Energy Crisis in Nigeria: Sustainable Option using ... · Energy Crisis in Nigeria: Sustainable Option using Nanotechnology ... 1.1 The Energy Crisis ... 1.0 Introduction

* A l e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d a t t h e 7 t h C o n v o c a t i o n C e r e m o n y o f t h e R e d e e m e r ’ s U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , S e p t 2 8 , 2 0 1 5

*Energy Crisis in Nigeria: Sustainable Option using Nanotechnology

as the Way Forward

Omowunmi “Wunmi” Sadik, PhD Professor of Chemistry

Director of the Center for Advanced Sensors & Environmental Systems (CASE)

Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Binghamton

Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (FAIMBE)

Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC) President & co-founder, Sustainable Nanotechnology

Organization (SNO) E-mail: [email protected]

http://www.binghamton.edu/chemistry/people/sadik/sadik.html

Sadik, Redeemer’s University Convocation Lecture, September 28, 2015 Page 2

Contents Preamble ................................................................................................................................... 3

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 The Energy Crisis ................................................................................................................. 7

1.2 Electricity Generation Profile ................................................................................................ 9

2.0 Impact of the energy crisis on the environment, economy and the industrial sectors ...........11

2.1 Causes of the Energy Crisis ................................................................................................13

3.0 What is Nanotechnology? ...................................................................................................15

3.1 At the nanoscale, everything is changeable! .......................................................................19

3.2 The Research Program of the Sadik lab ..............................................................................21

3.3 Nanosensor System Developed from Our Laboratories .......................................................24

3.3.1 Description of U-PAC Biosensor Technology: ..................................................................24

3.4 Clean Energy Production ....................................................................................................27

3.5 Clean Energy from Wastes using "Sustainable Harvesting and AdaPtive Energy Reduction“

(SHAPER) system ....................................................................................................................28

4.0 Applications of Nanotechnology for Energy Sufficiency .......................................................30

5.0 The way forward: technical, environmental, economic, social, and policy dimensions .........36

5.1 Implementation Framework .................................................................................................39

6.0 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................42

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................43

References ...............................................................................................................................43


Preamble

Vice Chancellor, Professor Adeyewa, faculty members, members of the board of

trustees, parents and graduates, friends of the graduating class, distinguished guests,

ladies and gentlemen; it is with great pleasure that I join you on this occasion of the 7th

convocation ceremonies of the Redeemers University of Nigeria. Although a relatively

young and up-coming institution, this university has already won the acclaim of the

World Bank by winning the prestigious grant that funded the establishment of the

“African Centre of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Diseases (ACEGID).” In

winning this grant, Redeemer's University has emerged as the best rated university

among 15 other prestigious universities selected from the west and central African sub-

regions. In my opinion, this university is already fulfilling the founders’ vision “for a future

generation of creative, innovative, inventive entrepreneurs who are motivated to build

and sustain a better Nigeria where peace, justice, fairness, and Godliness reign.”

The goal of this convocation lecture is to celebrate the achievements of these graduates

while also drawing the nation's attention to a major national challenge that threatens

their future. Today, I like to draw your attention to the energy situation in the country,

with a view to proffering an enduring solution.

This lecture will draw upon my scientific career that started at the University of Lagos

more than three decades ago; one that took me through the Nigerian National

Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), to the Nigerian Institute of Oceanography and Marine

Research (NIOMR), and eventually to Australia, and now to the United States of

America. I have had the opportunity to transverse the corridors of the best research


institutions in the United States, including Harvard University, Cornell University, US

Naval Research Laboratory, and US Environmental Protection Agency. I have

collaborated with over 30 MS & PhD students, resulting in over 150 peer-reviewed

publications, and over 300 invited lectures and conference contributions world-wide.

Therefore, my journey could be summed up in the words of Alan Alda, when he said:

“You have to leave the city of your comfort and go into the wilderness of your

intuition. You can't get there by bus, only by hard work and risk and by not quite

knowing what you're doing, but what you'll discover will be wonderful. What you'll

discover will be yourself.”

That journey has led to the making of Binghamton, New York as my home for the last

20 years. The focus of today’s lecture is neither about me nor about my journey, but one

that draws upon my scientific and research expertise from across three continents. I

would like to focus today’s lecture on a critical issue that is presently facing Nigeria as a

nation so as to propose what I believe will be an enduring solution to address the

energy challenge that has plagued this nation for many decades.

1.0 Introduction

Nigeria is endowed with abundant natural gas, oil, coal, and several renewable energy

resources that could be used to meet the demand for domestic electricity generation.

Despite its large oil and natural reserves, Nigeria’s electrification rate is less than 50%

of the population; this leaves approximately 76 million people without any access to


electricity. The Nigerian government has unfolded plans to create 40 gigawatts (GW) of

electricity capacity by 2020 compared to the 2009 installed capacity of 6 GW. Achieving

this goal will depend on the ability of the Nigerian government to utilize renewable and

environmentally-friendly mix—such as solar, biomass, geothermal heat, hydropower,

and wind. Global energy demand is anticipated to increase by 30% by 2030 and the

share of fossil fuels in energy production will significantly decrease. It is therefore crucial

that this nation maintains an interest in other emerging sources of renewable energy

while keeping abreast of international trends in energy technology developments. In this

lecture, I will discuss the application of nanotechnology and key areas of solar and other

energy resource technologies. I will emphasize the exploitation of sustainable and

alternative sources of energy, thereby minimizing the heavy dependence of electricity

on petroleum in the total energy mix of the nation.

Nigeria, Africa's most populous country with approx. 170 million people, has been

growing as an investment destination owing to the size of its consumer market and the

growing emerging capital markets

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal). Nigeria’s

hydrocarbon resources are the mainstay of its economy. According to the International

Monetary Fund, the hydrocarbon sector accounted for more than 95% of export

earnings and more than 75% of the federal government revenue in 2011. The Oil and

Gas Journal (OGJ) has estimated that Nigeria’s proven oil reserves as of the end of

2011 to be approximately 37.2 billion barrels and the government hopes to increase

proven oil reserves to 40 billion barrels in the next few years.


In addition to oil, Nigeria had an estimated 180 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural

gas reserves, thus making Nigeria the 9th largest natural gas reserve holder in the

world, which is by far the largest in Africa. According to the Renewable Energy

Masterplan of 2005, the nation also has other energy resources such as coal and lignite

(2.7 billion tons) as well as tar sands at an estimated 31 billion barrels of oil equivalent.

It should be noted that although Nigeria has a resource of 2.7 billion tons of coal,

production has declined from a peak of 0.91 million tons in 1959 to no production at all

in 2001. This is attributed to the discovery of petroleum in commercial quantities in

1956.

In 2003, the Federal Government approved a National Energy Policy (NEP) with the

purpose of optimizing the utilization of the nation’s energy resources, including

renewables. The policy articulated the aggressive pursuit of energy mix to include solar,

biomass and wind. It also called for an active participation of the private sector. In 2014,

Nigeria became Africa’s largest economy surpassing South Africa from the league of

BRICS nations. Nigeria has almost doubled its gross domestic product (GDP) to more

than $500bn. This GDP has not even factored in other major sectors such as e-

commerce, mobile phones and its prolific "Nollywood" film industry, which is now worth

about 1.4 percent of GDP.

For Nigeria to continue to maintain its economic-competitive edge, it needs to address

the energy crisis within a very short space of time. This lecture calls for sustainable and

decisive implementation plans that will address the energy crisis using technological,

economic, policy, societal and environmental considerations. The lecture also


articulates how nanotechnology innovation could be brought to bear on each part of the

energy sector, including energy sources (fossil fuels, renewables), energy change (gas

turbines, fuel cells, combustion engine), energy distribution (power transmission, smart

grids, heat transfer), energy storage (chemical, electrical and thermal), as well as

energy usage (lighting, industrial processes, thermal insulation and air conditioning).

Before going into the details of the proposed actions, it is important to highlight the

causes, effect and the impact of the energy crisis on the economy, the environment and

the industrial sector.

1.1 The Energy Crisis

As mentioned earlier, despite its large oil and natural reserves, Nigeria’s electrification

rate is less than 50% of the population. This means that approximately 76 million people

are without access to any electricity. Bear in mind that electricity is a form of energy,

and energy is the lifeline of a growing economy. Energy powers the working and living

environment: it is needed to generate electricity, for transportation, for maintaining

temperature, for use in heating and cooling of buildings, and for industrial processes.

As many of you know, Nigeria suffers from extreme electricity shortage. Availability of

electricity remains a major factor in the location of industries and it is a strong

instrument of social development. Let’s call a spade a spade: electricity in Nigeria is in

acute shortage of supply; it is grossly inadequate in these modern days. As reported in

the Nigerian NEP Report of 2003, only 40% of the population is connected to the


national grid system, and the people who actually have power do experience blackouts

about 60% of the time.

Figure 1: Three dimensions of sustainability

In the report of the United Nations’

World Commission on

Environment and Development

published 1987, commonly known

as the Brundtland report,

sustainable development is defined as the “development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Three major dimensions of sustainability are: the economy, the environment and the

human society (Figure 1). The current energy situation in Nigeria is therefore

unsustainable for the following reasons: First, the current energy and transportation

sectors are mostly dependent on fossil fuels; it cannot keep pace with the level of

economic development and competitive global climate. Secondly, it is unsustainable

because the global share of fossil fuels for energy production will significantly decrease

as world demand for energy increase by the years 2030, particularly in China and India.

Third, Nigeria does not export any value added products and the economy simply relies

on raw crude oil and natural gas. Since the first export of its crude oil from the Oloibiri

Oil Fields in 1958, these natural resources are simply being dug out of the ground and

exported raw, without any value being added. Forth, it is unsustainable because of oil

spillage, deforestation and desertification as well as the effect of pollution on human

3

Economy

Society

Environment

Sustainable Development

Three Dimensionsof Sustainability


health and the environment. It’s been estimated that more oil is spilled from the Niger

Delta's network of terminals, pipes, pumping stations and oil platforms every year than

was lost in the Gulf of Mexico, the site of a major oil spill caused by the 2010 explosion

that wrecked BP's Deepwater Horizon rig. Fifth, it is unsustainable when more than half

of the population has been left to grope in the dark while future generations of Nigeria

may simply inherit the disappearing mangrove, depleted oil reserve and abundance of

environmental pollution. Finally, industrial and economic development will be forever

crawling without reliable energy and sustainable mass transportation system.

With Nigeria being the largest economy in Africa as of 2014, it needs to broaden its

economic base by diversifying its energy production and engaging in research and

development. Research and Development is in fact, the hallmark of developed and

developing economies. Unless, urgent action is taken and the energy crisis is

addressed, the country cannot become a competitive member of the BRICS countries.

BRICS is the acronym for an association of five major emerging economies: Brazil,

Russia, India, China and South Africa. The group was originally known as "BRIC"

before the inclusion of South Africa in 2010.

1.2 Electricity Generation Profile

The 2003 NEP report is also supported by the US Energy Administration Information

(EIA), which estimated that in 2010, Nigeria’s total energy consumption was about 4.4

Quadrillion Btu (111,000 kilotons of oil equivalent). Of this, traditional “biomass and

waste” accounted for 82 percent of total energy consumption. This high percent


represents the use of biomass to meet off-grid heating and cooking needs, mainly in

rural areas. The IEA data for 2009 also indicated that the electrification rate for Nigeria

was 50 percent of the country as a whole – leaving approximately 76 million people

without access to electricity in Nigeria. Other estimates place the countrywide

electrification rate as low as 45 percent.

Figure 2: Total electricity net generation in Nigeria.

Nigeria's electricity sector is relatively

too small for its size. Two countries

with similar population sizes, i.e. Brazil

and Pakistan, generate 24 times and 5

times more power than Nigeria,

respectively. Bangladesh, a country

slightly smaller in population and with a smaller GDP than Nigeria, produces nearly

twice as much electricity as Nigeria. The latest EIA estimates show that Nigeria's net

generation was 18.8 billion kilowatt-hours (KWh) in 2009. Installed electricity capacity

has remained relatively stable over the last decade at 5.9 GW, although net generation

has slightly decreased from its peak of 23 billion KWh in 2004 mainly due to a decline in

hydroelectric power.

As shown in Figure 2, the majority of electricity generation in Nigeria comes from

thermal power plants (77 percent), with about two-thirds of thermal power derived from

natural gas and the rest from oil. Hydroelectricity (23 percent), the only other source of

power generation, has decreased gradually from its peak of 8.2 billion KWh in 2002 to


4.5 billion KWh in 2009. During the same period, Nigeria's electricity net consumption

was 17.7 billion kWh in 2009, slightly less than generation, but it exported most of the

remainder to Niger Republic through an agreement under the West African Power Pool.

According to a World Bank report, Nigeria experienced power outages for about 46

days in a year from 2007-2008, and these outages lasted almost 6 hours on average.

Population growth coupled with underinvestment in the electricity sector has led to an

increase in power demand without any significant increase in the capacity, in addition to

inadequate maintenance, insufficient feedstock, and an inadequate transmission

network. Businesses often purchase costly generators to use as back-up during

outages and the majority of Nigerians use traditional biomass, such as wood, charcoal,

and animal waste, to fulfill household energy needs, such as cooking and heating.

2.0 Impact of the energy crisis on the environment, economy and the

industrial sectors

Deforestation and pollution are the major environmental problems related to energy

production, distribution and consumption in the country. Again, according to the NEP

report of 2003, the nation’s 15 million hectares of forest and woodland reserves could

be depleted within the next fifty years. Such depletion could lead to soil erosion,

desertification, and loss of biodiversity, micro-climatic change and flooding. Most of

these impacts are already evident in different ecological zones in the country,

amounting to huge economic losses.


Pollution is the other major environmental concern. Combustion from fossil fuels,

especially in the transport and industrial sectors, contributes greatly to air pollution in

major cities. The combustion products (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide ) are

greenhouse gases and these lead to global warming, with attendant negative

consequences on agriculture, water supply, forest resources, sea level rise, health, etc.

Another source of air pollution is the continued flaring of large volumes of natural gas at

the oil fields of the Niger Delta. Government therefore decided that gas flaring should

stop by 2008.

In addition to air pollution, there is a substantial water and soil pollution occurring from

oil spillage during oil production and transportation. Over the years, oil spillage has had

a significant adverse impact on fisheries and marine life in the oil producing areas. The

industrial sector is one of the major energy consuming sectors and it accounts for about

25% of total commercial fuels currently consumed in the country. Inadequate and

unreliable supply of energy to these industries is a major contributor to low industrial

capacity utilization. Consequently, blackouts and erratic supply of electricity cripple the

economy particularly the industrial sector. For example, when power fails, workers could

be trapped in the mines, crop yield would decrease, thus causing problems in

agriculture and food production.


2.1 Causes of the Energy Crisis

There are multiple causes responsible for the shortfalls in energy generation in Nigeria.

Some of these are technical, others are sociopolitical, and some are structural in nature.

The fundamental issue connected with the energy crisis is that the nation is not

generating enough energy to support the entire population. Others include the

problems confronting the various divisions of the energy section including generation,

transmission, and distribution.

Apart from insufficient energy generation, the current infrastructure of the hydro power

plants is in dire need of rehabilitation, and the actual output of the plans is far below the

projected capacity. The grid structure is unstable and therefore susceptible to sabotage.

Overload, over/under billing and payment, cash collection problems, lack of spare parts,

government subsidy, and poor staff remuneration. While many of these could be

addressed with proper management and administrative overhaul, the focus of this

lecture is the application of nanotechnology and renewable energy mix to the energy

crisis. The technical causes associated with the energy crisis in Nigeria have been

discussed in a report by Obadote. Other reports have highlighted additional causes for

the energy crisis, Okoye, Majoku and Julia Kennedy-Darling et al.

Regardless of the specific issues associated with the Nigerian energy crisis discussed

earlier, conversion losses account for nearly two-thirds of the energy consumed to

generate electricity in general. The overall efficiency of an incandescent bulb is only


about 2%. As illustrated in Figure 3, out of a 100-unit of energy source (e.g. coal or

petroleum), only 2 units are eventually utilized to light the bulb, which means that 98% is

lost as thermal heat. This fundamental problem of inefficiency is already being

addressed globally through research and development.

Figure 3: Overall efficiency of an incandescence bulb =2%

On a global scale, evidence continues to mount in support of the combustion of fossil

fuels on global warming. To solve the energy problem, increased efficiency (energy

conservation) is key. Careful consideration must be given to environmental problems,

such as increased carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. Technology will have to

play a key role, such as in the application of nanotechnology. Reduction of energy

losses in current transmission could be addressed using the extraordinary electrical

conductivity of nanomaterials. Carbon nanotubes can be utilized for typical application


in electric cables and power lines. Improved nanostructured materials, such as those in

solar cells, are also key.

3.0 What is Nanotechnology?

The last two decades have witnessed the successful research into the structures and

sizes of materialsthe size regimes of which include 1 to a few nanometers. A

nanometer is one billionth of a meter (10-9m) – about one hundred thousand times

smaller than the diameter of a human hair, or a thousand times smaller than a red blood

cell, or about half the size of the diameter of DNA.

http://omninano.slides.com/omninano/uniquenanoscale#/5

Figure 4: Scale of objects in the nanometer scale and size comparison for both natural and engineered nanoparticles.

Figure 4 illustrates the scale of objects in the nanometer range. In general,

nanotechnology refers to the design, characterization and application of structures,


molecular materials, interfaces and surfaces, by a controlled manipulation of the size

and shape with at least one critical dimension below 100nm range. According to the US-

National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), nanomaterials encompass a wide variety of

materials that have at least one dimension in the 1 to 100-nm range. Most

nanomaterials are often engineered or synthesized specifically to have the nanoscale

dimensions. Examples include inorganic nanoparticles (e.g. carbon nanotubes, gold and

silver nanoparticles, quantum dots, titanium dioxides, core shell multiplex or inorganic-

organic materials) that are thought to have potential utility in sensing, and in energy

generation and conversion.

Nanotechnology allows the engineering of materials from the elementary units of atoms

and molecules as if working with a Lego-kit. It also allows the creation of structures

measuring only one thousandth of the diameter of one strand of human hair using size

reduction. By controlling the size and shapes of a matter at the nanoscale levels, new

functionalities and properties are created.

A transition from atoms or molecules to a bulk form takes place in the nm scale. When

materials are in the micrometer scale, they exhibit the same properties as those of bulk

form. However when they transition to the nanometer scale, they tend to exhibit physical

properties that are distinctively different from that of bulk. For example, bulk gold does

not exhibit catalytic properties, but gold nanocrystals however exhibit an excellent low

temperature catalyst.

Engineered nanoparticles have varying sizes, shapes and morphology. In fact their

properties change as their size approaches the nanoscale and as the percentage of


atoms at the surface of a material becomes significant. For bulk materials larger than

one micrometer, the percentage of atoms at the surface is minuscule relative to the total

number of atoms of the material. Suspension of nanoparticles is possible because the

interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome

differences in density, which usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a

liquid.

Figure 5: The New York Times; Images courtesy of the Stained Glass Museum, Britain, February 21, 2005

Nanoparticles often have unexpected visible properties because they are small enough

to confine their electrons and produce quantum effects. For example gold nanoparticles


appear as deep red to black in solution. At the far end of the size scale, nanoparticles

appear as clusters, spheres, rods, and cups (see Figure 5).

Throughout the history of materials science, scientists have developed ways to

construct and design materials that, to the naked eye, appear to be continuous and

homogenous, but in reality there are several discontinuities always “hidden beneath the

radar”. These regions are always present regardless of the materials, and they often

have structural features in the nanometer range. These domains have existed since the

beginning of time, long before Feynman, Drexler and others began to use the term

“nanotechnology.” The differing behavior of various materials based on the methods of

preparation can often be explained by these unseen pockets of “order and disorder” at

the molecular level. Naming these phenomena did not create them or give them some

physical reality that was absent before. What is unique is that we can now create

nanomaterials with intent and purpose: i.e we can control their structures and generate

novel properties that have not been previously observed. Take for example ancient

“stained-glass” makers, I bet that they knew that by putting varying amounts of tiny gold

and silver in the glass, they could produce the red and yellow found in those stained-

glass windows (see Figure 5). Nevertheless, nanotechnology has revolutionized this

science by transitioning us from the observation of unexplained phenomena to that of

purposeful and intentional design.

Nanotechnology is creating a range of discoveries in areas as diverse as medicine,

automotive, energy, agriculture, consumer products and even the entertainment

industry. The field of nanotechnology transcends sectoral boundaries, resulting in novel

applications of nanomaterials that promise revolutionary improvements in various fields.


The global nanotechnology industry reached an estimated $1.4 trillion USD in 2014,

becoming a major economic force in the 21st century. Engineered nanomaterials

(ENMs) are by far the largest segment of the nanotechnology market, accounting for

80% of all revenues. Meanwhile, the number of consumer products containing ENMs, is

growing at a similarly rapid pace, and it is expected to reach 10,000 by year 2020. Many

of these products are also finding their way into the traditional applications such as in

aerospace, appliance, automotive, building construction, cosmeceuticals, medical, and

food industries.

3.1 At the nanoscale, everything is changeable!

Unique properties of nanomaterials are attributed to the ratio of their large surface area-

to-volume. Moreover, below 50 nm, the laws of classical physics give way to quantum

effects, thus provoking different optical, electrical and magnetic behaviors. The unique

properties of these nanomaterials give them novel electrical, magnetic, catalytic,

thermal, mechanical, or imaging features that are highly desirable for applications in

energy generation, conversion, storage and others. Nanomaterials can hold

considerably more energy than the conventional because of their large grain boundary

(surface) area.

The only way to change the properties of bulk materials is to change their chemical

composition or structure. Pieces of gold in a coin possess fixed physico-chemical

properties such as temperature, density, or conductivity. All bulk forms of gold melt at

the same temperature and they have the same conductivity and density. However, for a


given nanomaterial, the properties are not fixed but are determined by the size, shape,

structure, or the orientation of the materials, but not their chemical composition. This is

one of the most important concepts of nanotechnology. The same material can display

radically different properties as the size and shape change.

Figure 6: (left) Colors of various sized monodispersed gold nanoparticles

(www.sigmaaldrich.com), Right (pure gold appears yellow)

Figure 7: Change in Color of Quantum Dot Nanoparticle Size with Size


For example bulk gold is a shiny yellow metal. Nanoscopic gold, i.e. clusters of gold

atoms measuring 1 nm across, appear as red (Figure 6). Bulk gold does not exhibit

catalytic properties. Gold nanocrystals have excellent low temperature. The properties

of a material vary with the size of the catalysts. Therefore, using nanotechnology, we

can control the processes that make up a nanoscopic material—hence we can control

the properties of the material. By classifying the structures of materials and identifying

the rules governing their behavior, the science of materials has advanced, or more

accurately continues to advance so that we are now at the point where we can craft

nanomaterials with more and more purpose and intent (John Warner, Personal

communication).

3.2 The Research Program of the Sadik lab

A core objective of my research program is to understand the mechanisms of the

transduction of chemical information at interfaces, and to use that knowledge in the

pursuit of innovative sensing technologies, functional materials and devices. The

interactions of polymer-nanoparticle are important in many areas of research; from

biosensors to microelectronics and photovoltaics. Therefore, it is necessary to develop

robust methods for creating advanced functional materials, which should be compatible

with applications in energy, biological systems and the environment. In my lab, we have

developed enabling technologies for constructing nanostructured materials for probing

the biological or environmental systems. These technologies vary from electrochemical

synthesis to phase inversion processes and photopolymerization. We have recently

found the use of phase inversion processes to develop new classes of nanostructured,


π-conjugated, poly (amic) acid membranes (PAA), in which the electrooptical properties

are controlled by the composition and processing conditions (Figure 8). These -

conjugated polymers have high electrical conductivity, redox properties, and extensive

applications, which range from batteries to light-emitting devices. These -conjugated,

one-dimensional semiconductor polymers have the advantage of being easy to develop

into large-area devices, and their energy gaps and ionization potentials can readily be

tuned by chemical modification of the polymer chains. We have encapsulated several

inorganic nanoparticles into -conjugated polymers. Such nanocomposites showed

various interesting characteristics, particularly in the study of dielectric properties,

energy storage, catalytic activity, and magnetic susceptibility.

Figure 8: Samples nanostructured membranes from the Sadik lab


Our laboratory has explored the phenomena that are occurring at the nanoscale levels,

to probe the fundamental synergistic properties between conducting PAA films and

sequestered nanoparticles. One of the working hypotheses was to modulate the

synergistic properties between the metal nanoparticles and the PAA. We explored two

common features— color change upon aggregation and surface Plasmon resonance

(SPR) enhancement. We then correlated these features to the electrochemical signals

that are generated.

Figure 9: PAA motifs facilitate the formation of nanoparticle-polymer cross-linking and coordination on the surfaces of flexible

membranes.

When excited near their Plasmon

resonance level, metal NPs have a

large absorption cross-section and they exhibit a fast electron-phonon relaxation time in

the picoseconds range, which make them very efficient light absorbers. As the particles

grow, the absorption band broadens to cover the visible range. As depicted for silver

nanoparticles in Figure 9, nano-sized nanoparticles have a high electron affinity and can

strip off electrons from the surrounding matrix. These charged particles are stabilized by

the PAA matrix and the repulsive forces between the charged particles prevent their

aggregation. We believe that a fundamental understanding of the new synergistic

properties that may arise from these studies can enable the development of plasmonic

devices.


3.3 Nanosensor System Developed from Our Laboratories

Sensors and sensor systems derived from arrays of nanostructured materials can

impact national security and the safety of emergency responders and criminal justice

personnel. A multifunctional, multi-parameter system based on nanotechnology can

provide information on biohazards and contaminants, toxic agents and gases, as well

as the presence of hazardous conditions such as fires, and even the health of

individuals. The combined set of information can be wirelessly transmitted via a web

of distributed sensor systems to form a comprehensive understanding of the

environment. The Sadik Group at SUNY-Binghamton has developed a portable, fully

autonomous, and remotely operated sensing device known as Ultra-Sensitive Portable

Capillary Sensor (U-PAC).

3.3.1 Description of U-PAC Biosensor Technology:

Currently, there are three prototypes of the U-PAC device. U-PAC-1 is a complete

battery operated, analytical tool that is packaged in a lightweight, portable carrying case

(Figure 10, inset left). It offers significant enhancement in sensitivity for bacterial toxin

detection, metals, proteins and genetic testing. The unit has been used for highly

selective and sensitive detection of biomolecules by means of optical fluorescence. The

UPAC-1 fluidics consisted of a peristaltic pump. The operator was required to manually

place the pump inlet tubing into the sample solution that will through the system. For the


U-PAC 2, (Figure 10 right) we constructed an automated fluidics system that could be

used to solve problems in biological system, energy and the environment. Our work has

repeatedly received recognition as having real impact and significant value for society.

In 2003 research was named by the United States Chronicles of Higher Education as

one of ten research projects across the world which could keep society safer.

In general, UPAC consists of auto sampling, laser source, power source, capillaries,

lens tube and detector packaged in a lightweight, portable carrying case (Figure 10,

left). In U-PAC-2, we have implemented both on-board data collection and wireless

communication to transmit the data. As shown in Figure 10, the capillary is illuminated

along its length by a diode laser, and any emission from the surface bound fluorophore

is guided through the wall of the capillary and collected at the distal end using a

compact photosensor module containing a photo-multiplier tube. The voltage output

from the photosensor module can be monitored via an onboard A/D converter and liquid

crystal display (LCD). It can also be exported to a computer or a PDA interface. Another

unique characteristic of the UPAC is the ability for programmed temperature control.

Multiple capillary analyses have also been accomplished with a motorized miniature

stage controlled by EZVS10 servo driver and are programmed to move each successive

capillary, stop at a specified time, move to the next capillary and return home. UPAC is

protected by 3 US patents and 2 patent applications.


Figure 10 (top left) Schematic of the UPAC-3 for cell culture and viability studies, (top right) prototype of UPAC_3, (bottom left) TM4 Cells Grown in 75 cm

2 Tissue Culture Flask (bottom right) TM4 Cells Grown in a poly-D-Lysine

(PDL) Coated Capillary. Sadik, et al. patents.

The rigid alignment of the optical components and the capillary-integrated closed

fluidics system can provide a durable setup for field use and can easily be adapted to

remote sensing applications. The system can also be adapted for multi-analyte

detection by the use of patterned capillaries or capillary arrays.


3.4 Clean Energy Production

Direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs), particularly those utilizing ethanol as a fuel, have

attracted more attention as alternative energy source. Direct ethanol fuel cells can work

at low temperature, possess high theoretical mass energy density, and are

environmentally friendly. Ethanol Oxidation Reaction (EOR) can be operated both in

acidic or alkaline solutions. Fundamental studies of ethanol electro-oxidation in acidic

media have been mostly performed on platinum. On the other hand, palladium has been

less studied in acidic media due its relatively low performance.

PdNPs stabilized with PAA PdNPs without PAA

EDX confirms formation of PdNPs. C and Cu seen on EDS spectra

X-ray diffraction pattern shows crystalline particles were formed with uniform size & random size


distribution.

HRTEM of nanosilver with PAA: Particles are twinned with 5 fold symmetry.

PAA stabilized the nanoparticles while maintaining wettability

Figure 11: Characterization of Nanostructured PAA using High resolution Transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS).

3.5 Clean Energy from Wastes using "Sustainable Harvesting and

AdaPtive Energy Reduction“ (SHAPER) system

Technologies that are capable of efficiently harvesting, managing, and using energy

without damaging the environment or depleting our resources are essential for a

sustainable future. At the Center for Advanced Sensors & Envronmental Systems in

Binghamton, we are developing the SHAPER system for Clean Energy from Wastes.

Wastewater treatment is a critical part of environmental protection. It is also an energy-

intensive industry. In the United States, nearly 3% of the total electricity supply is

consumed by Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs), and approximately 30% of

WWTP‘s operating budgets are dedicated to electricity consumption. According to the

New York Department of Environmental Conservation, wastewater infrastructure will

require an investment of about $70 billion over the next 20 years. New York State

currently has 702 WWTPs, producing 3,700 million gallons per day (MGD). Out of


these, 145 WWTPS have anaerobic digestors that produce 2,442 MGD. These

anaerobic digestors could potentially be used to produce renewable clean energy. With

increasing energy costs and an emphasis on sustainability, the objective of this work is

to develop sustainable energy harvesting from WWTPs, anaerobic digestors and other

environmental wastes . If time permits, I will discuss more on the SHAPER project,

which combines novel MFC designs, new electrode materials, wireless sensor networks

as well as smart, energy-efficient strategies to monitor the real-time status of the entire

WWTP.

The SHAPER system has the potential to generate clean energy from waste

while reducing the total energy requirements in WWTPs and other water resources. We

are exploring a new route to oxidize ethanol for clean energy production using π-

conjugated PAA in which the three-dimensional electrocatalytic properties are controlled

by the composition and processing conditions. An efficient electrode for a fuel cell must

be conductive, hydrophobic, requires high surface areas and high porosity to enable

mass transport of H+ and it must be corrosion-resistant. Typical supporting materials

used in fuel cells include carbon nanotubes, carbon black, activated carbon,

mesoporous carbon and more porous carbon are being considered e.g. graphene.

While nanotubes are promising, it remains difficult to successfully load these sorts of

supports with novel catalyst. Therefore, it is necessary to develop robust electrode

materials, which should be compatible with the metal ions precursors for making

nanoparticles.

Figure 12 illustrates the vision of SHAPER for harvesting energy from sustainable,

renewable sources while making efficient use of energy usage in WWTPs. SHAPER


exploits the processes already occurring in a waste water facility to harvest energy by

abundant bacterial colonies consuming and breaking down the chemical ingredients in

the waste water. The long-term goal is to use a Wireless Sensor Network to monitor the

real-time status of the entire WWTP, and to develop smart, energy-efficient strategies.

This project should make energy usage more compatible with intermittent sources such

as wind and solar. Ultimately, SHAPER system will improve energy efficiency, reduce

carbon footprints, and reduce operating costs during peak grid loads, potentially saving

~ 40% of the electric cost for WWTPs.

Figure 12: Vision of SHAPER system. MFCs convert chemicals in the waste water into electrical energy, while ultra-low-power micro-controller provides a means of performing real-time and adaptive processing of the sensor signals. This design achieves sustainable monitoring and control of wastewater treatment

with minimal impact to existing infrastructure.

4.0 Applications of Nanotechnology for Energy Sufficiency

Nanotechnology is an enabling technology that can provide significant improvements to

the development of both conventional and renewable energy sources.


Nanotechnologies will play a major role in solar energy through photovoltaic systems.

Nanotechnology innovations on each part of the energy sector, can lead to significant

energy efficiency. These include energy sources (fossil fuels, renewables), energy

change (gas turbines, fuel cells, combustion engine), energy distribution (power

transmission, smart grids, heat transfer), energy storage (chemical, electrical and

thermal) and energy usage (lightning, industrial processes, thermal insulation and air

conditioning).

A multidisciplinary engineering team at the University of California in San Diego has

developed a new nanoparticle-based material for concentrating solar power plants

designed to absorb and convert more than 90 percent of the sunlight it captures into

heat. The new material can also withstand temperatures greater than 700°C and survive

many years outdoors in spite of exposure to air and humidity. By contrast, current solar

absorber material functions at lower temperatures, and that needs to be overhauled

almost every year for high temperature operations.

Concentrating solar power (CSP) is an emerging alternative clean energy market that

produces approximately 3.5 gigawatts worth of power at power plants around the

globe—enough to power more than 2 million homes, with additional construction in

progress to provide as much as 20 gigawatts of power in the coming years. One of the

CSP technology's attractions is that it can be used to retrofit existing power plants that

use coal or fossil fuels because it uses the same process to generate electricity from

steam.


Figure 13: Energy losses from burning 100kJ of gasoline (G. Chen, MIT) and application

of nanotechnology recovery. 10% energy conversion efficiency using nanomaterials

leads to 26% efficiency.

The US NNI has outlined nano-engineered materials in different energy sectors

(http://www.nano.gov/NSISolar ). Examples include automotive products and high-

power rechargeable battery systems, thermoelectric materials for temperature control,

lower-rolling-resistance tires, high-efficiency/low-cost sensors and electronics, thin-film

smart solar panels, and fuel additives, as well as improved catalytic converters for

cleaner exhaust and extended range.

The difficulty of meeting the world’s energy demand is compounded by the growing

need to protect our environment. Many scientists are looking into ways to develop

clean, affordable, and renewable energy sources, along with how to reduce energy

consumption and lessen the burden of toxicity on the environment.

Gasoline 100 kJ

10kJ 30kJ 35kJ

Parasitic heat losses Coolant Exhaust

9kJ

10kJ

6kJ Auxiliary

Driving

Mechanical losses


• Prototype solar panels incorporating nanotechnology are more efficient than

standard designs in converting sunlight to electricity (Figure 14-16). This is a

promising and inexpensive solar power for the future. Nanostructured solar cells

are already cheaper to manufacture and easier to install, since they can use

print-like manufacturing processes and can be made into flexible rolls rather than

discrete panels. Newer research suggests that future solar converters might even

be “paintable.”

Figure 14: Nanotechnology for Energy Applications: solid state lightning, solar cells and batteries (Image courtesy of Dr. Celia Merzbacher, VP for Innovative Partnerships Semiconductor Research Corporation


• Nanotechnology is improving the efficiency of fuel production from normal and

low-grade raw petroleum materials through better catalysis, as well as fuel

consumption efficiency in vehicles and power plants through higher-efficiency

combustion engines that reduce internal friction.(Figure 14-16)

• Nano-bioengineering of enzymes is aiming to enable conversion of cellulose into

ethanol for fuel, from wood chips, corn stalks (not just the kernels, as it is today),

unfertilized perennial grasses, etc.

• Nanotechnology is already being used in several new types of batteries that are

less flammable, quicker-charging, more efficient, lighter weight, and that have

higher power density and hold electrical charge longer. One new lithium-ion

battery type uses a common, nontoxic virus in an environmentally benign

production process.

Figure 15: New solar panel films incorporate nanoparticles to create lightweight, flexible solar cells. (Images courtesy of Nanosys and Hessen)


• Nanostructured materials are being pursued to greatly improve hydrogen

membrane and storage materials and the catalysts needed to realize fuel cells

for alternative transportation technologies at reduced cost. Researchers are also

working to develop a safe, lightweight hydrogen fuel tank.

• Various nanoscience-based options are being pursued to convert wasted heat

generated in computers, automobiles, homes, power plants, etc., into usable

electrical power.

• An epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used to make windmill blades

that are longer, stronger, and lighter-weight than other blades to increase the

amount of electricity that windmills can generate.

• Researchers are developing wires containing carbon nanotubes to have much

lower resistance than the high-tension wires currently used for the electric grid

and thus to reduce losses in the transmission lines.

• To power mobile electronic devices, researchers are developing thin-film solar

electric panels that can be fitted onto computer cases and flexible piezoelectric

nanowires woven into clothing to generate usable energy on-the-go from light,

friction, and/or body heat.

• Energy efficiency products are increasing in number and types of application. In

addition to those noted above, others include more efficient lighting systems for

vastly reduced energy consumption for illumination; lighter and stronger vehicle

chassis materials for the transportation sector; lower energy consumption in

advanced electronics; low-friction nano-engineered lubricants for all types of


higher-efficiency machine gears, pumps, and fans; light-responsive smart

coatings for glass to complement alternative heating/cooling schemes; and high-

light-intensity, fast-recharging lanterns for emergency crews.

5.0 The way forward: technical, environmental, economic, social, and

policy dimensions

The Nigerian economy has become too dependent upon petroleum. Making Nigeria

energy sufficient should be one of the priorities of the new democratically-elected

government of President Muhammadu Buhari. If this could be solved, it could be the

main legacy of the President’s tenure. Alternative, renewable and sustainable solutions

must be found. Sustainable development has been defined as the balance of economic

success, environmental protection, and social responsibility. Dimensions of

sustainability includes technical (knowledge and safe development of technology),

environmental (clean, renewable, biodiverse, stable climate), economic (materials,

water, energy, food, overall efficient), social (population growth and needs, governance,

enduring democracy), as well as the sustainability of the planet.

As shown in Table 1, Nigeria has a number of renewable energy sources that can be

fully exploited to achieve sustainable energy development.

To be energy sufficient, it is necessary to minimize energy losses arising from

generation, transportation from source to end user, and to ensure that each sector of

the value added chain is optimized. Implementation of nanotechnology innovations in

the energy sector depends, to a large extent, on the political, economic, social, and

general the conditions.


Table 1: Renewable Energy Potentials

Resource Capacity Comments Large Hydropower 11,500 MW Only 1972 MW exploited Small Hydropower 3,500 MW Only about 64.2 MW

exploited Solar 3.5 kW/m/day-7.0

kW/m/day

Sunshine hours 4 -7/5 hrs./day Wind 2-4 m/s@10m height

mainland Electronic Wind Information disk (available

Biomass Fuelwood 11 million hectares of forest and woodland

Animal Waste 245 million assorted in 2001

Energy Crops and Agricultural Residue

72 million hectares of agricultural land

Sources: Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) 2007; Renewable Energy Masterplan (REMP) 2005; Ministry of Mines and Steel Development (2008)

Nigerian electricity demand is growing exponentially; it is desirable to diversify the

domestic energy mix away from ever-increasing consumption of petroleum products in

order to avert any possible conflict between domestic and export requirements.

Considerations should be given to a mixture of solar, wind, nuclear and biomass sectors

(Table 1). The nation lies within a high sunshine belt and solar radiation is well-

distributed. Nanotechnology can contribute decisively to the optimization of wind, solar

and biomass utilization. There is an urgent need to develop small hydropower plants to

provide electricity for the rural areas and remote settlements.

In Nigeria, hydropower generation accounts for a substantial part of the total electricity

generation mix and the capacity of existing hydropower is still underutilized. Biomass is


a renewable energy source. Currently not yet competitive, biomass could contribute to

future energy mix especially if alternative raw material sources are employed (e.g.

algae, domestic waste, or lignocellulose-containing residual products such as stray and

grass).

In order to implement nanotechnology innovations in the energy sector, the

macroeconomic and social context must be considered. The design of a future energy

system requires long-term investment in research activities based on realistic potential

assessment and careful adaptation of the individual supply chain components (Figure

16).

To facilitate immediate practical implementation of nanotechnological innovations in

Nigeria, an interbranch and interdisciplinary dialog with all players involved will be

required.


Figure 16: Implementation Framework for Renewable and Nanotechnological Innovation in the Energy Sector

5.1 Implementation Framework As noted earlier, the Nigerian government plans to create 40 gigawatts (GW) of

electricity capacity by 2020 compared to the 2009 installed capacity of 6 GW. To active

this goal, the following steps should be emphasized:

1. Institutionalize the Energy Sufficiency and Nanotechnology Innovations: To

meet the goal of domestic electricity generation, the Nigerian government must

institutionalize electricity generation, distribution, usage and application of innovative

technologies. This is the standard model that has been adopted in the highlight

industrialized nations. For any new technology to be truly sustainable, for example, the

previously developing fields of biomedical engineering, computer science, or polymer


engineering, it must be institutionalized within the academic structure through

departments and trained faculty.

Figure 17: Current Government Agencies Connected with Energy generation in Nigeria. Source: Nigerian Energy Commission.

Figure 17 shows the current government agencies that are connected with energy

generation. These institutions must be consolidated for the very purpose of (i) Reducing

dependence on fossil fuels use per kWh of electricity by 2020; (ii) Diversifying the

energy mix by including solar, wind, and biomass, (iii) reducing absolute pollution,

desertification and environmental degradation by 2030 and increasing energy

sufficiency by 2030.

Renewable energy and nanotechnology must become a defined academic discipline,

practiced with different emphases at different institutions, but nevertheless a segment of


the organization. Then sustainable and renewable energy and nanotechnology

innovations can be advanced and practiced within this structure.

2) Implement research & development milestones to ensure that Nigeria

maintains the energy-efficiency goal for next 5-10 years. No nation can become

energy sufficient without research and development.

3) Integrate nanotechnology innovations within the current infrastructure. While

updating or replacing the existing energy infrastructure would be prohibitively difficult

and costly to support a systematic integration of nanotechnology, networks of sensors

are more suitable for immediate and long-term energy solutions. As a practical solution

that incurs very low cost that can be implemented within a short time, it is predictable

that diversity in energy mix can be employed to meet the energy challenges.

Perhaps the first level of implementation is to call the Energy planning and policy

implementation conference to discuss the issues and to proffer solutions. Among other

points (Figure 16), the following step should be emphasized:

• Diversity in the domestic energy mix

• Dialog between individual sectors of the energy sector (Figure 17)

• Invest in Research & Development

• Increase capacity of existing refineries

• Extend the national grid

The first level of consideration should be the update and implementation of the National

Energy Policy of 2003. According to this report, the policy should be implemented at


four levels: National Level, should involve macro-planning and policy implementation as

part of the multi-sectoral national development policies and plans which are the

responsibilities of the National Planning Commission. At the Sectoral Level, they should

involve overall sectoral planning, monitoring and co-ordination of policy implementation

for the energy sector, in all its ramifications. The institutionalized function will ensure the

consistency of the sub-sectoral energy policies and the implementation of the latter is in

accordance with provisions. At the Sub-sectoral Level, more specific sub-sectoral

planning and policy implementation for the development, exploitation and utilization of

the particular energy resources are carried out in the various energy sub-sectors,

namely oil and gas, electricity, solid minerals, etc. These should involve the Ministries of

Petroleum Resources, Power and Steel, Solid Minerals, and others respectively. Other

energy utilization subsectors such as transport, industry, agriculture, as well as research

and development, are also relevant. Finally, at the Operational Level, activities should

involve the execution of the policies and plans developed at the sub-sectoral level by

operational establishments such as the NNPC, NEPA, Nigerian Coal Corporation,

Nigerian Energy Commission and other public and private entities.

6.0 Conclusion

Despite its large oil and natural reserves, approximately 76 million people in Nigeria are

without access to electricity. This lecture has discussed the energy crisis in Nigeria and

asserts that alternative, renewable and sustainable solutions must be found. Nigeria has


a number of renewable energy sources that could be fully exploited to achieve

sustainable energy development. Nanotechnology can contribute decisively to the

optimization of renewable energy derived from wind, solar and biomass resources. The

proposed dimensions of sustainability includes technical (knowledge and safe

development of technology), environmental (clean, renewable, biodiverse, stable

climate), economic (materials, water, energy, food, overall efficient), social (population

growth and needs, governance, enduring democracy), and sustainability of the planet.

Acknowledgements Professor Sadik acknowledges the US National Science Foundation (US-NSF), US-Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), National Research Laboratory (NRL), Defense Threat reduction Agency (DTRA), US-Army Research Office (ARO), Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), National Institute of Standards & Testing (NIST) and New York State Great Lakes Protection Fund. Also acknowledged are the contributions of members of the Sadik research group at the State University of New York at Binghamton (past and present). Sadik laboratory collaborators and CASE colleagues are also acknowledged, including Professors Yu Chen, Sean Choi, Chris Twigg, Lijun Yi, Paul Blythe, and Shiqiong Tong. Others include Professors Magdalena Parlinska & Andrzej Kowal in the Department of Mathematics & Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland.

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