listed in your

outline will become a paragraph in your essay. If your outline contained three main ideas, you will have

three body paragraphs. The conclusion serves to give the reader closure, summing up the essay's points

or providing a final viewpoint about the topic. Conclusion – The conclusion should consist of three or

four convincing sentences. Clearly review the main points, being careful not to restate them exactly, or

briefly describe your opinion about the topic.

Types of Essays

Argumentative – function is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some

phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others. Argumentative writing is the act of

forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion;

the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known,

admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or

assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion,

an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion. Notice that you do not have to completely prove your

point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit.

Descriptive – provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or

sounds. It can also describe what something is, or how something happened. These essays generally use

a lot of sensory details. The essay could be a list-like description that provides point-by-point details. Or,

it could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and theme of the event described.

Technical description (objective) deals with facts and avoids any feelings the observer may have about

the subject. Emotive description (subjective) attempts to reveal the feelings that the person or object

being described evokes in the observer.

Expository – purpose is to present, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an

event or a situation. Expository writing, or exposition, presents a subject in detail, apart from criticism,

argument, or development. Such writing is discourse designed to convey information or explain what is

difficult to understand. Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of

familiar illustrations or analogies.

Narrative – are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as

specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of

the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often

defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

Persuasive – (also known as the argument essay) utilizes logic and reason to show that one idea is more

legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take

a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts,

giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts. (See handout on persuasive techniques).

Difference between the two – sometimes minimal, but pure argumentation does not use emotional

appeal. Persuasion also has a call to action.

Appendix B

Methods of development

Cause and effect – are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a result

(effects). Cause and effect is a common method of organizing and discussing ideas.

Chronological – Specifically related to how narrative essays are developed using temporal referencing.

Classification and division – classification organizes, sorts or divides things into categories while division

explains a subject by dividing it into its essential parts.

Comparison and contrast – comparison discusses similarities and differences in works, or discusses

similarities only while contrast discusses only the differences in works.

Definition – writing that explains what a term means. Some terms have definite, concrete meanings,

such as glass, book, or tree. Terms such as honesty, honor, or love are abstract and depend more on a

person's point of view.

Example and illustration – with almost every paragraph, an example is offered as to clarify and inform.

Some consider illustrations to be more detailed and nuanced.

Process analysis – a pattern of essay development in which the procedure for doing or making

something is detailed.

Spatial – Specifically related to how descriptive essays are developed. The spatial methods are:

directional, sequential and area of importance.

Examinable Media Literacy Terms

Advertisement – A communication form that employs sophisticated, often subtle methods of

persuasion to not only get you to part with your money or win your support, but to play on your desires,

emotions, and biases to change the way you think. Propaganda is a part of this. Not all forms of

advertising are bad

Agenda – plan, goals to be achieved through advertising Bias - is a mental leaning or inclination;

partiality; prejudice; bent.

Bias – is a mental leaning or inclination; partiality; prejudice; bent.

Blog – A Web site on which an individual or group of users record opinions, information, etc. on a

regular basis.

Brochure – A small booklet or pamphlet containing pictures and information about a product or service.

Caption – A title or brief explanation appended to an article, illustration, poster etc. Appear below the

photo/visual

Commercial – type of advertisement Deconstruct – Part of being media literate involves being able to

deconstruct media text. When you deconstruct a text, you break it down into its components to see

what messages and assumptions it carries (see handout on developing media literacy).

Deconstruct – Part of being media literate involves being able to deconstruct media text. When you

deconstruct a text, you break it down into its components to see what messages and assumptions it

carries (see handout on developing media literacy)

Demographic – That group of people to whom a message is directed – age, gender etc.

Endorsement – A testimonial strategy, where a famous person or organization publicly supports or

endorses a product.

Form – Caricature: employed by cartoonists, refers to exaggerated facial features of subjects. Collage: A

form of art in which various materials such as photographs and pieces of paper or fabric are arranged

and stuck to a backing. Comic Strip: A sequence of drawings in boxes that tell an amusing story, typically

printed in a newspaper or comic book. Editorial Cartoon: Cartoons (one panel) that deal with current

news events or social, political, or cultural issues (both comics and cartoons employ various conventions

such as speech balloons, thought balloons etc.). Graphics: process or art of drawing in accordance with

mathematical principles. Photo Essay: (or photographic essay) is a set or series of photographs that are

intended to tell a story or evoke a series of emotions in the viewer. Poster: a poster contains images and

text that convey a feeling or mood and a message. It has only a few seconds to do its’ job. Print: hard

copy of text etc. as opposed to electronic/web. Storyboard: rough sketches that show the content,

sequence, and type of camera shots for a video production. Similar to a comic strip, each frame

represents a few seconds of time as seen through the lens of a camera. Special effects, titles, and audio

required for each shot are also noted.

Format – media format e.g. Web, print…and then how this is designed (8x11, 11x17 etc.)

Headline – the heading, title or caption of a newspaper article. Usually very attention-grabbing Icon - A

person or thing regarded as a representative symbol of something: "icon of manhood".

Icon – A person or thing regarded as a representative symbol of something: "icon of manhood".

Image – A representation of the external form of a person or thing in sculpture, painting, etc.

Intent – purpose Lead – Introductory sentence in an article meant to grab the reader’s interest Logo - an

identifying symbol used to advertise and promote an organization, event, product or service. Usually,

such symbols combine pictorial and textual elements in a distinctive manner. When consisting solely of

stylized textual elements, such symbols are referred to as logotypes or wordmarks.

Lead – Introductory sentence in an article meant to grab the reader’s interest.

Logo – an identifying symbol used to advertise and promote an organization, event, product or service.

Usually, such symbols combine pictorial and textual elements in a distinctive manner. When consisting

solely of stylized textual elements, such symbols are referred to as logotypes or wordmarks.

Mass Media – when media methods are used to communicate to thousands of people at the same time.

Media – forms of public communication (such as newspaper, radio, television, information network,

poster, or brochure) that are designed to reach large numbers of people.

Media Strategies – See Appendix A (immediately after media literacy terms).

Medium – singular of media.

Message – any thought, idea, or information, whether expressed in plain or in secret language, prepared

in a form suitable for transmission by any means of communication.

Motive – reason for doing something e.g., make money, change opinion.

Poster – form of communication that has varied purposes such as promoting events, presenting social

commentary, persuading the viewer to purchase etc.. The design of the poster must ensure that

message is consistent with purpose.

Product – Item to be sold, serviced etc.

Product Placement - An advertising strategy in which commercial products or brands are placed within a

play, film, broadcast program, video game or print medium for financial gain. Example: If Heinz Ketchup

is being used by a character in a movie, it is most likely product placement.

Propaganda – an attempt to sway popular opinion and beliefs through distortions of the truth or

outright lights. Example:

Doublespeak – deliberately euphemistic, ambiguous, or obscure language (e.g., deselected instead of

fired).

Dialogue bubble/speech balloons – are a graphic convention used most commonly in comic books,

comics and cartoons to allow words (and much less often, pictures) to be understood as representing

the speech or thoughts of a given character in the comic.

Subliminal Message – Promotional messages the recipient is not aware of, such as those played at very

low volume or flashed on a screen for less than a second. Its effectiveness is not supported by scientific

evidence, and its use is considered a deceptive business practice in some jurisdictions.

Subtext – An underlying and often distinct theme or message in a piece of writing, conversation, ad etc.

Target Audience – consumer group most likely to buy a specific product and identified by region, age,

demographics, or economic status. Effective ads are created and placed in media with the target

audience clearly in mind.

Web Page – a hypertext document connected to the World Wide Web.

White Space – Margins and gutters (the white pace formed by the inner margins of the two facing pages

in a book) are important in desktop publishing. Larger margins should be reflected by larger gaps

between columns and between text and art. Your document should look balanced.

APPENDIX (Media Literacy Terms)

Appendix A

Media Strategies

Bandwagon – The suggestion that everyone is using or doing something: “Gatorade: Canada’s #1

bestseller.”

Cartoon Cute Characters – creates sensitivity, emotional appeal.

Celebrity Endorsement – Also referred to as testimonial. Using well known person or organization to

promote a product.

Emotional Appeal – is a persuasion method used to create emotional feedback or response from the

target audience. Emotional appeals are often used to manipulate an audience into making

an emotional decision or giving an emotional response.

Facts and Figures – The implication that figures and statistics prove a point beyond dispute: “No-ache

pills. A guaranteed 100 mg of pain relief.” Fools audience into thinking their headache will be gone, but

really it is only referring to the mg in 1 tablet.

Gender/Sex Appeal – seeks specifically to portray the “ideal” man or woman to consumers who hope to

achieve society’s perception, and their own ideal perception, of being a man or a woman.

Name Calling – It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry a negative connotation when

describing an enemy. The propaganda attempts to arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the

target something that the public dislikes. Often, name calling is employed using sarcasm and ridicule,

and shows up often in political cartoons or writings. When examining name calling propaganda, we

should attempt to separate our feelings about the name and our feelings about the actual idea or

proposal.

Plain Folks – Talking down to the viewers in order to appear just like them: “Use Tide. It makes your

clothes as white as Mom used to wash them” The plain folks device is an attempt by the propagandist to

convince the public that his views reflect those of the common person and that they are also working for

the benefit of the common person. The propagandist will often attempt to use the accent of a specific

audience as well as using specific idioms or jokes.

Shock Appeal – Shock advertising, or, “shockvertising” is a method of advertising that purposely offends

and startles its viewers in an attempt to “gain attention, encourage cognitive processing, and have an

immediate impact on behavior.” Ads containing disgusting images, sexual references, profanity and

obscenity, religious taboos, vulgarity, impropriety (violations of societal “norms”), or moral

offensiveness are considered to be “shocking” (Dahl, 2003). It has been used for many years around the

world, but has recently been questioned as to whether or not it is still a productive method of

advertising.

Snob Appeal – The association of a product with a desirable lifestyle: “She lives in Prince Royal. She

spends her winters in the Swiss Alps. She drives a Luxuriant. Her perfume – Tusk.”

Testimonials – quotations or endorsements, in or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or

respectable person with a product or item. Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer

technique, in that an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another item.

Examinable Visual Literacy Terms

Background – objects appearing smaller or "behind" more significant objects in a visual.

Composition – The arrangement of visual elements (how the visual is designed).

Dominant image/impression – part of the artwork that will be dominant or the overall mood/feeling/idea associated with the visual.

Elements of design – See Appendix A (immediately after visual literacy terms).

Emphasis – drawing attention (or special interest) to a particular element of a visual using one or more

of the features of text.

Focal point – The main area of interest in a visual.

Focus – Are objects in or out of focus. One way of creating a focal point in photographs. Font – Size, type etc. associated with text.

Foreground – giving prominence to one element of a visual (appearing in the "front" of the visual, for lack of a better term).

Frame – In visual arts including cinematography, framing is a technique used to focus the viewer's attention upon the subject. A frame serves the double purpose of making a more aesthetically pleasing image and keeping the focus on the framed object(s) – it can also be used as a “repoussoir”, to direct attention back into the scene. It adds depth to the image, and can add interest to the picture when the frame is thematically related to the object being framed.

Lighting – illumination, can often establish mood or serve a symbolic purpose; achieved through the careful use of color. Message – the theme of the visual (the “lesson” the artist wants us to take away after viewing it).

Panel – A single section of a comic, showing one moment in a story being told. Also called frame. Most cartoons consist of a single frame. Comics have several. Perspective – the appearance of objects as having a sense of depth or distance.

Placement – refers to the organization of objects within a visual.

Principles of design – See Appendix B (immediately after visual literacy terms).

Proportion – a relationship between objects with respect to size, placement, or importance.

Shadow -– Light and shadows visually define objects. Before you can draw the light and shadows you see, you need to train your eyes to see like an artist. Values are the different shades of gray between white and black. Artists use values to translate the light and shadows they see into shading, thus creating the illusion of a third dimension. Hatching and crosshatching are simple and fun techniques for drawing shading.

Subject – what the visual is about. The subject can usually be stated in one word, such as “teamwork”.

Often, people confuse the subject with the theme or message.

Unity – simply means all the elements of design and principles of design working together to give one

overall, dominant impression. In this way visual texts create a mood in the viewer. A successful analysis

explains how individual elements and principles work together to give the unified, overall effect.

APPENDIX (Visual Artistic Terms)

Appendix A

Elements of Design

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN – are the basics available to anyone who likes to draw or paint (the tools to make

art). They are used independently or in concert with other elements to create overall effects known as

principles of design (Appendix B). Elements of design include: line, shape, form, color, texture, space and

value.

Line – Line can be considered in two ways. The linear marks made with a pen or brush or the edge created when two shapes meet. Line also communicates emotion and states of mind through its character and direction. Horizontal line suggests a feeling of rest or repose. Vertical lines communicate a feeling of loftiness and spirituality. Erect lines seem to extend upwards beyond human reach, toward the sky. Horizontal and vertical lines in combination communicate stability and solidity. Diagonal lines suggest a feeling of movement or direction. Thus if a feeling of movement or speed is desired, or a feeling of activity, diagonal lines can be used. Curved lines do vary in meaning, however. Soft, shallow curves suggest comfort, safety, familiarity, relaxation. Deep, acute curves, on the other hand, suggest

confusion, turbulence, even frenzy, as in the violence of waves in a storm, the chaos of a tangled thread, or the turmoil of lines suggested by the forms of a crowd. Jagged lines may suggest power or confusion. Straight lines may suggest order and direction. Shape – (two dimensional) is created when a line surrounds an area. This surface area has the dimensions of height and width. Shapes can be geometric (square, circle, oval, triangle, etc.) or organic (all other shapes). Form – (three dimensional) the height, width, and depth of a structure (geometric: cube, sphere, cone;

organic: people, animals, tables, chairs, etc.), all of which can create perspective.

Color – (also called hue) helps create mood and can provide contrast to a piece or compliment objects in artwork. Refers to the wavelengths of light as perceived by the human eye. Colors have symbolic associations: purple and gold are often associated with royalty, wealth and opulence; red, white reminiscent of the Canadian flag, immediately convey notions of patriotism and, to some extent, conservatism; green has taken on a very strong connotation as the color representing ecology and concern for the environment, however, it also conveys meanings associated with money and the suggestion "to go ahead" which is obviously derived from traffic lights; blue, red, white and grey express stability, power and trustworthiness; white is believed to signify life and purity; black has long been associated with death and has also come to suggest sophistication and formality; etc. Colors represent holidays and seasons of the year: the fall foliage colors of red, orange, yellow, and brown are clearly expressive of Thanksgiving; orange and black of Halloween; red and green of Christmas; purple, yellow and other pastels colors of Easter; etc. Texture – The feel, appearance, thickness or stickiness of a surface (smooth, rough, silky, furry, etc.).

Space – The area around, within or between images or parts of an image. Relates to perspective, as well

as positive and negative space.

Value – The darkness or lightness of a color. White added to color makes it a tint. Black added to color

makes it a shade.

Appendix B

Principles of Design

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN – The ways in which elements of design can be used are called the principles of design. Each principle can be applied to each element for study purposes. However, in any work of art it would be unusual to find all the principles of design applied to all the elements of design. Principles of design include: pattern, contrast, emphasis, balance, scale/proportion, harmony and movement/rhythm. Pattern – A regular arrangement of altered or repeated elements (shapes, lines, colors or motifs). Contrast – The juxtaposition of different elements of design (for example: rough and smooth textures, dark and light values, etc.) in order to highlight their differences and/or create visual interest, or a focal point.

Emphasis – Special attention/importance given to one part of a work of art (for example: a dark shape in a light composition). Emphasis can be achieved through placement, contrast, color, size, repetition, etc. Relates to focal point. Balance – A feeling of balance results when the elements of design are arranged symmetrically or asymmetrically to create the impression of equality in weight or importance. Scale/proportion – The relationship between objects with respect to size, number, and so on, including the relation between parts of a whole. Harmony – The arrangement of elements to give the viewer the feeling that all the parts of the piece form a coherent whole. Movement/rhythm – The use of recurring elements to direct the movement of the eye through the artwork. There are five kinds of rhythm: random, regular, alternating, progressive and flowing. The way the elements are organized to lead the eye to the focal area. Movement can be directed, for example, along edges and by means of shape and color.