ENDURANCE RESEARCH CONFERENCE 2015eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/19599/1/BT_120213_SSES_Endurance_A...1 Dear Delegates, It is a great pleasure to welcome you all to the University of Kent’s

ENDURANCERESEARCHCONFERENCE 2015September 2015

About Beacon ProjectsBeacon Projects are part of the University of Kent’s 50thanniversary celebrations. The projects illustrate some of theUniversity’s distinctive strengths and provide a platform for futureactivities and aspirations.

Twelve projects were selected from bids across the university,with a focus on improving the student experience, strengtheningour research efforts and extending our international ambitions.All projects started within the anniversary year and will reachformal completion by the end of the summer term 2016. But allare also intended to leave a legacy. Some may deliver a physicallegacy; some an intellectual legacy; some will help to build ourreputation; some may simply help scope and define ouraspirations.

Beacon for Endurance ResearchThe School of Sport and Exercise Sciences’ Beacon Projectconsists of various coherent activities aimed at furtherestablishing the University of Kent as a beacon for enduranceresearch in the UK, Europe and beyond. The EnduranceResearch Conference is one of five activities being undertakenby the School to enhance our reputation for endurance research.The endurance related activities associated with the BeaconProject include an Innovation and Enterprise Day with industrypartners, bursaries for collaborative student research projects,a competition for local secondary schools, Psyching Teamsports psychology support at marathons and half marathons,and the 2015 Endurance Research Conference.

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Dear Delegates,

It is a great pleasure to welcome you all to the University of Kent’s EnduranceResearch Conference 2015. Following the highly successful World Congress ofCycling Science 2014 in Leeds, the aim of this conference is to offer a uniqueconference for sport science students, scientists, health professionals, coaches andathletes with an interest in endurance sports. We are pleased to see so many of youjoining us from all parts of the UK, as well as mainland Europe and from furtherafield. We are situated at the magnificent Chatham Maritime in Kent, theConference has been organised by the School of Sport and Exercise Sciences at theUniversity of Kent as part the University’s Beacon Project.

Over the past 10 years we have established a national and international reputationfor the quality of our academic programmes and applied research on enduranceexercise performance. Many staff and students are involved with applied sportscience, both as researchers and practitioners both in the UK and around the world.The conference is funded by the University of Kent’s Beacon Project and aims tobring together coaches, sports scientists, medical practitioners, students andresearchers to share knowledge from the world of endurance sport. The programmeincludes invited talks from world-leading scientists and practitioners, free posterand oral communications, and lots of opportunities for stimulating debates,questions and answers, and networking. We hope you have a wonderful time andthat you find the Conference challenging, thought provoking and inspiring.

1www.kent.ac.uk/endurance-research-conference

WELCOME

Conference organising team:

Professor LouisPassfield

Dr MarkBurnley

Dr JamesHopker

Dr JohnDickinson

Professor SamMarcora

Dr Glen Davison Bradley Cronk

2 University of Kent / Endurance Research Conference 2015

PRESENTATIONS

Before the session please locatethe room where you will presentwell in advance of your session(see detailed presentationinformation below) andfamiliarise yourself with thelayout.

The oral presentation file format will beMicrosoft PowerPoint. Please be aware thatyour PowerPoint presentation needs a 4:3slide format to use the full screen capacityavailable onsite. The 16:9 slide ratio formatshould be perfectly acceptable but may notfill the entire screen.

Note that you will not be able to present usingyour own laptop computer. Please introduceyourself to the Chair in your presentation roomat least 5 minutes before the session starts.There will also be a Conference volunteer inthe lecture room to help you with logistics, ITand timing of your presentation.

During the sessionThe Chair will introduce you and call you tospeak. Please practice beforehand to ensurethat you do not exceed the maximum timeavailable for your session of 10 minutes. Therewill be time for a brief discussion of up to 5minutes after your talk. A Conference volunteerwill show a yellow card at 8 minutes and a redcard at 9 minutes, in order to guide you withthe timing of your presentation. In order to befair to all presenters and the audience the chairwill follow the specified timetable strictly.Presenters are asked to remain in the room forthe duration of the session.

Poster presentationsPoster sessions will take place in the mainexhibition area on the ground floor of thePilkington Building on Day 2 of theConference. On the day of presentation,please be present at your poster board for thewhole 60 minute period. Please ensure thatyour poster is displayed in its location from09.00 on the day of your presentation.All poster boards are numbered, andpresenters should ensure that their postergoes on the correspondingly numbered board(check information in the detailed programmeon page 22). Presentations should be takendown at the end of the day if you do not want itto be discarded.


PROGRAMME DAY 1

08.00-09.30 Registration

09.30-10.00 Conference opening

10.00-11.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Greg Whyte

Endurance Training and Health: the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

11.00-11.30 Coffee break

11.30-13.00 Thematic sessions

Cycling (room PK008)

Pyschology(room PK014)

Physiology(room PK017)

Dr James HopkerCycling Efficiency: determinants

and trainability

Dr Carla MeijenPsychological Determinantsof Endurance Performance

Dr Samantha WinterThe Complexity of Muscle Fatigue

Free Oral Communicationssee detailed schedule information

on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7

13.00-14.00 Buffet lunch

14.00-15.30 Plenary sessionProfessor Louis Passfield and Dr Mark Burnley

Power Modelling in Cycling: Basic Physiology and Practical Applications


16.00-17.00 Plenary sessionProfessor MariaFrancesca Piacentini

Master endurance and ultraendurance athletes: getting older and performing better

17.00-18.00 Plenary sessionDr Dominic Micklewright

Look-Feel-Think-Go: Information Processing, Prospective Thought and Decision-Making in Pacing Regulation

Wednesday 2 September


PROGRAMME DAY 2


09.00-10.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Guillaume Millet

Fatigue and Ultra-Endurance Performance

10.00-11.00 Plenary sessionDr Barry O’Neil

Ultra-endurance Performance: an Integrated Physiological and Cognitive Approach



Pacing (room PK008)

Triathlon and Ultra-endurance (room PK014)

Nutrition(room PK017)

Dr Lex MaugerRole of Pain in Pacing Regulationand Endurance Performance

Professor Romuald LepersTrends in ultra-endurance

performance: Effects of sex and age

Dr Glen DavisonNutritional interventions to EnhanceImmunity in Endurance Athletes


on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7



Running(room PK008)

Medical Aspects of Endurance Sport(room PK014)

Multidisciplinary(room PK017)

Dr Charles PedlarBalancing Health and Performance

in Elite Distance Runners

Dr John DickinsonRespiratory Disorders in EnduranceAthletes: Diagnosis and Treatment

Professor Federico SchenaBioenergetics and Biomechanics

of Cross-Country Skiing


on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7


on pages 6-7


16.00-17.00 Free Poster Communicationssee detailed schedule information on page 22

17.00-18.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Romain Meeusen

Overtraining and Overreaching in Endurance Athletes

Thursday 3 September


PROGRAMME DAY 3


09.00-10.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Stephen SeilerPolarised Training

10.00-11.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Samuele Marcora

Psychobiological Strategies to Improve Endurance Performance


11.30-13.00 Plenary sessionProfessor Yannis Pitsiladis and Professor Andy JonesThe Sub 2-hour Marathon: Nature or Nurture?


14.00-15.30 Plenary sessionDr Kevin Currell and Ms Wendy Martinson

The Science and Practice of Nutrition for the Endurance Athlete


16.00-17.00 Open LectureDr Alex Hutchinson

“It’s All in Your Head!”: Brain Training, Neuroscience, and the Limits of Endurance

Friday 4 September

FREE ORAL PRESENTATIONOVERVIEW

Free Oral communications by thematic session

Day 1


Cycling (room PK008) Psychology (room PK014) Physiology (room PK017)

12:15 Oral presentation 1

Ischemic preconditioning enhancescritical power during a 3 min-all outcycling test, Griffin et al.

Oral presentation 4

A metacognitive framework of attentionalfocus and cognitive control duringendurance activity, Brick et al.

Oral presentation 7

An investigation into the analgesic effectsof transcutaneous electrical nervestimulation and interferential current onexercise-induced pain and performance,Astokorki et al.


Impact of mental fatigue on a preloadedtime trial in the heat, Van Cutsem et al.

Oral presentation 5

The sensory limit to exercise tolerance:Pain or Effort?, Staiano et al.

Oral presentation 8

Central command regulates respiratoryfrequency, but not tidal volume, duringhigh-intensity exercise, Nicolo et al.


A single sub-maximal 3-min test forCritical Power estimation, Fontana et al.

Oral presentation 6

The effects of self-talk on performance inan ultramarathon, McCormick et al.

Oral presentation 9

Fatigue-induced loss of knee extensortorque complexity during isometric musclecontractions occurs exclusively above thecritical torque in man, Pethick et al.


Running (room PK008) Medical Aspects (room PK014) Multidisciplinary (room PK017)


Effects of eccentric strength training onrunning economy of recreationalendurance runners, Festa et al.

Oral presentations 22a, 22b and 22ccombined

Different strategies for diagnosing asthmain athletes, Ross et al.

Oral presentation 25

Competing Against a ControlledOpponent: Pacing Behaviour in 4-kmCycling Time-Trials, Konings et al.


The effects of chronic static stretching onrunning economy and muscle-tendonstiffness in trained distance-runners,Crangle et al.


The effect of 2 mg and 4 mg inhaledTerbutaline on 3 km running time-trialperformance in males and females,Molphy et al.


EEG difference between cortical activity inendurance and sprinter elite cyclingathletes, Witon et al.


The validity and reliability of a four-minuterunning time trial in assessing VO2maxand performance, McGawley et al.


7 Deserts – 7 Continents – 7 Weeks: AnOpportunity to Take a High PerformanceApproach to an Ultra-Endurance Quest forWater Awareness, Giorgi et al.


Learning to suffer: the effects ofendurance training intensity on paintolerance and the relationship withimprovements in high-intensity exercise,O’Leary et al.

Day 2

Pacing (room PK008) Triathlon (room PK014) Nutrition (room PK017)


Central regulation and neuromuscularfatigue in exercise trials of differentdurations, Froyd et al.


Effect of deceptively aggressive bikepacing on sprint-distance triathlonperformance and associated perceptualresponses, Taylor et al.


Caffeine Ingestion Abolishes DiurnalVariation in Endurance CyclingPerformance, Mackie.


Pacing behaviour and tactical positioningin 500m and 1000m short-track speedskating, Hettinga et al.


Initiating a dialogue between science andpractice: A proposal and validation of anew model for monitoring training load intriathlon, Piatrikova et al.


Dietary nitrate supplementation enhancesrunning performance in moderatenormobaric hypoxia, Shannon et al.


Pacing strategy during a 24-hourultramarathon running race performed on400-m track, Matta et al.


Cerebral and muscular oxygenationthresholds in individuals with differenttraining status, Pires et al.


Doping for physical activity: caffeineincreases preference and influenceschoice for High Intensity Interval training,Chidley et al.


FREE ORAL PRESENTATIONABSTRACTS

CP was 7 W greater following IPC comparedto Sham (241 ± 65 W v 234 ± 67 W (p =0.011, t = -3.031, respectively). No differencefor W’ (17.9 ± 3.7 v 18.4 ± 3.8 KJ; p = 0.355, t= 0.965) or TWD (60.8 ± 12.7 v 61.1 ± 12.7KJ; p = 0.830, t = 0.220) was observedbetween IPC and Sham, respectively.

IPC enhanced CP during a 3 min all-outcycling test performance in healthy, trainedmales.The increase in CP suggests that highintensity cycling performance could beenhanced via an extension of the heavyexercise domain, possibly delaying entry intothe severe exercise domain.

Oral presentation 2Impact of mental fatigue on a preloadedtime trial in the heatJeroen Van Cutsem1, Kevin De Pauw1,Samuele Marcora2, Romain Meeusen1,3, BartRoelands1,4

1Department of Human Physiology, VrijeUniversiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium;2Endurance research group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent atMedway, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4AG,UK; 3School of Public Health, TropicalMedicine and Rehabilitation Sciences, JamesCook University, Queensland, Australia; 4Fundfor Scientific Research Flanders (FWO),Brussels, Belgium. E: [email protected]

Mental fatigue (MF) is a change inpsychobiological state caused by prolongedperiods of demanding cognitive activity and itis multiple times reported to decrease whole-body endurance performance (1,2,3,4).Recently heat stress has been observed toinduce resting-state cerebral blood-flowalterations, which were associated with slowerreaction times (5). This raises the questionwhether heat may enhance the occurrenceof MF.

Aim: To examine the effect of MF on asubsequent whole-body enduranceperformance in the heat.

Ten endurance-trained male athletes(Age:22±3y; Wmax:332±41W) completed twoexperimental trials in a single blind,randomized, cross-over design in 30°C and30% relative humidity. After 45min of Stroop(MF) or watching a documentary (control),subjects cycled for 45min at a fixed paceequal to 60% Wmax,immediately followed bya self-paced time-trial (TT) in which they had

to produce a fixed amount of energy (equal tocycling 15min at 80% Wmax) as fast aspossible. In the TT subjects started at 80% oftheir Wmax and were free to in- or decrease asdesired from outset. Reaction time, accuracy,power output, heart rate, blood lactate, coreand skin temperature, thermal sensation,ratings of perceived exertion, NASA-Task LoadIndex (NASA-TLX) and mental fatigue-VAS-scale (M-VAS) were assessed.

M-VAS and NASA-TLX both indicated that MFwas higher during and after the Stroopcompared to the control condition (p<0.05),however mean reaction time and accuracy didnot decline significantly during the Stroop. Inthe subsequent physical performance, TT-timedid not differ between conditions(MF:906±30s,C:916±29s) and during the fixedintensity part there was also no differencebetween conditions in heart rate, bloodlactate, core or skin temperature, ratings ofperceived exertion and thermal sensation.

Despite subjective measures (M-VAS andNASA-TLX) indicating that MF was successfullyinduced in the heat, no effect of MF wasobserved during the fixed intensity or the self-paced part of the whole-body enduranceperformance. Possibly the effect of MF onexercise performance is overruled by the heat,or endurance trained athletes possess training-induced adaptations and experience whichafford them the ability to reproduce exerciseperformance following mental exertion (6).

Oral presentation 3A single sub-maximal 3-min test forCritical Power estimationFederico Y Fontana5, Alessandro Colosio5,Daniel A Keir1,2,3, Juan M Murias4, SilviaPogliaghi5

1Canadian Centre for Activity and Aging;2School of Kinesiology, and 3Department ofPhysiology and Pharmacology, The Universityof Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada;4Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary,Canada; 5Department of Neurological andMovement Sciences, University of Verona, Italy.E: [email protected]

Critical power (CP) demarcatesmoderate/sustainable fromheavy/unsustainable exercise intensity. It isused for functional evaluation of exercisecapacity and as a landmark for trainingdesign and exercise prescription.

Cycling

Oral presentation 1Ischemic preconditioning enhancescritical power during a 3 min-all outcycling testPatrick Jonathan Griffin1, RichardFerguson2, Conor Gissane1, StephenPatterson1

1St Mary’s University, School of Sport, Health,and Applied Science, Waldegrave Road,Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, London TW14SX, UK; 2Loughborough University, School ofSport, Exercise and Health Sciences, EpinalWay, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE113TU, UK. E: [email protected]

Aerobic (Bailey et al 2012, MSSE 44:2084-2089; de Groot et al 2010, EJAP 108:141-146)and anaerobic (Jean-St-Michel et al 2011,MSSE 43:1280-1286; Patterson et al 2014,MSSE, in press ) based exercise performancehas been demonstrated to be enhanced withthe use of ischemic preconditioning (IPC).Critical power (CP), which represents thehighest work rate that a steady state can beobtained, is considered to be an importantdeterminant of high intensity endurancebased events (Jones et al 2010, MSSE42:1876-1890), with the curvature constant,W’, the maximum amount of work that can beperformed above CP. Both of theseparameters can be reliably assessed using a3 min all-out test (Burnley et al 2006, MSSE38:1995-2003). This study tested thehypothesis that IPC would improve CP and W’during a 3 min all-out exercise performance inhealthy, trained men.

12 healthy men (mean ± SD: age 30 ± 6years; stature 1.83 ± 0.7 m; body mass 82.1 ±10.7 kg; sum of 7-sites 74.1 ±19.3 mm;O2peak 4.18 ± 0.86 L.min-1), volunteered toparticipate in the study which had local ethicscommittee approval. Participants initiallycompleted a ramp protocol to establishO2peak and GET, and were fully familiarised tothe 3 min all-out, performing it on at least twooccasions. In a randomised, counterbalanceddesign, participant’s performed the 3 min all-out test immediately preceded by IPC (4 x 5min on/off at 220 mmHg bilateral legocclusion) or sham treatment (4 x 5 min on/offat 20 mmHg bilateral leg occlusion). Each trialwas separated by at least 7 days. Pairedsamples t-tests were used to compare the IPCand sham intervention test results for CP, Wprime (W’) and total work done (TWD).


The data from this pilot study indicate that CPcan be accurately and precisely predictedbased on a single submaximal non-exhaustingtrial and blood lactate concentration. Thesefindings would offer a practical and validalternative to direct CP determination.

Psychology

Oral presentation 4A metacognitive framework of attentionalfocus and cognitive control duringendurance activityNoel E Brick, Mark J Campbell, and Tadhg E Macintyre

Department of Physical Education and SportSciences, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland. E: [email protected]

The study of attentional focus in enduranceactivity has operated on a largely atheoreticalbasis since its inception almost four decadesago. While subsequent research hasprogressed our understanding of howcognitive orientations impact enduranceperformance (eg, Brick et al, 2014, Int RevSport Exerc Psychol, 7: 106-34), the need for acomprehensive conceptual framework stillexists. Furthermore, alongside an appreciationof the isolated effects of attentional foci,an understanding of when and why athletesengage specific cognitive strategies isessential. One framework which may addressthese concerns is the metacognitive approach(eg, Efklides, 2014, Psychol Topics, 23: 1-30).

Recently, Brick et al (2015, Psychol SportExerc, 19: 1-9) proposed a metacognitiveframework to better understand attentionalfocus and cognitive control during enduranceactivity. This presentation will provide anoverview of the metacognitive framework,highlighting the influences on, and dynamicsof attentional focus and cognitive controlduring endurance activity.

The metacognitive framework was developedbased on data from semi-structured qualitativeinterviews with ten elite-level endurancerunners. The interviews retrospectivelyexplored attentional focus and cognitivestrategy use during endurance running. Eachinterview was digitally recorded andtranscribedverbatim and was subsequentlyanalysed using a content analysis.

The findings revealed that metacognitivestrategies (ie planning, monitoring, reviewingandevaluating) and metacognitiveexperiences (ie metacognitive feelings,metacognitive judgments and estimates) werefundamental to cognitive control and cognitivestrategy use in elite endurance runners. Thefindings added to the array of active self-regulatory strategies previously reported in theliterature and provide an insight into when andwhy athletes engaged cognitive strategiesduring both training and competitive running.

The metacognitive framework of attentionalfocus and cognitive control during enduranceactivity highlights the importance ofmetacognitive skills and metacognitiveexperiences to cognitive strategy selectionand implementation. While previous attentionalfocus research has tended to study theisolated effects of individual foci, themetacognitive framework allows for a greaterunderstanding of the dynamics of attentionalprocesses during endurance activity.Implications for attentional strategy selection,cognitive control, and effort-based models ofendurance performance will be discussed.Applications of the framework for practice andattentional focus research will also be outlined.

The gold standard measuring techniquerequires a physically demanding and time-consuming protocol that may not be suited inall contexts and populations. We tested thehypothesis that CP can be accuratelyestimated based on a single submaximal non-exhausting cycle ergometer trial and on bloodlactate accumulation ([La-]) determination atthe third minute of exercise.

8 healthy men (26±2 years, 81±11 Kg, 176±6cm, 48±8 ml*Kg-1*min-1) performed 5constant-power trials on a cycle ergometer, tothe limit of intolerance, designed to generate adistribution of time-to-fatigue (tf) between ~1and 20 min. CP was calculated based on theindividual watt–tf relationship. [La-] wasmeasure at rest and at 3 min from exerciseonset and LA accumulation was calculated([La-3min]) as the difference between 3-minand resting value. Based on individual trials>3 min in duration the [La-3min]–% of CPrelationship was obtained and thereafter anestimate of CP (estCP) was computed. CPand estCP were compared by t-test,correlation and Bland-Altman analysis.

The group mean value of CP was 212 ± 37watt. [La-3min] was a significant and linearfunction of the workload, expressed as % ofCP (r2=0.82). estCP (212 ± 34 watt) was notsignificantly different from (p=0.9) and highlycorrelated with (r2=0.85) CP. The averagedifference (bias) between CP and estCP was -0.1 watt (not different from zero) with aprecision of 14 watt.

CONTINUED OVERLEAF


No published studies have measured theeffects of psychological skills training onperformance in a real-life endurance eventusing a randomised, controlled experiment.The present study examined whethermotivational self-talk, which was taught fromdistance using a workbook, improvedperformance in an ultra-marathon. In addition,this study examined the effects of self-talktraining on pre-event self-efficacy andperceived control, which determine challengeresponses to upcoming competition.

Data is being collected annually at a 60-mile,self-supported, overnight ultra-marathon. Arandomised, controlled, posttest-only,experimental design was chosen. Two datacollections have been completed, and 21competitors have participated (19 British, 18male, age = 38.6 ± 8.9 years).

Ultramarathon runners in the experimentalcondition identified motivational self-talkstatements to use during the beginning,middle, and later stages of the ultra-marathon,to counter thoughts about withdrawing effort,and in response to critical moments (eg,getting lost). Participants in the control groupwere taught to use a concentration grid todevelop their concentration.

Self-talk did not affect pre-event self-efficacyor perceived control. Ultramarathon runnerswho were taught motivational self-talkfinished on average 25 minutes faster thanrunners in the control group (Δ= 0.30).

Practically, the true effect size at thepopulation level is unlikely (16.5% probability)to be harmful, possibly trivial (27.1%probability), and possibly beneficial (56.3%probability).

Self-talk possibly produced a performanceenhancement that might benefit ultramarathonrunners. Additional data will be collected atthe next annual ultramarathons to draw firmconclusions

Physiology

Oral presentation 7An investigation into the analgesic effectsof transcutaneous electrical nervestimulation and interferential current onexercise-induced pain and performanceAli Astokorki1 and Alexis Mauger1

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK.E: [email protected]

Transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation(TENS) is the application of low intensityelectrical impulses at frequencies between 0-200 Hz, whereas interferential current (IFC) isa medium frequency (3000-5100 Hz)alternated current with a various beatfrequency ranging from 0-250 Hz. Thesemethods have been shown to reduce pain in avariety of conditions (Marchand et al, 1993;Robinson, 1996; Schmitz et al, 1997).

Oral presentation 5The sensory limit to exercise tolerance:Pain or Effort?Walter Staiano1, John Parkinson2, SamueleMarcora3

1Team Danmark, Danish Institute of EliteSport, Brøndby, 2605, DK. 2School ofPsychology, Bangor University, AdeiladBrigantia, Ffordd Penrallt, Bangor LL57 2AS,UK. 3Endurance Research Group, School ofSport and Exercise Sciences, University ofKent, Chatham Maritime, ME4 4AG, UK.E: [email protected]

It has been proposed that a decision-makingprocess informed by perception of effort andpotential motivation (Marcora et al, 2008,Marcora and Staiano, 2010) limits exercisetolerance. Another view is that people stopwhen the pain/discomfort induced bystimulation of Group III-IV muscle afferentsbecomes intolerable (Amann et al 2008). Theaim of this study was to test these twohypotheses.

After familiarization, 12 adult and healthysubjects undertook two tests: a cold pressortest (CPT) and a cycling test at constant load(80% of peak power output) to exhaustion(TTE). Pain unpleasantness (Cook’s scale, 0-10) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE)(Borg’s scale, 6-20) were rated.

The TTE test lasted 12.5 ± 3.1 min. Using theCPT as anchoring test for painunpleasantness, perceptual ratings atexhaustion showed very high RPE (19.6 ± 0.2)and moderate levels of pain unpleasantness(4.8 ± 0.7).

These findings suggest that people canclearly differentiate between RPE and pain.The fact that well-motivated people stopexercise at very high RPE but only moderatelevels of pain suggests that an effort-baseddecision-making process rather thanintolerable levels of pain/discomfort limitexercise tolerance.

Oral presentation 6The effects of self-talk on performance inan ultramarathonAlister McCormick1, Carla Meijen1, andSamuele Marcora1

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK.E: [email protected]

FREE ORAL PRESENTATIONABSTRACTS (CONT)


CONTINUED OVERLEAF

Oral presentation 8Central command regulates respiratoryfrequency, but not tidal volume, duringhigh-intensity exerciseAndrea Nicolo’1,2, Samuele M Marcora2,Ilenia Bazzucchi1, and Massimo Sacchetti1

1Department of Movement, Human and HealthSciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”,Italy; 2Endurance Research Group, School ofSport and Exercise Sciences, University ofKent, Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK.E: [email protected]

It has been suggested that different inputs thatcontrol ventilation may act separately onrespiratory frequency (fR) and tidal volume(VT). This study aimed to test the hypothesisthat central command regulatespredominantly fR during high-intensityexercise. To this end, we used intermittentexercise to partially dissociate centralcommand and metabolic inputs regulatingventilation. We also measured rating ofperceived exertion (RPE) as an indicator ofcentral command.

Seven well-trained male cyclists performed anincremental test and a 10-min continuous timetrial (TT) as preliminary tests. Four 10-minintermittent protocols with different recoveryintensities (85%, 70%, 55% and 30% of themean power output of the 10-min TT) werethen performed. Work-phase intensity wasself-paced by participants according to a“maximal session effort” prescription.

Self-selected work intensity significantly (P <0.05) increased with the decrease in recoveryintensity (113 ± 7%, 125 ± 4%, 134 ± 7%, 142± 5% of the mean power output of the 10-minTT for 85%, 70%, 55% and 30%, respectively).Respiratory frequency, but not VT, wasproportionally associated with variations inworkload and thus central command.In addition, fR response was dissociated fromVO2 and VCO2 responses. A similar timecourse and no between-trial differences werefound for fR and RPE, and the two parameterswere strongly related (r = 0.87, P < 0.001). Nosignificant correlation was found between RPEand VT.

These findings suggest that central commandis the main regulator of fR, but not VT, duringhigh-intensity exercise. Therefore, futurestudies investigating the mechanismsunderlying exercise hyperpnoea shoulddifferentiate between fR and VT.

Oral presentation 9Fatigue-induced loss of knee extensortorque complexity during isometricmuscle contractions occurs exclusivelyabove the critical torque in manJamie Pethick, Samantha L Winter, andMark Burnley

Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK.E: [email protected]

Healthy physiological outputs arecharacterized by complex temporal patterns,with a loss of such complexity, for examplethrough ageing and disease, thought to reflectsystem dysfunction. Fatiguing isometriccontractions have been demonstrated not onlyto result in decreased torque generatingcapacity, but also to reduce the complexity ofknee extensor torque fluctuations. However,the precise relationships between fatigue,complexity and contractile intensity areunclear. The critical power or torque (CT)demarcates an intensity above which thereis a significant and progressive loss of musclemetabolic homeostasis, and represents acritical threshold for the development ofperipheral fatigue. Based on the distinctphysiological responses seen above andbelow the CT (Burnley et al, 2012, J ApplPhysiol, 113: 215-223), it was hypothesizedthat a fatigue-induced loss of complexitywould occur exclusively above the CT.

Nine healthy participants performed isometricknee extension exercise (6 s contraction, 4 srest) on six occasions for 30 minutes or to taskfailure, whichever occurred sooner. The firstfour trials were performed at a range of targettorques above the CT (trials S1-S4; S1 beingthe lowest intensity), and the final two trialswere performed below the CT (at 50% and90% of CT). Torque output and the vastuslateraliselectromyogram (EMG) were sampledcontinuously, and global, central andperipheral fatigue were quantified usingmaximal voluntary contractions (MVCs) withsupramaximal femoral nerve stimulation beforeand after each trial. The complexity of torqueoutput was determined using ApproximateEntropy (ApEn) and the Detrended FluctuationAnalysis α scaling exponent (DFA α) duringeach contraction of the trials.

Compared with TENS, IFC delivers lowerimpendence of an electrical circuit on skinand subcutaneous tissue, and so IFC shouldactivate deeper fibres than that of TENS (Lowand Reed, 1994; Gladys and Hui-Chan, 2003).However, the relative effectiveness of thesetwo modulations on exercise-induced pain(EIP) has not been considered. Therefore, thepurpose of this study was to investigatewhether TENS or IFC elicits an analgesiceffect during EIP and improves time toexhaustion (TTE) performance.

18 recreationally active, male (n= 11) andfemale (n= 7) participants were recruited. Asingle-blind, crossover, randomised designwith TENS, IFC, and sham conditions was used(on separate visits). The TENS and IFC wereadministered on the bicep of the dominantarm, whereas in the sham condition a dummysimulator produced no current. In eachcondition, participants initially performed 3x5second maximal voluntary contractions (MVCs)against a load cell. The maximum of the valueswas used to establish the 20% MVC for theTTE task. The TTE task involved the participantmaintaining a 20% isometric MVC of the bicepuntil task withdrawal. During the TTE task,perceived pain and RPE were recorded every30 seconds.

Analysis of the results revealed that TENS andIFC significantly increased TTE whencompared to sham stimulation (P = 0.003).ANOVA also revealed a significant main effectof condition for pain intensity during the TTEtest (P = 0.035). No significant changes inrating of perceived exertion (RPE) were foundbetween the three conditions (P > 0.05). A 3 x8 (condition x iso-time) ANOVA revealed asignificant interaction effect for pain intensityduring the TTE test with lower pain intensity inthe TENS and IFC conditions (P = 0.013). Nointeraction effects for RPE were foundbetween the three conditions (P > 0.05).

The findings of the study suggest that TENSand IFC elicit an analgesic effect for EIP, andthat this reduction in pain can improve time toexhaustion performance in the absence ofchanges to perceived exertion.



more for the longest compared to the shortestTT (-42 ± 15% vs -37 ± 13%, P < 0.05) andcentral fatigue was significant for the longestbut not for the shortest TT. SS and PS100decreased while voluntary EMG normalized toM-wave for self-paced contractions increasesduring the end-spurt in all TTs. Two minutesafter exercise cessation, SS and PS100increased by 81-108% and 35-44% (P <0.001), respectively from post-TT, and theamount of recovery was different (P < 0.001)among all TTs.

These data demonstrate that the causes offatigue, the extent of peripheral and centralfatigue, and recovery depend on the durationof self-paced exercise. A critical threshold inperipheral fatigue was not reached prior toexercise termination. Finally, the decrease ofmuscle function during the last part of all TTswas compensated by an increase in skeletalmuscle recruitment to maintain or increaseforce production.

Oral presentation 11Pacing behaviour and tactical positioningin 500m and 1000m short-track speedskatingOlaf Noorbergen1,2, Marco Konings1,Dominic Micklewright1, Marije Elferink-Gemser2 and Florentina Hettinga1

1Centre for Sports and Exercise Sciences,School of Biological Sciences, University ofEssex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom;2Center for Human Movement Sciences,University Medical Center Groningen,University of Groningen, the Netherlands.E: [email protected]

Pacing has been defined as the goal-directedregulation of exercise intensity over anexercise bout in which athletes need to decidehow and when to invest their energy (Smits etal, 2014, Sports Med.44(6):763-775). In this perspective, recent theoreticalframeworks from both heuristic(Renfree et al,2014, Sports Med.44(2):147-158) andecological (Smits et al, 2014, SportsMed.44(6):763-775) perspectivesemphasized the interaction with the (external)environment as a crucial component for theregulation of exercise intensity in addition tointernal characteristics such as (perceived)fatigue. That is, athletes may decide to altertheir pacing behaviour based on internal aswell as external characteristics. An importantexternal characteristic inextricably linked tosports is the presence of competition.

However, the tactical decision-makingprocesses involved when competing againstdirect opponents are still relatively unknown.In short-track speed skating for example,tactical decisions about when to accelerate ordecelerate during a race will not only bebased on the monitoring of energyexpenditure as has been evidenced in timetrial exercise (Foster et al 2004.25:198-204),but potentially also on avoiding collisions,drafting possibilities, motivational aspects,expectations, estimations of opponentsbehaviour and winning chances (Konings etal,2015, IJSPP, in press; Smits et al,2014,Sports Med.44(6):763-775). To gain moreinsight into how athletes interact with theircompetitive environment, the present studyexplored pacing behaviour and tacticalpositioning during 500m and 1000m short-track competitions.

Lap times and intermediate rankings of elite500m and 1000m short-track skatingcompetitors were collected over the season2012/13. Firstly, lap times were analysed usinga MANOVA and for each lap differencesbetween sex, race type, final-rankings, andstage of competition were determined.Secondly, Kendall’s tau-b correlations wereused to assess relationships betweenintermediate and final-rankings. In addition,intermediate rankings of the winner of eachrace were examined.

Top-placed athletes appeared faster thanbottom-placed athletes in every lap in the500m, while in the 1000m no differences werefound until the final four laps (P<0.05).Correlations between intermediate and final-rankings were already high at the beginningstages of the 500m (Lap 1: r=0.59), but not forthe 1000m (Lap 1: r=0.21).

Though both short-track events were ofrelatively short duration, pacing behaviour andtactical positioning differed. During the 500man all-out strategy from the start seems to beoptimal, while the crucial segment of 1000mraces seems to be from the 6th lap towardsthe finish line (after ± 650m).

During contractions below the CT, a modestdegree of fatigue developed, but complexitydid not decrease (Mean ± SEM ApEn at90%CT: from 0.82 ± 0.03 to 0.75 ± 0.06, 95%paired-samples confidence interval, CI = –0.23, 0.10). Above the CT, a substantialdegree of fatigue developed, and torquecomplexity was reduced (ApEn S1: from 0.67± 0.06 to 0.14 ± 0.01, 95% CI = –0.72, –0.33).

Even though fatigue was observed both belowand above the CT, a fatigue-induced loss ofcomplexity occured exclusively duringcontractions performed above the CT. Thecomplexity of torque output reached similarlylow levels at task failure during all tasks aboveCT, implying a similar loss of neuromuscularsystem adaptability that may directlycontribute to exercise intolerance.

Pacing

Oral presentation 10Central regulation and neuromuscularfatigue in exercise trials of differentdurationsChristian Froyd1, 2, Fernando G Beltrami3,Guillaume Y Millet4, and Timothy D Noakes2

1Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Sognog Fjordane University College, Sogndal,Norway; 2Department of Human Biology,University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SouthAfrica; 3ETH Zurich, Department of HealthSciences and Technology, Exercise Physiology,Zürich, Switzerland; 4Faculty of Kinesiology,University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.E: [email protected]

The aim of this study was to determine ifexercise time trials (TT) of different durationswould cause different levels of peripheral andcentral fatigue during exercise and wouldhave different recovery kinetics.

Twelve trained subjects performed TTs of 3,11 and 43 min with repetitive self-pacedconcentric right knee extension at 60 deg∙s-1on an isokinetic dynamometer. Neuromuscularfunction was assessed prior to, during, andafter the TTs using voluntary and electricallyevoked forces

Concentric maximal voluntary contraction(MVC) force, isometric MVC force, evokedpeak force for single stimulus (SS), and ratingof perceived exertion reached similar levels attermination of all TTs. Evoked peak force forpaired stimuli of 100 Hz (PS100) decreased


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Four, 2-way mixed ANOVAs were performed,considering sex, age group (20-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59; 60-69 and 70+ years), athleteperformance (athletes split into 4 groupsbased upon distance covered), and edition asfixed factors in order to identify significantinteractions.Best-fit quadratic regressions ofracing time vs. normalized mean runningspeed (NMRS) were calculated for eachperformance group. Pearson’s product-moment correlations were used to assess therelationship between overall total runningdistance and NMRS from the first and the lasttwo hours. Statistical significance was set atp≤0.05.

Mean race distance of all editions was135.5±33 km (338.9±82.6 400 m laps) with amean active-running time of 22.4±1.3 h. Overalldata showed a reverse J-shaped pacingstrategy and statistical significant differenceswere found between hours 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 8-9, 12-13, 13-14, 21-22 and 23-24.No significant interactions were found betweenracing time and sex (F=1.57;p=0.058) andracing time and age group (F=1.25;p=0.053).Significant interactions were found betweenracing time and performance group(F=7.01;p<0.001) and racing time and edition(F=3.01;p<0.001). Calculated best-fit linesproduced highcoefficients of determination(R²=0.96–0.90;p<0.001) for the equationsNMRS=0.176h²-6.71h+148.123;NMRS=0.264h²-9.595h+166.138;NMRS=0.238h²-9.379h+168.245 andNMRS=0.362h²-12.265h+177.424;performance groups respectively.

A moderate correlation was found betweentotal running distance and NMRS from the firsttwo hours (r=-0.58;p<0.001) but not from thelast two (r=0.03;p=0.480).

In 24-h running races, faster runners started atlower NMRS, displaying a more evenpacingstrategy compared to the slower ones.Though the general behaviour represents areverse J-shaped pattern, it can be suggestedthat every race is unique and tacticalconditions may apply.

Triathlon

Oral presentation 13Effect of deceptively aggressive bikepacing on sprint-distance triathlonperformance and associated perceptualresponsesDaniel Taylor1 and Mark Smith1

1School of Sport and Exercise Science,University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UK. E: [email protected]

Cycling at the highest sustainable intensity (ieisolated time-trial power output) is suggestedas the best strategy to optimise sprint-distance triathlon performance (Suriano &Bishop, 2010, Eur J Appl Physiol, 110, 4:753-760). However, it is unclear how expectations,beliefs and perceptions influence theeffectiveness of aggressive mid-event pacingduring multi-modal endurance events. Taylor& Smith (2014, Physiol Behav, 133:45-52)suggest meaningful changes in triathlonperformance may result from deceptive runpacing. However, it is yet to be determinedwhether deceptively aggressive bike pacingallows triathletes to maximise their sustainableintensity in this discipline, without theimpairments in run performance typicallyassociated with this strategy. It is also evident that the importance ofdifferent perceptual responses to pacing andso-called ‘reserve’ access during multi-modalexercise remains unclear. This study thereforeexamined the effects of deceptivelyaggressive bike pacing on sprint-distancetriathlon performance and associatedperceptual responses.

Ten non-elite, competitive male triathletescompleted three separate simulated sprint-distance triathlons (0.75 km swim, 500 kJ bike,5 km run), the first of which established‘baseline’ (ie personal best) performance (BL).

Oral presentation 12Pacing strategy during a 24-hourultramarathon running race performed on400-m trackGuilherme Matta1, Arthur Henrique Bossi1,Leonardo Pertence1, Pedro Lima1, RenatoBianchini1, Jorge Roberto P de Lima1 andJames G Hopker2

1Faculdade de Educação Física e Desportos,Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz deFora, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 2School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent, England.E: [email protected]

Many studies have investigated pacingstrategies adopted in short, middle, andultramarathon running races but these arelargely limited to ~11 h. Whether the generallypositive pacing strategies demonstrated in thepreviously published ultramarathon studiesare also reflective of much longer durationevents, such as 24-h running races, is yet tobe determined.

Descriptive data from 398 male and 103 femaleparticipants in 5 consecutive editions of a 24 hultramarathon running race (2008 to 2012)were obtained from the official race website,based on a minimum 19.2 h (80% duration)active-running cut-off. Mean running speedsfrom each hour were percentage normalized tothe total 24 h mean speed and 1-way RMANOVA with Bonferroni pairwise comparisonswere used to identify where significantdifferences existed within overall pacing data.



minimising the degree of uncertainty aboutchanges in performance (trial-error process),4) preventing non-functional overreaching andovertraining syndrome. Despite literaturesurrounding the area of monitoring trainingincreasing significantly, no consensus on agold-standard method that could reliably andat the same time regularly monitor highperformance endurance training environmentis evident. Therefore, the purpose of this studywas to propose and apply a new monitoringmodel that could provide coaches and sportspractitioners in triathlon (swimming, cycling,running) with representative training load on adaily basis without compromising on reliability,feasibility, validity and objectivity.

In the case study conducted, the model wasapplied to a female competitive triathlete (n=1)(21 yrs., 71.6 kg, 178cm, VO2MAX 56ml/kg/min) for 23 weeks. Aspects of thetraining load and intensity distribution inrelation to the relevant parameters of triathlonperformance were monitored over individualsessions, and by week and month (ie frommicro- through to macro-cycle level). Trainingtasks were monitored and prescribed basedon rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and/orspeeds and power outputs associated with thecorresponding blood lactate concentrationsthat were obtained in incremental step tests forcycling and running and in a traditional fieldstep test for swimming.

Over 23 weeks, the triathlete performed 256sessions (78 swim, 65 bike, 77 run, 36strength training) ie 11 ± 2 sessions/wk (mean± SD). Swim, bike and run training loads wererespectively, 6180.5 a.u. (268.7 ± 98.6a.u./wk), 7893.1 a.u. (343.2 ± 95.3 a.u./wk)and 8426.7 a.u. (366,4 ± 96.5a.u./wk). Swim,bike, and run training volumes were,respectively, 325.4 km (14.2 ± 5.1 km/wk),3988.8km (173.4 ± 47.8 km/wk) and 1084.3km(47.1 ± 10.5 km/wk). Training performed atintensities below triathlete’s individual lactatethreshold (LT), between LT and the onset ofblood lactate accumulation (OBLA), betweenOBLA and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2MAX)and above VO2MAX for swim were 77.7 ±19.8%, 4.2 ± 8.2%, 13.3 ± 9.6%, 0.45 ±0.72%; bike 74.0 ± 10.1%, 8.6 ± 6.8%, 16.9 ±9.0%, 0.50 ± 0.56% and run 88.5 ± 16.8%, 7.0± 14.6%, 4.5 ± 7.9%, 0.01 ± 0.05%.

The proposed model has provided data in afeasible and representative way, which can beanalysed in relation to the long termapplication of traditional training principles,meeting the demands and nature of triathlon.Thus providing a response to current coaches’requirements for monitoring training load intriathlon as an endurance sport.

During the remaining two trials athletesmaintained a cycling power output 5% greaterthan BL, before completing the run as quicklyas possible. However, participants wereinformed of this aggressive cycling strategybefore and during only one of the two trials(HON). Prior to the alternate trial (DEC),participants were misinformed that meancycling power output would equal that of BL,with on-screen feedback manipulated todisplay power output 5% below its true value.In addition to performance measures, ratingsof perceived exertion (ie ‘global’ RPE), effort,muscular pain, breathlessness, thermaldiscomfort, affect and arousal were recordedthroughout each trial.

Making triathletes aware of aggressive cyclepacing (HON) led to impaired run and overallperformance (1350 ± 135 and 4356 ± 384 s,respectively) relative to DEC (1333 ± 129 and4339 ± 395 s, respectively). However, therewere no significant differences between trialsin perceptual responses during swimming,cycling or running.

Expectations and beliefs can have apractically meaningful effect on triathlonpacing and performance, although theimportance of different psychophysiologicaland emotional responses remains unclear.Whilst these findings are conducive with someform of ‘template’ being used by multi-sportathletes to interpret psychophysiological andemotional strain, they suggest that individualconstructs such as RPE and affect may beless closely tied with pacing than has beeninferred previously.

Oral presentation 14Initiating a dialogue between scienceand practice: a proposal and validationof a new model for monitoring trainingload in triathlonEva Piatrikova1, Nicholas Willsmer2

1BSc student of Sports Performance,Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.E: [email protected]. 2Supervisor, TeachingFellow, Director of Studies (SportsPerformance), Department for Health,University of Bath

The literature surrounding monitoring trainingdiscusses the multiple purposes it serves inan applied context. Those consistentlyappearing involve: 1) providing scientificexplanation and justification for changes inperformance, 2) providing data for evaluatingand reviewing performance/training, 3)


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When % WPEAK was analyzed, a thresholdmain effect (P < 0.001) was observed, thusMOX, COX1 and COX2 thresholds weresignificantly different from both VT1 and VT2 incyclists and untrained individuals. Additionally,a group main effect and a near threshold bygroups interaction effect for MOX and COX2,were observed. Thus, the MOX was greater incyclists than untrained individuals (P = 0.06),but COX2 was lower in cyclists than inuntrained individuals (P = 0.08; effect size d=0.95).

Different physiological thresholds occurred ata greater absolute power output in cycliststhan in untrained subjects. However, results of% WPEAK suggest that the greater physicalstatus and exercise tolerance in cyclists maybe related to an improved threshold in muscleoxygenation (MOX), but reducedthreshold incerebral oxygenation (COX2). Thus, mostimprovement in exercise tolerance may berelated to an increased muscle capacity togenerate power output, together with a greatercapacity to tolerate low levels of brainoxygenation.

Nutrition

Oral presentation 16Caffeine Ingestion Abolishes DiurnalVariation in Endurance CyclingPerformanceJordan Mackie1

1The School of Sport Exercise and HealthSciences, Loughborough University, UK.E: [email protected]

It is well documented that, irrespective ofmechanisms, exercise performance variesdiurnally. Strategies to offset the morningperformance deficit are of interest to athletesand exercise practitioners regularly involved intraining and (or) competition at this time. Whilevarious approaches have been previouslyinvestigated, including prolonged warm-upsand manipulation of training, little attention hasbeen given to caffeine in this regard. Caffeine(1-3-5 trimethylxanthine) is a potent adenosinereceptor antagonist, with a wealth of researchto support its ergogenic properties. While themechanistic bases behind these effects remainunclear, some of those mechanisms proposedcould conceivably interact with the variouscircadian physiological variations thought tounderlie the morning performance deficit.

Thus, it is of both practical and theoreticalinterest to study the interaction of caffeinesupplementation and time of day with regardsto exercise performance.

8 trained cyclists and triathletes volunteered toparticipate in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, repeat-measures study. In arandomised and counter-balanced order,participants completed 4 experimental trials.Following an initial visit for subjectcharacterisation and familiarisation, trialsinvolved a simulated 20 km time trial (TT) on aWattbike ergometer under each of thefollowing conditions: morning (AM; TTcommencing at 08:30) and evening (PM; TTcommencing at 16:30) TTs, with (CAFF) andwithout (PLA) the prior consumption ofcaffeine (ie AMCAFF, AMPLA, PMCAFF,PMPLA). Caffeine was administered inanhydrous-capsule form (3 mg·kg·-1) 1-hourprior to the TT. Each TT was preceded by a25-min warm-up at 40% of peak poweroutput.

Overall performance times (minutes; mean(SD)) were 32.7 (2.8), 31.9 (2.8), 32.2 (2.8),31.8 (2.6) for AMPLA, AMCAFF, PMPLA, andPMCAFF, respectively. Significant (p < 0.05)main effects were found fortime-of-day (p =0.048) and treatment (p = 0.014), with nosignificant interaction (p = 0.122). Thecorresponding effect sizes (Hedges’ g) forcaffeine in the morning and afternoon were1.14 and 0.58, respectively. Time series datashowed a significant three-way interactionbetween treatment, time-of-day and stage (p <0.001), with post-hoc analyses revealing asignificant time-of-day x treatment interactionfor time to complete the first 10 km of the TT(p = 0.01). Aural temperature prior to, and RPEduring, the TT were not significantly differentbetween conditions.

Caffeine appears to be an effective strategyto improve morning endurance cyclingperformance. Effect size analysis would alsosuggest caffeine to be a more potentergogenic aid when administered in themorning.

Oral presentation 15Cerebral and muscular oxygenationthresholds in individuals with differenttraining statusFlávio O Pires1, Carlos A Anjos2, RobertoCovolan2, Fernando Magalhães3, FabianoPinheiro1,4, Carlos Ugrinowitsch4

1Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group,School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities,University of São Paulo, BR, E:[email protected]; 2Neurophysics Group, GlebWataghin Physics Institute, University ofCampinas, BR; 3School of Arts, Sciences andHumanities, University of São Paulo, BR;4School of Physical Education and Sports,University of São Paulo, BR.

Physiological thresholds have been applied toendurance training prescription and physicalstatus evaluation in clinical interventions.Recently, Racinais et al (2014) showedbreakpoints in cerebral (COX) and muscular(MOX) oxygenation in well-trained cyclists;whereas two breakpoints could be determinedin COX (COX1 and COX2), only one thresholdwas determined in MOX. The objective of thepresent study was to compare COX and MOXthresholds in individuals with different trainingstatus. Further, these oxygenation thresholdswere compared to ventilatory thresholds(VT1 and VT2).

Nine well-trained cyclists (VO2MAX of 52.4 ±6.2 mL.kg.min-1 and peak power output of368.4 ± 19.3 W) and nine untrained healthyindividuals (VO2MAX of 38.3 + 4.7mL.kg.min-1 peak power output of 244.7 ±29.5 W) undertook a maximal incremental testuntil exhaustion, comprised of 25 W/minincrements. Data of COX (pre-frontal lobe)and MOX (vastus lateralis) was recorded at25Hz throughout the test, and expressed asdelta concentration in μM. Gaseous exchange(breath-by-breath) were further obtainedthroughout the test. Crude data wasnormalized to 1 Hz and COX, MOX, andgaseous exchange data was plotted as afunction of time. The physiologicalbreakpoints were visually identified by threeevaluators, and expressed as percentage (%)of the peak power output (WPEAK).A repeated measures ANOVA was performedto compare physiological thresholds betweengroups (P < 0.05).

Overall results were that all thresholdsoccurred at a greater absolute power outputin cyclists than in untrained individual.



Nitrate supplementation significantly elevatedexhaled NO versus placebo (Placebo: 20.5 ±20.5 vs. Nitrate: 45.5 ± 30.6 p.p.b., p = 0.044).Average VO2 was significantly lower duringsteady-state exercise (Placebo: 27.6 ± 5.4 vs.Nitrate: 25.0 ± 4.5 ml·kg-1·min-1, p = 0.029),whilst average SaO2 was significantly greater(Placebo: 85.9 ± 2.6 vs. Nitrate: 88.2 ± 2.8 %,p = 0.02) with nitrate ingestion. TTperformance was significantly faster (Placebo:346.8 ± 43.3 s vs. Nitrate: 335.1 ± 42.3 s, p =0.01, Cohen’s d = 0.272) following nitratesupplementation.

Dietary nitrate supplementation increasesexhaled NO, reduces steady-state VO2, andelevates SaO2 during steady-state exercise,and results in a small (3.4 %) but significantimprovement in 1500 m TT performancerelative to a placebo. Therefore, nitrate-richbeetroot juice may represent a viableergogenic aid for enhancing 1500 m runningperformance in trained athletes exercising inmoderate normobaric hypoxia.

Oral presentation 18Doping for physical activity: caffeineincreases preference and influenceschoice for High Intensity Interval trainingJoel B Chidley1,2, Gurprit S Lall2, andSamuele M Marcora1

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,ME4 4AG, UK; 2Medway School of Pharmacy,University of Kent, ME4 4TB, UK.E: [email protected]

High intensity interval training (HIIT) has beensuggested as an effective exercise strategyfor its time efficiency and ability to producerapid improvements in physical fitness.However, although the rewards of HIIT can begreat, so are the costs as it requiressubstantial effort and discomfort. We proposethe use of caffeine to facilitate HIIT byreducing the perception of effort anddiscomfort. The primary aim of the study wasto investigate whether the effect of caffeineon perceptual responses to HIIT areassociated with changes in exercisebehaviour, as determined by choice.

In a double-blind, repeated measurescrossover design, eight sedentary subjectscompleted nine HIIT sessions, three of whichserved as familiarisation, the remaining sixwere experimental. Prior to each experimentalvisit subjects ingested a capsule of caffeine(3 mg/kg), or placebo. Subjects completedthree sessions with each treatment in arandomised and counterbalanced order.An increm?@ABCDAE?BFGHCCDIBJ?FDKO2max test was completed to determine trainingintensities. Training sessions consisted of a 5-minute warm-up, followed by 4 x 4-minuteblocks of high intensity uphill walking (90–95%HRmax), interspersed by 3-minute ‘recovery’periods (65–75% HRmax). During exercise,heart rate (HR) was recorded whilst scalesrating the perception effort (RPE), affectivevalance (FS), and exercise induced musclepain (pain) were used to measure acuteperceptual responses. Additionally,questionnaires were used to quantify self-report exercise enjoyment and liking. Finally,10-minutes post exercise, session RPE wasrecorded and subjects were asked to choosewhether they preferred ‘this’ or the previoussession – providing 3 opportunities to choosebetween treatment pairs.

Caffeine ingestion reduced RPE (p = 0.037)and FS scores were more positive (p = 0.036),whilst there was no main effect of pain (p =0.120), or HR (p = 0.861) during training.Exercise enjoyment and ‘liking’ increased (p =0.025 and p = 0.027 respectfully), sessionRPE was lower (p<.001), and caffeinetreatment sessions were chosen significantlymore often, with 80% of choices in favour ofcaffeine and 20% for placebo (p = 0.007).

As expected, low dose caffeine ingestioninduced a more positive psychologicalresponse toHITT. We demonstrated for the firsttime that the psychological effect of caffeine isassociated with a significant change inexercise behaviour, with subjects preferring toexercise with caffeine. Future research shouldinvestigate whether this preference canincrease long-term adherence to HIIT.

Oral presentation 17Dietary nitrate supplementationenhances running performance inmoderate normobaric hypoxiaOliver Shannon1, Lauren Duckworth1,Matthew Barlow1, David Woods1,2, JohnO’Hara1

1Research Institute for Sport, Physical Activity,and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds,LS16 3QS; 2Defence Medical Services, RoyalCentre for Defence Medicine.E: [email protected]

Dietary nitrate supplementation increasesnitric oxide (NO) bioavailability, and has beenshown to improve exercise performance inhypoxia (ie a low-oxygen environment) insome (eg Muggeridge et al, 2014, Med SciSports Exerc, 46:143-150) but not all (egArnold et al, 2015, Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab.,40: 590-595) studies. The precise conditionsunder which nitrate consumption is ergogenicremains to be established. The aim of thisstudy was to assess the effects of nitrate-richbeetroot juice on the physiological response tosteady-state exercise, and 1500 m time-trial(TT) performance in trained runners exercisingin moderate normobaric hypoxia (equivalent to2500 m altitude).

Six trained runners (age: 23.3 ± 1.9 years;sea-level AO2max: 64.6 ± 10.2 ml·kg-1·min-1;altitude AO2max: 53.1 ± 7.9 ml·kg-1·min-1)visited the laboratory on five separateoccasions, including incremental running testsin normoxia (1) and hypoxia (2) to determineAO2max; a familiarization trial (3); and twoperformance trials (4 + 5). On the morning ofthe performance trials, participants consumed138 ml concentrated nitrate-rich (reported tocontain ~12.5 mmol nitrate) or a nitrate-deplete (~0 mmol nitrate) beetroot juice. Threehours later, participants completed two, 15minute steady-state bouts of running at 45and 65 % of altitude AO2max,respectively,and a 1500 m TT in a normobaric hypoxicchamber (PIO2 107.5 mmHg, FIO2 ~15 %).Exhaled NO was measured pre-supplementation, pre-hypoxic exposure, pre-exercise and post-TT. VO2 was monitoredduring steady-state exercise, and arterialoxygen saturation (SaO2) was monitored pre-hypoxic exposure, pre-exercise, duringsteady-state exercise, and post-TT.


Reference Velocity (RV) as the medium speedbetween the first and the second ventilatorythreshold was used to identify individualtraining intensity. RV ranged 95-140% for HITand 70-105% for LIT and EST groupsrespectively. EST group, in addition to LITprogram, performed once a week, 4 sets of 7repetitions of Yo-Yo Leg Press (StockholmSweden). Before and after training eachrunner underwent metabolic measurements(Cosmed Quark, Italy) on a treadmill fordetermination of VO2max and RE at threesubmax steady state speeds, Lower LimbFree Fat Mass (LLFFM) by DXA (Holometric,USA) and 1RM leg-press (Technogym, Italy).Data were analysed by two way ANOVA andsignificance level was set at p<0.05.

The combined endurance and strengthtraining (EST group) produced a small butsignificant improvements in RE (pre 4.5±0.3Jm-1, post 4.3±0.4 Jm-1 (p ≤ 0.05)) and 1RMleg press (pre 143.8±35.8 kg, post162.4±37.3kg (p ≤ 0.05) while no change inRE was found in HIT (pre: 4.6±0.3, post4.6±0.4 Jm-1) and in LIT (pre: 4.2±0.5, post4.2±0.3). VO2max and LLFFM did not showsignificant modification in any groups.

The data from the present study show asignificant increase of muscle strength withassociated improvement of RE in EST group,with no concomitant changes in the V’O2maxand in the lower limb muscle mass.

Improvement of RE in well trained recreationalrunners without any reduction in maximalaerobic power is probably due to changes instructural muscle characteristics (fibres,architecture) and intra and inter muscularcoordination.

Oral presentation 20The effects of chronic static stretchingon running economy and muscle-tendonstiffness in trained distance-runnersDean Crangle, and Phil Hayes

Dept Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation,Northumbria University.E: [email protected]/E: [email protected]

For decades static stretching (SS) has widelybeen advocated to improve runningperformance despite a lack of experimentalevidence. An inverse relationship between sit-and-reach scores and running economy (RE)has however been found (Jones 2002).Thishas led to the hypothesis that a stiffer muscle-tendon unit (MTU) would improve RE.Paradoxically, a SS training programme wouldbe expected to reduce MTU stiffness, makingthe MTU compliant not stiffer. The purpose ofthis study was to examine the effects of a 6-week SS programme on MTU stiffness andRE.

After baseline testing twelve well-traineddistance-runners (9 male and 3 female) wererandomly allocated into either a SS group(N=6) or control group (N=6). Both groupscontinued their normal training while thestretching group performed 6 weeks of SS.The SS intervention required the participantsto perform 8 stretches of the hip and lowerlimb, which have been shown to be themuscles groups recruited during running(Craib et al, 1996), 3-times per week for thewhole 6-weeks. The stretches included; Hipflexion, extension, external rotation andabduction, knee flexion and extension, dorsiand plantar flexion. Measures of MTU stiffnessand muscle architecture of the lateralgastrocnemius-muscle tendon complex wererecorded using ultrasound imagining. Rangeof movement (RoM) was assessed along withRE in a non-fatigued and fatigued state todetermine whether flexibility training had anyeffect on fatigue resistance.

Running

Oral presentation 19Effects of eccentric strength trainingon running economy of recreationalendurance runnersLuca Festa1, Cantor Tarperi1, KristinaSkroce1, Antonio La Torre2, FedericoSchena1

1Department of Neurological and MovementScience, University of Verona, Italy;2Department of Sport, Nutrition and HealthSciences, University of Milano.E: [email protected]

Several studies showed the effects ofcombined strength and endurance training onendurance performance and runningeconomy (RE). However, few studiesinvestigated specifically the effects ofeccentric strength training. Aim of thisresearch was to measure variation of RE aftera combined eccentric strength-endurancetraining versus low or high intensity endurancetraining programs.

Twenty-nine well trained recreational runners(age 44 ± 8 y; VO2max around 49.7 ± 5.2 mlmin-1 kg-1) were randomized in 3 trainingprograms: combined eccentric strength-endurance (EST), low intensity endurance(LIT), high intensity training (HIT). Each groupperformed 8-week of training, 3 times a week;training volume (time x intensity) wasaccurately equalized among the groups.

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Ten recreational athletes (5 males, 5 females;32 ± 7 y) completed five incremental tests toexhaustion (INC) including a verification phase(VER) on a treadmill and five, 4-min RunTTs.The order of INC+VER and RunTT trials wasalternated and counter-balanced. The INCand VER protocols were externally controlled,with incline increasing by 1% every minuteduring the INC. By contrast, the RunTTprotocol was athlete controlled, with runningspeed self-adjusted via a laser system fitted tothe treadmill (and incline fixed at 1%).Performance was measured as time toexhaustion for INC and VER and distancecovered for RunTT. Heart rate (HR) wasmonitored continuously throughout eachprotocol. RPE and lactate were assessedimmediately post-exercise and at 1-minintervals for four minutes post-exercise,respectively.

The CV for VO2max was not significantlydifferent between INC, VER and RunTT (1.9,2.2 and 1.7%, respectively) but forperformance was significantly differentbetween all types of test (4.5, 9.7 and 1.8% forINC, VER and RunTT, respectively; P<0.005).VO2max was significantly higher for INCcompared with VER and RunTT (59.2 versus58.0 and 57.6 mL/kg/min, respectively;P<0.001) and Bland-Altman limits ofagreement showed a bias ± 95% of 1.5 ± 3.1mL/kg/min for INC versus RunTT. Peak HR wasalso significantly higher for INC compared withRunTT (181 versus 177 beats/min; P<0.001),while peak RER and RPE were not different.Peak lactate was higher after RunTTcompared with INC (10.13 versus 9.22mmol/L; P<0.001).

A RunTT appears to provide more reliableperformance data in comparison to INC;however, VO2max values were ~ 1.5mL/kg/min lower and peak lactate wassignificantly higher.

Medical

Oral presentation 22aFEV1/FVC Ratio as an indicator ofasthma in athletesRoss, Michael. Rothman Institute,Philadelphia, PA, United States; Eck,Brandon

Asthma in athletes can be difficult to diagnose.Symptoms are less likely to be an aid indiagnosis and baseline lung volumes may beelevated because of endurance training.

Asthma in athletes falls into two categories:baseline asthma with an exercise trigger andexercise induced bronchoconstriction. Theformer implies that the baseline pulmonaryfunction testing is abnormal and the latterimplies that the baseline testing is normal. Thecriteria for normal, however, do not seem to berelevant to endurance athletes. Enduranceathletes have an average FEV1 of 112% ofpredicted. Part of endurance training is aresulting increase in lung volume. Ifendurance athletes are compared to thenormal population, an athlete may havenormal values but still be bronchocontstricted.Without serial flow volume loops from thesame athlete it is very difficult to tell if theircurrent lung function represents their normal.This study evaluates the utility of internalcomparisons in athletes. The FEV1/FVC ratiohas been used in the diagnosis andstratification of the contract on her disease butit has not yet been used for athletes. This ratioexplains how much of the lung can be forciblyemptied in one second. The study examinesthe utility of an internal control (FEV1/FVCratio) to diagnose asthma in athletes.

A retrospective chart review was performedon 324 patients who underwentCardioPulmonary Exercise Testing. Values forthe pre and post exercise FEV1, FVC, GoldCriteria. A linear regression analysis wascompleted.

There is a statistically significant correlationbetween post exercise FEV1/FVC ratio andworsening obstruction measured by theGOLD criteria and decreasing FEV1.

The FEV1/FVC ratio is useful for diagnosingasthma in athletes who have undergone anexercise challenge test. By comparing theathlete to his own lung function, the difficulty intrying to compare an athlete to the normalpopulation can be avoided.

Oral presentation 22bSmall Airway Disease Prevalence inAthletesRoss, Michael. Rothman Institute,Philadelphia, PA, United States; Eck,Brandon

To examine the prevalence of small airwaydisease in athletes. Our current workingdefinition of asthma ignores the fact thatathletes frequently have a FEV1 that is higherthan expected. Athletes may have airwayrestriction that is not measured by FEV1 alone.

The SS intervention did not improve RoM atthe hip or lower-limb or muscle thickness(P>0.05), however there was an increase inpennation angle (F (2,15) = 6.353, p=.010).No significant differences were found for RE,vertical or leg stiffness (P>0.05) in non-fatigued or fatigued conditions post-stretchtraining (P>0.05). Both minimal detectablechange (MDC) and smallest worthwhilechange (4%) were used to determine practicalsignificance in the change in RE. MDC wasexceeded in both the control and SS group ina non-fatigued condition, however only in theSS group in a fatigued condition. Similarlysmallest worthwhile change was exceeded byboth the control (-10.1%) and SS group(11.2%) in non-fatigued conditions, while onlythe SS in fatigued conditions (7%).

The main findings were that the SS interventionwas sufficient to produce structural changes tothe lateral gastrocnemius and reducepennation angle. This did not however lead toincreases in muscle fibre length or greaterRoM. RE did not change in either the non-fatigued or fatigued condition.

Oral presentation 21The validity and reliability of a four-minute running time trial in assessingVO2max and performanceKerry McGawley1, Simon Platt1, C MartynBeaven1,2, and Glenn Björklund1

1Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre,Department of Health Sciences, Mid SwedenUniversity, Östersund, Sweden; 2NationalSports Institute, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia. E: [email protected]

Incremental tests to volitional exhaustion arewidely used to assess VO2max. However, theneed to establish starting workloads, stagedurations, and step increments makeadministration problematic. Moreover, thevalidity of such tests has been questioned(Beltrami et al, 2012, Br J Sports Med, 46:23-29; Mauger & Sculthorpe, 2012, Br J SportsMed, 46:59-63). Short time trials represent asimpler and more ecologically validalternative to assess VO2max andperformance across exercise modes (Crouteret al, 2001, Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33:644-647; Ansley et al, 2004, Med Sci SportsExerc, 36:1819-1825; McGawley & Holmberg,2014, Int J Sports Physiol Perform 9:32-40).The aim of the current study was to assessthe reliability and validity of a treadmillrunning time trial (RunTT) for the assessmentof VO2max and performance.


Oral presentation 22cVCex/VCmax Ratio as an indicator forasthma in athletesRoss, Michael. Rothman Institute,Philadelphia, PA, United States; Eck,Brandon

Asthma in athletes can be difficult todiagnose. Because of the higher than normallung volumes, an athlete may be inbronchospasm yet still have normal lungvolumes when compared to the referencevalues for the general population. It is hypothesized that if there is a limitation ofairflow, the Vital Capacity during exhalation(VCex) will be less than the maximal VitalCapacity (VCmax) and the resultantVCex/VCmax ratio (VC ratio) will be less than 1.

Retrospective review of 359 Cardio-Pulmonary Exercise Tests in athletes werereviewed. The VCex/VCmax ratio wascalculated for every patient. A VCex/VCmaxratio less than one was labeled as limitedexpiratory flow. A VCex/VCmax ratio of onewas considered normal.

A Spearman rho was used to analyze therelationship between the VCex/VCmax ratioand FEV1, FEV1 change with exercise, FEF50,FEF50 change with exercise and FEV1%. Pre-exercise FEV1, Post-exercise FEV 1, andpercent change of FEV1 were all significantlybut not strongly associated (rho = 0.16 to0.24).

Using the VCex/VCmax ratio is helpful forscreening for asthma and exercise-inducedasthmain athletes using spirometry. TheVCex/VCmax ratio correlates with the FEV1 aswell as an exercise-associated change inFEV1, makingthis a good screening tool forbaseline asthma in athletes as well asexercise induced asthma. The VCex/VCmaxratio has a role in the diagnosis of asthma inathletes in whom the FEV1 values mightotherwise be normal for the generalpopulation, but might be lower than expectedfor athletes. Treating asthma for anormalization of the VCex/VCmax ratio mightbe viable in patients with exertional dyspnea

Oral presentation 23The effect of 2 mg and 4 mg inhaledTerbutaline on 3 km running time-trialperformance in males and femalesJohn Molphy1, John Dickinson2, NeilChester1, Mike Loosemoore3, and GregWhyte1

1Research Institute for Sport and ExerciseSciences, Liverpool John Moores University,Tom Reilly Building, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L33AF, UK; 2Endurance Research Group, Schoolof Sport and Exercise Sciences, University ofKent, Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK;3English Institute of Sport, Sheffield, UK.E: [email protected]

Limited research investigating the effects ofinhaled Terbutaline on exercise performancehas led to uncertainty regarding the inclusionof Terbutaline on the WADA List of ProhibitedSubstances and Methods. The purpose of thestudy was to investigate the effect oftherapeutic and supratherapeutic doses ofTerbutaline on 3 km running time-trialperformance in males and females.

Six males (Mean ± SD age 25 ± 1.5 years;height 178.3 ± 1.4 cm; weight 79.7 ± 6.3 kg)and six females (Mean ± SD age 21.7 ± 3.1years; height 162.4 ± 10.7 cm; weight 57.6 ±6.6 kg) provided written consent and agreedto take part in the study. Participants had nohistory of asthma confirmed by a negativeeucapnic voluntary hyperpnoea (EVH)challenge. All participants completed 3 kmrunning time-trials under three separateconditions in a double blind randomiseddesign; placebo, 2 mg and 4 mg inhaledTerbutaline. Measurements of time, heart rate,VCO2, VO2, respiratory exchange ratio (RER),ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and bloodlactate were taken during all trials, a 3-waymixed model analysis of variance was used tocompare between groups, between conditionsand between time-points, significance was setat P<0.05 for all analyses.

There were no significant differences in timetaken to complete the 3 km time trial betweenconditions in either males (922.8 ± 104.7 s;928.2 ± 118.7 s; 951.7 ± 138.5 s) or females(1289.5 ± 156.4 s; 1285.4 ± 97.8 s; 1245.3 ±88.2 s) for placebo, 2 mg inhaled and 4 mginhaled Terbutaline, respectively. Both malesand females demonstrated significantincreases in heart rate, VCO2, VO2 and RPEduring each time trial (p<0.001).

Perhaps the lack of diagnostic utility of theFEV1 explains the lack of utility of symptomsand history. If an athlete has dyspnea withexertion, it is important to look atcomprehensive measures of lung function,not just the FEV1. This study looks at multiplelung parameters to examine the prevalenceof abnormalities.

In this retrospective review, 304 athletes withexercise related respiratory symptoms orfatigue were tested to exhaustion using aramp protocol. Pulmonary function testing wasperformed before and 10 minutes afterexercise by recording both large airwaymeasurements (FEV1) and the small airwaysmeasurements (FEF 25/75.)

304 athletes were included. 281 (92.4%) hadnormal or above normal pre-exercise FEV1(average FEV1 = 104.92% of predicted)(SD14.26). FEF 25/75 averaged 70.73% ofpredicted in the normal FEV1 group (SD 24.7).Of the normal FEV1 group, 183 (65.12%) hadsmall airway limitations (F25/75 <80.) 23athletes (7.6%) had reduced FEV1 pre-exercise (average=62.7% of predicted)(SD13.11). 23 of 23 (100%) of these athletes hadbelow normal FEF 25/75 values(<80%predicted) (average = 38.9% ofpredicted)(SD 15.7). Following exercise, thenormal FEV1 group had 43 subjects (15.3%)with significant decreases in FEV1 of > 10%(Average decrease was 17.6% )(SD 7.07) thatwould qualify as exercise-inducedbronchospasm. 10 of these 43 (23.2%)subjects also had a decrease in the FEF 25/75of > 26% (average change was 15.7)(SD was19.38). In the abnormal FEV1 group, 5 of the23 subjects (21.7%) had a drop in their FEV1following exercise, with 0 of 25 (0%) subjectsshowing worsening FEF 25/75 (decrease >26%).

Athletes presenting with fatigue and/orrespiratory symptoms during exertion had lessthan predicted small airway measurements.By only including FEV1 in the diagnosis ofasthma and exercise induced asthma, smallairway pathology in nearly half of the “normal”patients is overlooked. Because the treatmentis different for exercise induced asthma andbaseline asthma that worsens with exercise,better criteria for asthma in athletes must bedeveloped so that athletes who needtreatment aren’t overlooked.

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The process of developing the strategyincludes the identification of potential threatsto performance and health and the key areasfor impact, as well as the development ofspecific action plans.

As the goal of the run is not time-, but ratherdistance-based, the management of acuteand chronic fatigue and the minimisation ofillness and injury risk have been establishedas the overarching goals of the strategy.Potential threats to performance and healthduring the challenge include accumulatedrunning and travel mileage and the associatedphysical and mental fatigue; jet-lag and flight-induced oedema; extreme environmentalconditions including heat, cold, dryness andaltitude; increased metabolic energyexpenditure; compromised immune health;running technique and running surfaces; andthe limitations to carrying equipment that canhelp with controlling core body temperatureand for recovery, including water, ice and ice-baths. The key areas that can have a positiveimpact on the potential threats includenutrition, strength and conditioning,physiology, running mechanics and recovery.

The development of action plans to addressthe potential threats is currently an on-goingprocess. In addition to supporting Mina tocomplete the challenge, a unique opportunityexists to study a single case of responses toendurance exercise in a variety of extremeenvironments.

Multidisciplinary

Oral presentation 25Competing Against a ControlledOpponent: Pacing Behaviour in 4-kmCycling Time-TrialsMarco J Konings1, Patrick P J MSchoenmakers1, and Florentina J Hettinga1

1Centre for Sports and Exercise Science,School of Biological Sciences, University ofEssex, Colchester, UK.E: [email protected]

The interaction with the environment isemphasized recently as a main determinant foranathlete’s decisions regarding pacing (Smitset al, 2014, Sports Med. 44:763-775). A betterunderstanding of how athletes respond to theiropponents could assist athletes to optimallyprepare themselves for the tactical decision-making involved in athletic competitions.

A positive effect of a direct opponent onperformance has been reported using virtualopponents that were based on previousperformances of the athletes. However, incompetitive situations, athletes might have todeal with opponents who adopt or preferdifferent pacing profiles. By manipulating thepacing strategy of the virtual opponent, thepresent study explored how athletes respondto different opponents in a well-controlled,experimental setting. It is hypothesized thatathletes adapt their decision-makingregarding their regulation of exercise intensityover the race based on the strategy of theopponent. We expect that a faster or slowerstarting opponent will invite athletes to adopta respectively faster or slower starting pacingstrategy.

Twelve physically active participantscompleted four 4-km time trials (TT) on aVeloTron cycle ergometer. After a familiarizationTT (TTFAM), participants performed three TTsin random order with respectively no opponent(TTNO), a virtual opponent who started slowerand finished faster compared to FAM(TT99/103), or a virtual opponent who startedfaster and finished slower compared to FAM(TT103/99). Repeated-measures ANOVAs(p<0.05) were used to examine differences inpacing and performance related to poweroutput, velocity,cadence and RPE.

TT99/103 and TT103/99 were completedfaster compared to TTNO (385.5±27.5,385.0±28.6, and 390.6±29.3 s, respectively).An interaction effect for condition x distance(F=3.944, P<0.001) indicated differences inpacing profile between conditions. Post-hocanalysis revealed that a less aggressivestarting strategy was adopted in TTNOcompared to TT99/103 and TT103/99 duringthe initial 1000m. Finally, participants showedhigher power outputs during TT103/99compared to TT99/103 in the initial 750m.

The present study is the first to show that thebehaviour of an opponent affectsdecisionsregarding pacing in laboratory-controlled conditions. Our main findingsindicated that pacing behaviour differeddepending on the pacing profile of theopponent. That is, a faster starting opponentevoked a faster start strategy in the competingparticipant compared to a slower startingopponent. Our findings emphasize theinteraction with the environment as a maindeterminant for an athlete’s decisionsregarding the regulation of exercise intensity,especially during the initial race stages.

Mean ± SD increases in FEV1 were 11 ± 117ml; 200 ± 107 ml and 233 ± 81 ml followingadministration of Placebo, 2 mg and 4 mginhaled Terbutaline respectively. Heart ratevalues were significantly higher in femalesthan in males (P = 0.049) and completiontimes were also higher in females comparedto males (P<0.001).

There was no significant improvement in 3 kmTime-Trial performance following the inhalationof either 2 mg or 4 mg inhaled Terbutaline.The current findings suggest that the use ofacute therapeutic and supratherapeutic dosesof inhaled Terbutaline during exerciseprovides no performance enhancement.

Oral presentation 247 Deserts – 7 Continents – 7 Weeks: AnOpportunity to Take a High PerformanceApproach to an Ultra-Endurance Questfor Water AwarenessHedda Giorgi1, Nathan Stewart1, LisaTarquini3 and Mina Guli1

1School of Science and Technology, Universityof New England, Armidale, Australia; 2EndureAthletica, Hong Kong; 3Acttivo, Hong Kong;4Thirst, China. E: [email protected]

In early 2016, Mina Guli, CEO and founder ofThirst will run 1680 km in seven weeks throughdeserts on each of the seven continents toraise awareness for the world’s water shortagecrisis and its possible solutions. Mina will run40 km per day for six of each seven days,followed by a 48 hr travel window. While thedesert environment provides a topicalbackdrop for the water awareness campaign,it presents numerous challenges to humanexercise performance. Among these will bethe consequences of running in severe heat,as in the Simpson Desert in Australia inJanuary (>35°C); in extreme cold (0—20°C),as in the desert in Antarctica; and at altitude,as in the Atacama Desert in South America(>2500 m). Moreover, there will be little to notime for acclimatisation to each desert.To enhance the chances of completion of thischallenge, a team of high performance sportprofessionals have come together to supportMina and her coach. The team’s first task is todevelop a comprehensive strategy for both thepreparation and the actual run itself that isguided by the scientific literature and best-practices in high performance.


There is a difference of power in the gammaband for F3 (p < 0.03) and F8 (p < 0.03); inthe beta band for F3 (p = 0.035); in the alphaband for P3 (p < 0.05) and O1 (p < 0.03). Inthe theta band for O1 (p < 0.03) and O2 (p <0.02); and in the delta band for O2 (p < 0.03).

In this experiment, the absence of effect withToT during the cognitive task can be explainedby the short duration of the task. In contrast,we find significant difference between bothgroups of elite athletes with stronger EEGpower activation in endurance compared tosprinter cyclists.

Oral presentation 27Learning to suffer: the effects ofendurance training intensity on paintolerance and the relationship withimprovements in high-intensity exerciseThomas J O’Leary1 and Martyn G Morris1

1Department of Sport and Health Sciences,Oxford Brookes University, UK.E: [email protected]

The ability to tolerate muscle pain and/orunpleasant sensory afferent feedback hasbeen proposed as a limiting factor to high-intensity exercise tolerance. Whilst endurancetraining increases ischaemic muscle paintolerance, it is unclear whether the metabolicand sensory strain of the training is animportant factor and if there is a relationshipwith improvements in high-intensity exercisetolerance. We sought to examine the effect ofendurance training of disparate metabolicdemands, matched for work, on ischaemicmuscle pain and high-intensity exercisetolerance.

VO2max (50%∅), before and after 6 weeks (3times per week) of cycling endurance training.The TTE was repeated post-training at anintensity calculated from pre-training fitness(same absolute intensity, ABS) and post-training fitness (same relative intensity, REL).Additionally, ischaemic muscle pain tolerancewas determined using hand-grip exercise.Following baseline testing, participants wererandomly assigned to completing either high-intensity interval training (HIIT, n=9) or workmatched moderate-intensity continuousendurance training (CONT, n=8). The HIITgroup completed 6-8 intervals of 5 min at50%∅ each separated by 1 min rest. TheCONT completed the equivalent work at 90%LT (~60–80 min).

VO2max (l·min-1)(9-10%, P<0.05) with nodifference between groups (P>0.05). TTEincreased in the ABS trial following HIIT(148%, P<0.05) and CONT (43%, P<0.05) withthe increase greater following HIIT (P<0.05).However, TTE only increased during the RELtrial following HIIT (40%, P<0.05) and wasunchanged following CONT (P>0.05).Ischaemic muscle pain tolerance increased inthe HIIT group (45%, P<0.05) but wasunchanged in the CONT group (P<0.05). Theincrease in ischaemic pain tolerance wascorrelated with the improvement in TTE duringthe REL (r=0.56, P<0.05) but not ABS trial(r=0.05, P>0.05).

The results from this study suggest anincreased tolerance of unpleasant sensoryafferent feedback contributes to the increasedtolerance of high-intensity exercise completedat the same relative metabolic strain as pre-training. This increase in ischaemic paintolerance is not dependent on thephysiological adaptations induced by trainingbut by the metabolic and sensory strain of thetraining. These results help to betterunderstand the improvements in exercisetolerance induced by endurance training.

Oral presentation 26EEG difference between cortical activityin endurance and sprinter elite cyclingathletesAdrien Witon1, Walter Staiano2, DavidMartin3, Shona Halson3, Samuele Marcora4and Ling Li1

1Future Computing Group, School ofComputing, University of Kent, UK; 2DanishInstitute of Elite Sport, Danmark; 3AustralianInstitute of Sport, Australia; 4EnduranceResearch Group, School of Sport andExercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK;E: [email protected]

Mental fatigue usually incurs performance withTime on Task (ToT). Analysis of EEG can beused to monitor mental state and identifymental fatigue. Mental fatigue is of primaryinterest for health and well-being, but is alsoimportant in sport research to increaseperformance.Mental fatigue can lead to decreased physicalperformance, however little is known aboutmental fatigue in elite athletes, and betweendifferent population of athletes. We focus ourresearch on the cognitive changes betweenelite endurance cycling athletes and elitesprinter cycling athletes.

We record EEG on 20 elite athletes (with 10 foreach group), during resting state and acognitive task. Each participant has beenrecorded for two minutes eyes open and twominutes eyes closed (resting state) before andafter a 30 minutes cognitive task (stroop task)performed on a computer. We analyse effectsof ToT by evaluating the change in EEG powerin five frequency bands (delta [1 − 4Hz], theta[4 − 7Hz], alpha [8 − 13Hz], beta [13 − 30Hz],and gamma [30 − 45Hz]) during five minutesat the beginning compared to five minutes atthe end of the task. Based on thesemeasures, we test the statistical significancein each channel for each frequency band at agroup level (between-subject factor: sprintervs endurance) and at a task level (within-subject factor: beginning of the task vs end ofthe task) by an ANOVA. A permutation testwas used to avoid multiple comparisons.

From this analysis, we do not find any effectwith ToT during the cognitive task and nointeraction effect is found either. However, at agroup level, we find that power is greater inendurance group than sprinter group.


POSTER PRESENTATIONABSTRACTS

Poster presentation 1Analysis of movement patterns andphysiological demands of Elite Futsalreferees during matchesHawkar S Ahmed1, Glen Davison1, andDavid Dixon2

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime, ME4 4AG, UK; 2School ofHealth, Sport and Bioscience, University ofEast London, SportsDock, DocklandsCampus, University Way, London E16 2RD

The relationship between activity profile andphysiological aspects of players and refereeshas been examined in various sports but thereis only one study on Futsal referees (Rebelo etal 2008). The Rebelo et al (2008) study wasundertaken during the Portuguese 2005–2006season. Since this time, FIFA haveimplemented a rule change which may affectthe activity demands and characteristics ofmatches. Therefore, re-examination of Futsalreferees will aid Federations to obtain accuratedata on the physiological demands. The aimof the present study was to examine theactivity profile and physiological aspects ofFutsal referees during official matches.

Eighteen elite Futsal referees in Iraq FutsalSuper League matches (mean ± SD: age,34.1 ± 3.2 years; height, 171.2 ± 5.3 cm;weight 72.0 ± 3.6 kg) participated in thisstudy. Nine matches (2 referees per match)were filmed and time-motion analyses andphysiological measurements were performed.Movements were classified into categories(standing, walking, jogging, low intensityrunning, moderate intensity running, highintensity running, sprinting, backwards andsidewards running). Heart rate (HR) wasrecorded during matches using a telemetryheart rate monitor. Blood lactate (BL) wasmeasured pre, at half time and after thematch. Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE),using the session RPE method, wasperformed after the first half and after thematch.

Total distance covered was 5943.4 ± 246.1 m(3374.0 m ball in play), which is similar to thefindings of Rebelo et al (2008). Total walkingdistance (1741.4 ± 38.8 m) was lower whilstsprinting (148.9 ± 59.0 m), jogging (754.9 ±9.7 m) and backwards running distances(654.7 ± 26.0 m) were higher than reported byRebelo et al (2008). All other activities (low,moderate and high intensity running andsideways running) were similar to thosereported by Rebelo et al (2008). Total distance

covered (3093.5 m vs. 2849.9 m) and averageHR (151 vs 144 bpm) were significantly higher(P<0.05) in the first half compared to thesecond half. BL was elevated over restingvalues (1.27 ± 0.32 mmol/L) at half time andpost-match (1.98 ± 0.53 and 2.12 ± 0.41mmol/L, respectively, P<0.05) but there was nodifference between the half-time and post-match values (P>0.05). Session RPE was notdifferent for the first half compared to thesecond half (6.8 vs 7.1, P>0.05).

The present findings suggest the refereescovered a similar total distance to thatpreviously reported. However, there appearsto be some differences in activitytypes/patterns. This may be a result of the rulechange and/or could reflect the different studypopulations (ie Portuguese vs Iraqi).

Poster presentation 2A longitudinal six-month monitoringstudy in a top-professional cycling teamof type I diabetic athletesArtuso Paolo1,Federico Y Fontana2, SilviaPogliaghi2

1Novo Nordisk Cycling Pro team, Atlanta,Georgia, USA; 2Department of Neurologicaland Movement Sciences, University of Verona,Italy. E: [email protected]

Road cycling is a multifactorial sport in whichperformance is affected by differentdeterminants that may vary during the trainingseason. Anticipating these variations is one ofthe key factors in athlete’s care andcompetitive success. For this reason, thecharacterization of specific athleticpopulations over a training season is essentialto guide training, monitor seasonal variationsand quantify the evolving demands of thesport, even more so when adelicate/vulnerable population is involved(type I diabetic cyclists). Our aim is to monitorstructural and functional changes in a singleteam of professional type I diabetic cyclistsduring a typical training season.

16 type I diabetic male cyclists (25±4yr) werestudied between November 2014 and May2015.Thestudy was divided into threeperiods: i) ‘preparatory-phase’ (Oct-Dec); ii)‘specific-phase’ (Jan-Mar) and iii)‘competitive-phase’ (Apr-May). At the end ofeach phase, measurements included trainingregimen, body weight (recorded to thenearest 0.2 Kg) %body fat by plicometry andlean body mass; power output at the so-called anaerobic threshold (POAt) andmaximal Oxygen consumption (VO2max)

were measured during a maximal incrementaltest; peak 5-s power output was determinedduring a race (peakPO5s). In order to identifya meaningful difference between theobserved parameters, a minimum detectablethreshold was set (as the between subjectsSD * 0.2) for each variable1.

Over a training season athletes cycled29044±3370Km, 947±123hrs, with anelevation gain of 310129±16519m. At the endof the preparatory-phase, body weight(70±5Kg), body fat (9±2%), LBM (63±4Kg),POAt (285±38W), VO2max (64.1±7.2 ml∙min-1∙kg-1) and peakPO5s (980±143W) weresimilar to those of comparable healthyathletes2. Overall, between the preparatory-phase and the sub-sequent specific-phase oftraining, the average rate of change for bothstructural and functional parameters rangedfrom ±1% to ±30% (-1%weight, -2%LBM, -30%bf, +5%VO2max, +14%peakPO5s,+5%aPOAT) to further maintain these valuesin the competitive phase.

Ours is the first available training data on apopulation of type I diabetic professionalcyclists. This preliminary investigation indicatesthat athletes improve both structural andfunctional parameters from the preparatory tothe specific-phase and thereafter maintainthem during the competitive-phase.Characterizing these top-athletes, that are ableto maximize their performance even underelevated training loads while managing type Idiabetes, provides a comprehensive insightinto the evolution of this specific athleticpopulation over a typical training season. 1.Batterham A.M., Hopkins W.J. Makingmeaningful inferences about magnitudes.SportScience. 2005:9:6-13. 2.Pinot J., GrappeF. The record power profile to assessperformance in elite cyclist. Int J of SportsMed.2011:32(11): 839-44

Poster presentation 3The Effects of one and two exhaustiveexercise sessions in one day on someimmune factors in endurance runnersB Boobani1, D Sheikholeslami vatani2, andM Abdi3

1Faculty of Physical Education and SportScience Azad University, Karaj Branch, I RIran; 2Faculty of Physical Education and SportScience Kurdistan University, I R Iran;3Department of Clinical Biochemistry,Kurdistan University of Medical Science,Sanandaj. E: [email protected]


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The purpose of the present study was toexamine whether a first bout of exhaustiveexercise can change inflammo-endocrineresponses to a second subsequent similarexercise bout on the same day. Cortisol, TNF-α, and Adenosin Deaminas Enzyme(ADA) were assessed during a progressiveendurance protocol.

8 well-trained endurance runners (age 23.1 ±3.4 years; weight, 66.2 ± 9.5 kg; Height 175.3± 10.1 cm, and BMI 21.4 ± 1.5 kg/m²)participated in a design with three trials in thecourse of 11 days: 1) control condition day(rest) (C); 2) one bout of exhaustive exerciseon a day (15.30-17) (E1); and 3) two bouts ofexhaustive exercise on a day with 4 h restbetween them (10-11.30 and 15.30-17)(E2).Standard meals were provided at 20:00(previous night), 08:00 (2 h before exercise)and 12:00. Venous blood was sampled at restbefore exercise, immediately after exerciseand 4 h after exercise.

The results of the present study using two wayrepeated ANOVA showed that Cortisolincreased significantly after exercise in bothE1 and E2 situations (comparison to control)(p<0.05). But, there were no differencesbetween exercise trials (p>0.05).However, exercise-induced increase of TNF-αwas only significant during two bouts ofexhaustive exercise on a day (E2) (p<0.05).ADA did not alter among trials.

The result of this study indicated that two(compared to one) aerobic exhaustiveexercise sessions in a day can enhanceinflammatory responses (ie TNF-α) but not thecortisol response.

Poster presentation 4A Comparison of the Moxy andPortaMon Near-Infrared SpectroscopyDevices at Rest and During ExerciseJay Collison1, Chris E Cooper1, ChrisMcmanus1, Ben Jones1

1School of Biological Sciences, University ofEssex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ,UK. E: [email protected]

The Moxy (Fortiori Design LLC, USA) is aportable near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)device that claims to measure muscleoxygenation via a novel method. The aim ofthis study was to compare muscle oxygensaturation values (SmO2%) from the Moxy,with a well-established NIRS device(PortaMon, Artinis, NL) that uses spatially

resolved spectroscopy (SRS), both at rest andduring an isometric quadriceps contraction inmale and female subjects.

Resting SmO2% values were collected from21 males (age 22.3 ± 4.8 yrs, height 1.79 ±0.1 m, weight 78.2 ± 10.6 kg, quadricepskinfold 11.6 ± 5.1 mm) and 9 females (age21.7 ± 2.4 yrs, height 1.69 ± 0.04 m, weight65.1 ± 7.4 kg, quadricep skinfold 26.4 ± 4.8mm). Exercise SmO2% values were collectedfrom 5 males (age 21.2 ± 2.7 yrs, height 1.78± 0.1 m, weight 71.5 ± 7.7 kg, quadricepsskinfold 11.3 ± 5.3 mm). The portable deviceswere positioned on the belly of the dominantvastus lateralis, midway between the greatertrochanter and the lateral epicondyle of thefemur. SmO2% valueswere measured usingMoxy and PortaMon at rest and duringrepeated isometric contractions at 30 and50% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC),holding each contraction for 2 x 30 s periods.Ethical approval was granted by the Universityof Essex Ethics Committee.

At rest, the mean SmO2% was not significantlydifferent among males between the Moxy andPortaMon (75.2 ± 13.1% and 72.8% ± 3.5%respectively). In contrast, the females showeda significant difference (P < 0.05) betweendevices (92.7 ± 5% Moxy and 77.3 ± 2.7%Portamon). Both devices showed significantdesaturation at 30% and a significantly greaterdesaturation at 50% MVC. However, the peak∅ SmO2% was significantly different betweenthe devices (P < 0.01) during both 30% (-36.5± 7.3% and -9.4 ± 4.4%) and 50% MVC (-57.3± 14.9% and -14.2 ± 2.3%) for the Moxy andPortamon respectively.

Resting values between the two methodsdiffered only in the female group. Thissuggests that the larger adipose layer was aconfounding influence, given that this hasbeen shown previously to affect muscleoxygen saturation measurement. The reasonsfor the differences during exercise are lessclear, and may relate to a difference in thevolume of tissue interrogated or the algorithmsused. The PortaMon SRS method uses 3, 3.5and 4 cm source: detector separations andthe Moxy uses 1.25 and 2.5 cm. The nearinfrared light is therefore likely to penetratedeeper into tissue with the PortaMon.However, this is unlikely to be the only issue;differences in the algorithms are also likely tobe significant. In the absence of anunderstanding of the reasons for thesediscrepancies, we caution against comparingdata from these two systems at this time.

Poster presentation 5A novel method to assess changes inbody fluids: 2015 Giro d’Italiabioimpedance vector analysisexperienceAndrea Giorgi12, Andrea Nicolo’3, MaurizioVicini2, Michele Bisogni1, Jacopo Talluri4,Marco Bonifazi1

1Department of Medicine, Surgery andNeuroscience, University of Siena, Italy;2Androni Giocattoli-Sidermec ProfessionalCycling Team - Medical Board, Italy;3Department of Movement, Human and HealthSciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”,Italy; 4Clinical research and developmentdepartment Akern/Rjl Systems –Florence/Detroit. E: [email protected]

Giro d’Italia is widely acknowledged as one ofthe major strenuous cycling stage races.Preservation of riders’ hydration status isparamount for a good performance. Thebioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA)and the phase-angle (PA), derived frombioelectrical impedance raw values (ie,resistance, R and reactance, Xc) allows aqualitative and descriptive assessment ofbody composition and hydration status,independent of equations and bodycomposition models, that are known to be themajor weaknesses of traditional bioelectricalimpedance analysis (Gatterer et al 2014, PlosOne, 9(10): e109729). The aim of the presentstudy was to assess potential changes in BIVAvariables during the 2015 Giro d’Italia.

8 professional road cyclists competing in the2015 Giro d’Italia were involved in the study.Food intake was controlled by the teamphysicians. The amount of fluid intake duringand after the stages was freely chosen by theathletes. The first ten stages data wereanalyzed according to the BIVA method(Piccoli et al, 1994,Kidney Int; 46: 534-539) bystandardizing measurements of R and Xc bythe height of the subjects (ie, R/H and Xc/H)and expressing them in ohm/m. R, which is the opposition to the flow of analternating current through intra- andextracellular ionic solution, is plotted on the x-axis, whereas Xc, which is the capacitivecomponent of tissue interfaces, cellmembranes and organelles, is plotted on they-axis (Lukaski, 2013, Eur J Clin Nutr; 67Suppl 1:S2-9) and the sum of them yield theimpedance vector length. Each evaluation wasperformed six hours after the end of the stage.


POSTER PRESENTATIONABSTRACTS (CONT)

Cyclists’ training load was assessed bymeans of session rating of perceivedexertion (Session RPE) (Foster et al, 2001, JStrength Cond Res;15(1):109-15).

Vector length showed a significant decrease(P<0.005) during the first ten Giro d’Italiastages, while body weight did not change. Asignificant negative correlation was foundbetween vector length and Session RPE (r = -0.438; P <0.001).

The main finding of the present study was thatvector length shortened with the increase inphysical demand of 2015 Giro d’Italia.Putative underlying mechanisms are muscleedema and/or hemodilution. The presentfindings indicate that BIVA can be a valuabletool for monitoring acute changes in bodyfluids during multi-stage competitions.

Poster presentation 6LAFF study: Lung Airways and ForwardFlexionMichael Ross1, Timothy Gill2

1Rothman Institute, Philadelphia PA, USA;2Hahneman University Hospital, PhiladelphiaPA, USA

There has been a recent interest in thePhysical Therapy literature linking poorexhalation to psoas overuse. The theory is thatthe psoas is connected to the crus of thediaphragm. The diaphragm has a dual rolewith inspiration and as part of the lumbo-pelvic complex used for core stability andpostural stabilization. If the diaphragm isrelied upon for postural stability at theexpense of the weak core, it is overused,pulling the thoracic spine forward and thepsoas pulls the pelvis into an anterior pelvictilt. The psoas becomes a default corestabilizer, resulting in increased forwardflexion and inhibition of the diaphragm.The result is forward flexion to aid in expirationinstead of passive relaxation of thediaphragm. This study tests the relationshipbetween exhalation and forward flexion.

24 patient charts were retrospectivelyreviewed. The video analysis of the hipforward flexion and total hip flexion arc (frommaximal extension to maximal flexion) wascalculated using Dartfish software. Theaverage of the three trials of Hip Flexion andHip Arc were compared to the FEV1,FEV1/FVC, FEF50, FEF25-75, percent changeof FEV1 and percent change of FEF 25-75%.

Using Spearman rho, there was no statisticallysignificant correlation between hip forwardflexion or total hip arc and FEV1, FEV1/FVC,FEF50, FEF25-75, percent change of FEV1and percent change of FEF 25-75%.

Hip forward flexion does not correlate withlung function. Although focusing on corestrength is still recommended, a focus onimproving exhalation will not improve corestrength or limit forward flexion. A shift towardsdynamic and sport specific core stabilizationis likely a better use of time than focusing onexhalation, which remains a passive act.

Poster presentation 7SCATTER: Scapular Taping Trials andEconomy of RunningMichael Ross, MD; Rothman Institute,Philadelphia PA. Megan Tabler, TempleUniversity, Philadelphia PA. Chrissy Biele,DPT; Rothman Institute, Philadelphia, PA

To examine the role of scapular posture onrunning economy. The arms and legs arelinkedin their movement such that when theyare out of phase, the arm swing increases asrunning speed increases to counterbalancethe angular momentum about the pelvis.Without arm swing there are increasedshoulder rotation and the legs fall out of phasewith the shoulders resulting in decreasecounterbalance. Additionally, scapularretraction can move the body to an uprightbreathing posture, improving ventilation.

Each subject underwent three ramp treadmillcardio-pulmonary exercise tests to exhaustion.Each trial was performed with either no tape,scapular taping or sham taping. Scapulartaping was performed with RockTape from theposterior acromion to the contralateral inferiorscapular border. Sham tape was applied atthe anchor points at the posterior acromionand at the inferior scapular borders.

Using a linear mixed-effects regression withpatient as random effect, the time to the onsetof lactic acid (measured by the time RER=1)was significantly prolonged in both taping(65.9sec+/-11.2) and shamtaping (62.7sec+/-11.2)trials, but there was no differencebetween sham tape and scapular taping.p<0.0001. VO2max was significantlyincreased in each taping trial compared withcontrol (Sham p=.01, RockTape p<0.001)

Scapular taping significantly improves time toonset of lactic acid and improves oxygenuptake during running.

Scapular taping likely works through twomechanisms: scapular retraction causes armswing to be more effective atcounterbalancing the angular moments, whichallows energy for forward motion, not torsion.Second, retraction offers increased ability tobreathe by decreasing the work of breathing.Lung volumes are affected by position andwith a shift to upright posture, ventilation isimproved This study suggests thatrehabilitation and training of the runner shouldemphasize scapular retraction along withlower extremity kinematics.

Poster presentation 8The energetics during the world’s mostchallenging mountain ultramarathon: acase studyAldo Savoldelli1,2, Gianluca Vernillo2, 3,Pietro Trabucchi1, 2, Alessandro Fornasiero1,2, Eloisa Limonta3, Grégoire Millet4 andFederico Schena1, 2

1Department of Neurological and MovementScience, University of Verona, Italy; 2CeRiSM,Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre,University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy;3Department of Biomedical Sciences forHealth, University of Milano, Italy; 4Departmentof Physiology, Faculty of Biology andMedicine, Institute of Sport Sciences,University of Lausanne, Lausanne,Switzerland. E: [email protected]

The energy requirements during ultra-endurance events are likely to be at theextremes of human tolerance (Millet and Millet,2012). This is of further importance for extrememountain ultra-marathon (MUM), where theultra-long distance performance is coupled torun and/or walk on mountain trails withconsiderable positive and negative elevationchange. For instance, it was shown that afterthe world’s most challenging MUM the energycost of uphill running decreased, likely due tochanges in the uphill-running step mechanicsthat lead to a ‘smoother’ and more economicalrunning style (Vernillo et al, 2013). However,that study focused only on longitudinal (ie, pre-post) changes. Thus, there are few dataexamining the physiological changes during aMUM with a high fatiguing potential inecologically valid environments. Accordingly,we report the case of an experienced MUMrunner who was participating in the world’smost challenging MUM with the aim to providethe first data about the energy requirements aswell as the physiological adaptations of MUM.


The subject was 50 years old, 69.0 kg bodymass, 1.73 m height, VO2max 48.1 mL·kg-1·min-1, HRmax 169 bpm and a BMI of 22.3kg·m-2. The race was the Tor des Geants®2013 (330 km, 24,000 m D+); the current recordis 70 h 04 min 15 s. We monitored oxygenconsumption (VO2), HR, SaO2, speed, distanceand altimetry on 6 uphills (one per race day).Energy cost (EC) was calculated dividing thedifference between VO2mean minus VO2 atrest per nominal speed during each uphill.

The subject completed the race in 125 h 12min 19 s (139th place), sleeping for 11 h 40min (9.32% of total time). He performed theuphill sections at 57.0 ± 6.0 and 68.0 ± 8.7%of VO2max and HRmax, respectively.The mean EC value from uphill 1 to 4 was12.35 ± 1.36 (J·Kg-1·m-1), with a 24.5%decrease between uphill 5 and 6 (mean valueof 9.35 ± 0.64 J·Kg-1·m-1).

The subject performed the uphills at intensitiessimilar to those reported in other studies (Milletet al, 2011; Dumke et al, 2006). The observed24.5% reduction (improvement) for EC in the lasttwo uphills of the MUM seems to parallel aprevious longitudinal study (Vernillo et al, 2013).It could be hypothesised that during the MUM,an experienced ultra-runner may lower his EC.This may be an adaptation to the repetitivepattern of locomotion, in order to progressivelyeliminate useless movements, which minimisesthe exercise energy expenditure.

Poster presentation 9The effect of mindfulness meditation as aclinical intervention to reduce pain andpsychological disorders for injuredathletesWarhel A Mohammed1, Sakis Pappous1, andDinkar Sharma1

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime,ME4 4AG, UK; 2School ofPsychology, Keynes College, University of Kent,Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom, CT2 7NP.E: [email protected]

To understand mindfulness meditation as amechanism for therapy, it is important todescribe the concept of mindfulnessmediation. Mindfulness is a style of treatmentthat tries to innovate better awareness and as aresult, greater insight for the respondent(Shapiro et al, 1998). Moreover, Kabat Zinn,defined Mindfulness as “the awareness thatemerges through paying attention in aparticular way on purpose, in the present andnonjudgmentally” (Kabat Zinn, 1994).

Schwab Reese et al (2012), and Heaney(2006), mentioned that there are manypsychological disorders which occur whenathletes become injured such as anxiety,depression, decreased self-esteem, loss ofidentity, anger, isolation, fear, and tension; as aresult of this, sport injuries lead to worseningconsequences in athletes’ health. The aim ofthis research is to investigate the role ofmindfulness meditation practice in assisting,injured athletes in terms of reducingperception of pain, their levels of anxiety andstress and also the improvement of their mood.

This study will be composed of two groups ofparticipants (injured athletes). The first groupwill be the experimental group, in whichparticipants will practice mindfulness mediationfor 8 weeks and each week will consist of 1session lasting 30 minutes. The second groupwill be a control group; participants will followtheir normal physiotherapy treatment. In thisstudy the independent variable will be the useof an intervention of Mindfulness-based StressReduction (MBSR) program. The dependentvariables will be the perception of pain, anxiety,stress and negative moods. Moreover, we willinvestigate attendance of the session and alsodropout rate.In this study we will use bothexperimental methods and quantitativemethods to assess depended variables. Thesignificance of the study will be to provide aconsiderable understanding in mindfulnessmediation as a clinical form to use during theperiod of recovery with injured athletes. Indeedthere is no research in the area of mindfulnessmeditation as a potential additional tool that canbe used during the recovery period of sportinjuries. The clinical population which will be themain focus of this study will be “injuredathletes” from different sport domains. Theparticipants will be both female and maleathletes from a wide age range.

Poster presentation 10Effects of Verbal Encouragement andPacemaker on Time to ExhaustionperformanceJosé Luiz Dantas1, Fabio Forzini1, SamueleM Marcora1

1Endurance Research Group, School of Sportand Exercise Sciences, University of Kent,Chatham Maritime, ME4 4AG, UK.

Time to exhaustion test (TTE) has presented alarge performance variation (≈ 2.8 to 30%)(McLellan et al, 1995, Can J Appl Physiol 20:39-51), which has been associated to typicalerror due to non-significant differences inphysiological responses between TTE trials.

However, the Psychobiological Model hasevidenced that performance during high-intensity aerobic exercise is determined bymotivation and perception of exertion(Marcora, 2008, Eur J Appl Physiol 104:929–931), which has been confirmed wheninterventions that interfere on motivation areused during endurance tests (Blanchfield et al,2014, Med Sci Sports Exerc, 46: 998–1007).Consequently, large part of the variation in TTEperformance can be caused by variation inmotivational and/or perception of exertionbetween trials, independent of any change incardiorespiratory and neuromuscular capacity.Verbal encouragement (VE) or virtualpacemaker (PM) is often used during TTE andthey could interfere on motivation. However,their effects on TTE performance are unknown.This study aimed to verify the effect of VE andPM on TTE performance.

Ten trained cyclists (Age=32±9yrs; peakpower output (PPO)=365±56W;VO2max=63±11ml.kg-1.min-1) performed across-over randomized controlled trial study,consisting of a maximal incremental test andthree TTE on a cyclosimulator (Velotron, RacerMate®) at 80%PPO. Experimental conditionswere: control(CO), standardised VE and PM.Time was considered as TTE performanceindex. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE),oxygen consumption (%VO2max), heart rate(%HRmax) were measured at 0% (firstminute), 50%, and 100% (final full minutecompleted) of time to exhaustion from theshortest TTE. Blood lactate peak (LAC) wasalso measured. Two-way RM ANOVA andCohen’s effect size were used for analysis.

Condition had a significant effect on TTEperformance (F2,18= 3.868, P=0.04, d=0.30).Performance in VE tended to be better thanCO and PM (P<0.10). LAC, RPE, %VO2maxand %HRmax responses were not significantlydifferent between conditions (P>0.05). VE andPM conditions had a large effect on VO2maxat 100% isotime (Cohen’s d>1.1), showinghigher values in relation to CO. VE conditionhad a moderate effect on RPE during entireTTE (Cohen’s d≥0.5), showing lower values inrelation to CO.

VE seems to affect positively TTEperformance, as well as increasecardiorespiratory responses and reduce RPEat given isotime. Our results evidenced asubstantial motivational component in TTEperformance and VE is a strategy that cancontribute to prolong time to exhaustion duringa high intensity aerobic exercise until maxima

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ENDURANCE RESEARCH CONFERENCE 2015eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/19599/1/BT_120213_SSES_Endurance_A...1 Dear Delegates, It is a great pleasure to welcome you all to the University of Kent’s