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7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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Basic Circuit Symbols
SYMBOL NAME
Resistor
Variable Resistor
Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Inductor
Diode
DC Voltage
AC Voltage
Battery or Power Supply
Wire
Cross WireNo Connection
Cross WireConnection
Ground
Transformer
SPST Switch
SPDT Switch
DPDT Switch
Fuse
AND Gate
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NAND Gate
OR Gate
NOR Gate
XOR Gate
NOT Gate
Lamp
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Milliammeter
Motor
Generator
Open Switch
Closed Switch
Open Push Switch
Closed Push Switch
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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE
List of Experiments:
1. Residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy-meter.2. Fluorescent lamp wiring.3. Stair case wiring.4. Measurement of electrical quantitiesvoltage, current, power & power factor in RLC
circuit.
5. Measurement of energy using single phase energy meter.6. Measurement of resistance to earth of an electrical equipment
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Safety Rules and Regulations:
Turn off power and unplug from wall before working on electric or electronic circuits,except when absolutely necessary.
Do not work on electrical equipment in a wet area or when touching an object that mayprovide a hazardous earth ground path.
Remove metal jewelry, watches, rings etc before working on electrical circuits. Never overload circuits. Never place containers of liquids on electrical systems. Safely discharge capacitors in equipment before working on the circuits. Make sure that the last connection to be made in the circuit is be the power supply and
the first thing to be disconnected is also the power supply.
Never make any changes to circuits without first isolating the circuit by switching off andremoving connections to the power supplies.
Use extension cords only when necessary and on a temporary basis. Keep soldering irons in their protective stand when not in use. Always observe polarity when connecting components into a circuit. Turn off the power sources after completing the experiment. In case of damage of any component or device, report to the faculty in charge
immediately.
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Wiring Layout:
Residential House Wiring Using Switches, Fuse, Indicator, Lamp and Energy-meter
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Expt.No:1
RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE, INDICATOR, LAMP
AND ENERGYMETER.
Aim:
To construct residential house wiring using switches, indicator, fuse, lamp and energy-
meter.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Energy Meter 10A, 250V 1
2 Porcelain fuse 16A 2
3 Main box 10A, DPST 1
4 Distribution box 3way 1
5 Copper wires 1mm2 lamp2.5mm2 power
Asrequired
6 Single pole switch 6A , 230V 1
7 3-pin socket 6A 1
8 Indicator - 1
9 Lamp holder - 1
10 Round block - 2
11 Wooden board - 2
12 PVC Pipe-
As reqd
13 Wooden screw - As reqd
14 Screw driver - 115 Cutting plier - 1
16 Tester - 1
17 Knife - 1
Procedure:
1. Mark the location of electrical items on the given wooden board.2. Mark lines for wiring on the board.3. Fix PVC pipes of required lengths along the lines with the help of clips.4. Connect wires through the pipes5. Fix the bulb holder and switches in their corresponding locations.6. Fix the bulb and make connections as per the wiring diagram.7. Switch on the main and check if the bulb glows.
Result:
A household wiring was thus prepared and tested.
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Wiring Layout:
Fluorescent Lamp Wiring
Starter
1, 230V, 50Hz AC Supply
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Expt.No:2
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
Aim:
To assemble and check the accessories of a fluorescent lamp.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 1/18 PVC copper wire - As reqd
2 1-pole flush type switch 6A, 250V 1
3 Fluorescent lamp 40W 1
4 Copper choke 40W 1
5 Starter 1
6 Wooden screw - As reqd
7 Screw driver - 18 Cutting pliers - 1
9 Tester - 1
10 Knife - 1
Working Principle:
Fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury lamp and is a long evacuated tube. It contains
a small amount of mercury and argon gas at 2.5mm pressure. At each end of the tube there is a
tungsten electrode which is coated with fast electron emitting material. The inside of the tube is
coated with phosphor according to the type of light. A starter helps to start the tube and break the
circuit. The electrodes in the starter cause discharge in argon gas after consequent heating. The
bimetallic strip then bends and causes the contacts in the starter to close. Hence, the choke,
filaments in the tube ends and the starter are in series. When current flows through the filaments,
heat is produced. This causes the contacts in the starter to move apart which results in a sudden
break in the circuit causing a high value of emf to be induced in the choke. According to Lenzs
law, the direction of the induced emf in the choke will try to oppose the fall of current in the
circuit. The voltage across the tube ends will be high enough to cause a discharge in the gas
inside the tube making it glow.
Procedure:
1. Fix the choke and lamp holders in the tube fitting.2. Make connections as per the circuit diagram3. Switch on the power supply and check if the lamp glows.
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Result:
The accessories of fluorescent lamp are assembled and the circuit is checked.
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Wiring Layout:
Staircase Wiring
Observation:
Switch 1 Switch 2 Lamp
ON ON
ON OFF
OFF ONOFF OFF
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Expt.No:3
STAIR-CASE WIRING
Aim:
To prepare a staircase wiring in which one lamp is controlled by two switches.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 3-way junction box - 1
2 2-pole flush type switch 5A, 250V 2
3 Incandescent lamp 40W 1
4 PVC pattern lamp holder - 1
5 Clamps As reqd
6 Wooden screw - As reqd
7 Screw driver - 18 Cutting pliers - 1
9 Tester - 1
10 Knife - 1
11 Wooden screws As reqd
12 PVC pipe - As reqd
13 Copper wire - As reqd
Principle:
In staircase wiring, a lamp is controlled from two different places. If a lamp is switched
on in one location it can be switched off using a switch in another location and vice-versa. Two
2-way switches are used for the purpose. Supply is given to one switch at the short-circuited
terminal. The connection to the lamp is taken from a similar short-circuited terminal of the
second switch. Other two independent terminals of each switch are connected by cables.
Procedure:
1. Draw lines on the wooden board using chalk where wiring has to be made.2. Fix the PVC pipes on the wooden board using clamps.3. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.4. Connect the lamp holder and fix the lamp in the lamp holder.5. Switch on the supply and check if the bulb glows.
Result:
Thus a staircase wiring for the bulb was prepared and tested.
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Wiring Layout:
Measurement of electrical quantities Voltage, Current, Power & Power Factor in RLC
circuit
Observation:
Multiplication Factor =
S.NoVoltage
V (V)
Current
I (A)
Wattmeter
Reading (W)Actual
Power
(W)
Power
Factor
Observed Actual
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Expt.No:4
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES VOLTAGE, CURRENT, POWER
& POWER FACTOR IN RLC CIRCUIT
Aim:
To measure electrical quantities voltage, current, power and power factor in a RLC
circuit.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0-300)V, MI 1
2 Ammeter (0-10)A, MI 1
3 Wattmeter 300V, 10A, LPF 1
4 RLC load 5kW 1
5 Auto-transformer 230V/ (0-270)V 1
6 Connecting Wires As reqd
Principle:
Power in an electric circuit can be measured using a wattmeter. A wattmeter consists of
two coils namely current and pressure or potential coil. The current coil measures quantity that is
proportional to the current in the circuit and the pressure coil measures quantity that is
proportional to voltage in the circuit. The given wattmeter is loaded by direct loading. The
ammeter is connected in series to the wattmeter. Since the same current flows through both the
coils, the current and voltage across the circuit are constant.
Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the wiring layout.2. No load is applied initially.3. Set the auto-transformer to minimum voltage before switching on the power supply.4. With no load applied, set the rated voltage in the auto-transformer and note down the
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter readings and multiplication factor of the wattmeter.
5. Adjust the RLC load and tabulate the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter readings.6. Repeat the procedure till ammeter reads 10A.7. Gradually reduce the load and voltage in the auto-transformer to a minimum and switchon the power supply.8. Calculate the indicated power and power factor.
Calculation:
Actual Power = Pw * Multiplication factor
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where Pw Observed wattmeter reading
Apparent Power = V*Iwhere V - Voltmeter reading
I - Ammeter reading
Power factor, cos = Actual Power / Apparent Power
Result:
Thus the values of voltage, current, power and power factor of a RLC circuit are
measured.
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Wiring Layout:
Measurement of energy using single phase energy-meter
Observation:
Multiplication factor =
S.No
Supply
voltage V
(V)
Load Current
I (A)
Wattmeter
reading P
(W)
Time t
(s)
True Energy
Pt/3600*1000
(kWh)
Measured
Energy
n/750(kWh)
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Expt.No:5
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER
Aim:
To measure the energy in a single phase circuit using energy meter.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Single phase Energy meter 750 rev/kWh,
240V, 50Hz
1
2 Wattmeter 300V, 10A 1
3 Ammeter 10A, MI 1
4 Voltmeter 300V, MI 1
5 Stop watch - 1
6 Load Resistive,5kW
1
7 Connecting Wires - As reqd
Principle:
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical
energy supplied to or produced by a residence, business or machine.
The most common type is a kilowatt hour meter. Modern electricity meters operate by
continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (V) and current (A) and finding the product of
these to give instantaneous electrical power (W) which is then integrated against time to give
energy used (kWh).
Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the wiring layout.2. Switch on the supply, adjust the voltage and switch on the load3. Note down the time taken for one revolution in the energy meter and tabulate the
corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings
4. Repeat the above procedure for different load currents.5. Release the load gradually and switch off the supply.
Calculation:
Energy meter specification = 750 revolutions / kWh
True Energy = Power P (W) * time t (s)= P * t / 3600 * 1000 kWh
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Measured Energy = n / 750 kWhwhere nno. of revolutions / sec
Result:
Thus energy of a single phase circuit is measured using an energy meter.
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Wiring Layout:
Observation:
S.No Earth Resistance (M)
Average Value :
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Expt.No:6
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Aim:
To measure the earth resistance or insulation resistance of the given electrical equipment
(transformer).
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Transformer 0-230V/110V 1
2 Megger - 1
3 DPST switch - 1
Principle:
A megger or a mega-ohmmeter is used to test the insulation resistance or resistance toearth of electrical equipments. The name is derived from the fact that the insulating resistance of
a properly designed appliance is of the order of tens or hundreds of mega-ohms. The measured
resistance is intended to indicate the condition of the insulation or dielectric between two
conductive parts, where the higher the resistance, the better the condition of the insulation.
Ideally, the insulation resistance would be infinite, but as no insulators are perfect, leakage
currents through the dielectric will ensure that a finite (though high) resistance value is
measured.
Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the wiring layout.2. The DPST switch is kept open.3. Supply desired voltage to the megger for its operation.4. Tabulate the megger reading.5. Repeat the procedure 5-6 times and calculate the average value. The average value gives
the earth resistance of the transformer.
Result:
The earth resistance of the given transformer is found using a megger.
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ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE
List of Experiments:
1. Study of Electronic components and equipmentsResistor color coding, measurement of AC signalparameters (peak-peak, rms period, frequency) using CRO.2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.4. Soldering practiceComponents, devices and circuitsUsing general purpose PCB.5. Measurement of ripple factor of half wave rectifier (HWR) and full wave rectifier (FWR).
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Resistor Color Coding:
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO):
Front Panel of CRO:
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Expt.No:1
STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTSRESISTOR COLOR
CODING, MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS (PEAK-PEAK, RMS PERIOD,
FREQUENCY) USING CRO
Aim:
To study the basic electronic components and equipments.
Materials Required:
Resistors Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Mulitmeter
Theory:
Resistors:
Color coding in resistors indicates the values or ratings of resistors. It is also used in
capacitors and inductors. The advantage of color coding is that essential information can be
marked on small components of cylindrical shape without the need to print all the
specifications. Resistor values are always coded in ohms.
Band A - first significant digit of component value
Band B - second significant digit
Band C - decimal multiplier
Band D - (if present) tolerance value in percentageFor example, a resistor with bands ofyellow, violet, red and gold will have first digit
4(yellow), second digit 7(violet), followed by 2(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that
the tolerance is 5%.
Actual resistor value = 4700 5% .
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
Oscilloscope is a type ofelectronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly
varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences using the vertical or 'Y' axis, plotted as a function of time (horizontal or 'x' axis).Many signals, for example sound, can be converted to voltages and displayed this way. Signals
are often periodic and repeat constantly, so that multiple samples of a signal which is actually
varying with time are displayed as a steady picture. Many oscilloscopes (storage oscilloscopes)
can also capture non-repeating waveforms for a specified time, and show a steady display of the
captured segment.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_test_instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_test_instrument7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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Observation:
Resistor Color Coding:
S.No
Resistor Value
Using Color Code Using Multimeter
Measurement of AC signal parameters using CRO:
S.No
Input Signal
Frequency
(Hz)
Output Signal
Vp-p
(V)
Vmax
(V)
Vrms
(V)
Time
(s)
Frequency
(Hz)
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Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal.
This allows the measurement of, for example, peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform, the
frequency of periodic signals, the time between pulses, the time taken for a signal to rise to full
amplitude (rise time), and relative timing of several related signals.
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications
industry.
Working Principle:
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid,
X&Y-plates, and a fluorescent screen.
When the cathode is heated by applying a small potential difference across its terminals,
it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes),
accelerate the emitted electrons towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to
fall on the screen. When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible
spot is produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of
electrons passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y-
plates are responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically. A sweep
generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot horizontally across the
screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The voltage to be
studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y-voltages produce a graph showing
the variation of voltage with time.
Procedure:
1. Connect the output of a function generator to CH1 of the CRO.2. Select sine wave input of any frequency in the function generator.3. Tabulate the peak-to-peak voltage and time readings.4. Repeat the procedure for different input frequencies and tabulate them.
Calculation:
Peak-to-peak voltage Vpp = No. of vertical divisions X Volt/Division RMS voltage Vrms =
Time t = No. of horizontal divisions X Time/Division Frequency f = 1/t
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveform7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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Capacitor Coding:
Diode:
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Capacitors:
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electricalcomponent used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator).
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowingalternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output ofpower supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systemsfor stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.
Diodes:
A diode is a two terminal semiconductor device which allows an electric current to pass
in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used
to convert alternating current to direct current.
Multimeter:
A multimeter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog multimeters (AMM) and digital
multimeters (DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on a micro-ammeter
whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made;
digital instruments usually display digits.
Bread board:
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not
be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards. Breadboards have many tiny sockets
(called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into
the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left. The top and
bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across. The other holes are linked vertically in
blocks of 5 with no link across the centre.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectification_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measuring_instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microammeterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microammeterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measuring_instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectification_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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Digital Multimeter Symbols:
Bread board:
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Result:
Thus resistor color coding, measurement of AC signal parameters (peak-peak, rms period, frequency)
using CRO and multimeter are studied.
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AND Gate:
Pin Configuration
C = A.B
Logic Symbol
OR Gate:
Pin Configuration
C = A + B
Logic Symbol
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Expt.No:2
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES AND, OR, EOR AND NOT
Aim:
To study the principles of logic gates AND, OR, XOR and NOT.Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 AND gate IC 7408 1
2 OR gate IC 7432 1
3 XOR gate IC 7486 1
4 NAND gate IC 7400 1
5 NOR gate IC 7402 1
6 NOT gate IC 7404 1
7 Digital IC trainer kit - 18 Connecting Wires - As reqd
Theory:
A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single
logic output. Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as
electronic switches. Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic
logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors,
which may contain more than 100 million gates.
AND Gate:
A HIGH output (1) results only if both the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH (1). If anyone of the inputs is LOW (0), a LOW (0) output results. The AND gate with inputs A and B and
output C implements the logic expression C= A.B
Truth Table:
Input Output
C = A.BA B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR Gate:
A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1). If neither
input is HIGH, a LOW output (0) results. The OR gate with inputs A and B and output C
implements the logic expression C= A+B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_operationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch#Electronic_switcheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_registerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_registerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch#Electronic_switcheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_operation7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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NOT Gate:
Pin Configuration
Logic Symbol C = A'
XOR Gate:
Pin Configuration
Logic Symbol C = A XOR B
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Truth Table:
Input Output
C = A+BA B
0 0 0
0 1 11 0 1
1 1 1
XOR Gate:
The XOR gate (sometimes EOR gate, or EXOR gate) is a digital logic gate that
implements an exclusive or; that is, a true output (1) results if one, and only one, of the inputs to
the gate is true (1). If both the inputs are false (0) or both are true (1), a false output (0) results. It
represents the inequality function, i.e., the output is HIGH (1) if the inputs are not alike
otherwise the output is LOW (0). The XOR gate with inputsA andB implements the logical
expression .
Truth Table:
Input Output
C = A XOR BA B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOT Gate:
An inverter or NOT gate is a logic gate which implements logical negation. An inverter
circuit outputs a voltage representing the opposite logic-level to its input. An inverter with input
A implements the logical expression A = A'
Truth Table:
Input
A
Output
A = A'
0 1
1 0
NAND Gate:
A NAND gate (Negated AND or NOT AND) is a logic gate which produces an output
that is false only if all its inputs are true. A LOW (0) output results only if both the inputs to the
gate are HIGH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a HIGH (1) output results.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_orhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_negationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_negationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_orhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate7/31/2019 Engineering Practices lab (Group B) Manual
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NAND Gate:
Pin Configuration
Logic Symbol C = (A.B) '
NOR Gate:
Pin Configuration:
Logic Symbol C = (A + B) '
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Truth Table:
Input Output
C = (A.B)'A B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 11 1 0
NOR Gate:
A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate are LOW (0); if one or both input
is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of the negation of the OR operator.
Truth Table:
Input Output
C = (A+B)'A B
0 0 10 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the pin diagram.2. Give the required supply and ground connections to the ICs.3. Inputs are applied using switches and outputs through LEDs.
Result:
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.
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Pin Configuration of IC 555
Circuit Diagram
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Expt.No:3
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
Aim:
To construct a circuit that generates an automatic clock signal.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Timer IC IC 555 1
2 Resistors 10K 2
3 Capacitors 0.01F0.1F
11
4 Diode 1N4001 1
5 RPS 0-30V 1
6 CRO - 17 Probes - 2
8 Connecting Wires - As reqd
Theory:
555 is a very commonly used IC for generating accurate timing pulses. An astablemultivibrator is generally used for the purpose of generating pulses. In such a circuit, both the
high and low levels of output produced by the multivibrator are unstable. The output thus keeps
vibrating between both the levels and hence a pulse wave is generated. The IC 555 can be
configured very easily to work as an astable multivibrator. The time during which the output iseither high or low is determined by two resistors and a capacitor, which are connected externally
to the 555 timer.
Procedure:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.2. A supply of +5V is given through pin8 of the IC.3. A square wave output is observed at pin3 using a CRO.4. The on-time and off-time of the observed waveform are tabulated.5. The frequency of the wave is then calculated using the formula f= 1/T.
Formula Used:
Time T = TON + TOFF (s) Frequency f = 1/T (Hz)
Result:Thus a clock pulse was generated using IC555.
Observed Frequency =
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Expt.No:4
SOLDERING PRACTICECOMPONENTS, DEVICES AND CIRCUITSUSING
GENERALPURPOSE PCB
Aim:
To solder electronic components using a PCB and check their continuity.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Soldering Iron 1
2 Solder 1
3 Printed Circuit Board 1
Theory:
Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel, copper or
brass. It is very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and mount electroniccomponents on a circuit board. The joining material used in soldering is called as solder or
filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead is commonly used as the solder. The flux is used to clean the
surface of the plates/wires to be soldered. Aluminum chloride or zinc chloride is commonly
used as flux. A good soldering iron is a variable temperature setting type with interchangeable
irons and tips. The tip should be removed regularly to prevent oxidation scale from accumulating
between the heating element and the tip.
Soldering Simple Electronic Components:
A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a
plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path. Leads of
components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board and the conductive
copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the hole. If excessive heat is
applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board or the components on the board get
damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used to heat the junction. The
surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly prepared and cleaned before
soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component leads.
Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid excess
solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules form on the junction
area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth.
Checking Continuity:
The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms of
resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test continuity,
select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break, which is not visible due to
insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at the terminals. Checking for zero ohms
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between any two points tests the continuity. A break in the conducting path is evident
from the reading of infinite resistance.
In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colors. Consider the
figure, where the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that
connects to terminal A. This is done by, checking continuity of each wire to terminal A. The
wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long cable may
be tested by temporarily short-circuiting the other ends of the wires. The continuity of both
wires may be checked for zero ohms.
In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The connectivity
between the terminals is identified by the beep sound.
Procedure:1. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.3. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the
surface to join the plates/wires.
4. Continuity of the components are then checked.
Result:
The components are soldered and their continuity is checked.
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Circuit Diagram:
Half Wave Rectifier
Without filter:
With Filter:
Model Graph:
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Expt.No:5
MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER AND FULL
WAVE RECTIFIER
Aim:
To construct a half wave and full wave rectifier circuit and calculate the ripple factor.
Materials Required:
S.No Items Range Quantity
1 Transformer 230V / 6-0-6V, 200mA
1
2 Diode IN4007 2
3 Resistor 1K 1
4 CRO - 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires - As reqd
Theory:
A rectifier converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). The simplest kind of
rectifier circuit is half wave rectifier circuit. It allows only half of the AC waveform to passthrough the load. The primary of the transformer is connected to ac supply. This induces an ac
voltage across the secondary of the transformer. During the positive half cycle of the input
voltage the polarity of the voltage across the secondary forward biases the diode. As a result a
current IL flows through the load resistor, RL. The forward biased diode offers a very lowresistance and hence the voltage drop across it is very small. Thus the voltage appearing across
the load is practically the same as the input voltage at every instant.
A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dcvoltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts
during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied acvoltage. During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased
and D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains OFF. The load current
flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. During thenegative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2 becomes
forward biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.2. The output waveform is observed using a CRO.3. The ripple factor is calculated using the voltage of the observed waveform.
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Full Wave Rectifier
Without Filter:
With Filter:
Model Graph:
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Formula Used:
Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple Factor = (
) where Vrms =
Vdc =
Full Wave Rectifier
Ripple Factor = ( )
where Vrms =
Vdc =
Result:
Thus a half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier circuits are constructed and their ripple
factors are calculated.
Ripple factor of HWR =