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ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS
Volume EditorHarsh K. Gupta currently holds the prestigious Panikkar Professorship at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Council of Scientific& Industrial Research (CSIR), Hyderabad, India. Pursuing a luminous career in a variety of aspects of the Earth Sciences for over four decades, he isglobally known for providing the first geophysical evidence of an enormously thick crust below the Himalaya and Tibet Plateau region, identifyingthe common characteristics of artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes and discriminating them from normal earthquakes, setting up India’sfirst permanent station at Antarctica in a record time, and in the recent years, spearheading the designing and commissioning of the TsunamiWarningSystem for India, after the disastrous tsunami caused by the 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake. He has published over 200 papers and written4 pioneering books, published by Elsevier.
Editorial Board
Kusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606IndiaAnny CazenaveLaboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique etOcéanographie Spatiales (LEGOS)Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex 4France
Eric Robert EngdahlCenter for Imaging the Earth’s InteriorDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderCampus Box 390 UCBBoulder, CO 80309-0390USA
Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 2.4, SeismologyTelegrafenberg A314473 PotsdamGermany
Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Sukanta RoyNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Kalachand SainNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606India
Seiya UyedaJapan Academy7-32, Ueno ParkTaito-ku, Tokyo 110-0007Japan
Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Eachvolume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations andreference lists.
These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo-gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education &Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of CoastalResearch. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company ofCanada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa;Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked asa petroleum geologist in theMiddle East, been aWW II intelligence officer in the SWPacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, ArcticScandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institutefor Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS
edited by
HARSH K. GUPTANational Geophysical Research Institute
Council of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad
India
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011924208
ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-8702-7 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-8732-4
Published by SpringerP.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands
The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in theEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.
Printed on acid-free paper
Cover figure credit: Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook University, illustration by Keelin Murphy
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.
All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation,Electrical Resistivity; Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields© Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Contents
Contributors xiii
Preface xxxv
Acknowledgments xxxvii
Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric 1Richard W. Carlson
Archaeomagnetism 8Donald H. Tarling
Archaeoseismology 11Klaus-Günter Hinzen
Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes 15Harsh K. Gupta
Biogeophysics 25Lee Slater and Estella Atekwana
Body Waves 29Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh
Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps 37David D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan
Continental Drift 40Alan G. Smith
Continental Rifts 41A. M. Celâl Şengör
Core Dynamo 55Ulrich R. Christensen
Core-Mantle Coupling 64Paul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou
Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber 78Satish C. Singh
Curie Temperature 89Vincenzo Pasquale
Deep Scientific Drilling 91Ulrich Harms and Harold J. Tobin
Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling 103Kabir Roy Chowdhury
Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core 118Xiaodong Song
Earth Rotation 123Harald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm
Earth Tides 129John M. Wahr
Earth, Density Distribution 133Frank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis
Earth’s Structure, Core 137Lianxing Wen
Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust 138Rolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern
Earth’s Structure, Global 144Jean-Paul Montagner
Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle 154Edward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara andJames A. Tyburczy
Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle 159Guust Nolet
Earthquake Lights 165John S. Derr, France St-Laurent,Friedemann T. Freund and Robert Thériault
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 168Seiya Uyeda, Toshiyasu Nagao andMasashi Kamogawa
Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm 178Alik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov
Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem 182Shamita Das
Earthquake Sounds 188Andrew J. Michael
Earthquake, Aftershocks 192Mian Liu and Seth Stein
Earthquake, Focal Mechanism 194Emile A. Okal
Earthquake, Foreshocks 199Mian Liu
Earthquake, Location Techniques 201Clifford H. Thurber
Earthquake, Magnitude 207Peter Bormann
Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation 218Robert McCaffrey
Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning 226Richard M. Allen
Earthquakes, Energy 233Domenico Di Giacomo and Peter Bormann
Earthquakes, Intensity 237Gottfried Grünthal
Earthquakes, PAGER 243David J. Wald
Earthquakes, Shake Map 245David J. Wald
Earthquakes, Source Theory 248Raul Madariaga
Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion 252Giuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura,Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari
Earthquakes, Volcanogenic 261J. W. Neuberg
Electrical Properties of Rocks 270Takashi Yoshino
Electrical Resistivity Surveys and DataInterpretation 276
Meng Heng Loke
Electronic Geophysical Year 283William K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker,C. E. Barton, Peter Fox, M. A. Parsons andEmily A. CoBabe-Ammann
Energy Budget of the Earth 285Jean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart
Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves 291Kalachand Sain
Equatorial Electrojet 294Archana Bhattacharyya
Fractals and Chaos 297Vijay P. Dimri, Ravi P. Srivastava andNimisha Vedanti
Free Oscillations of the Earth 302Sarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani
Geodesy, Figure of the Earth 313Kusumita Arora
Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling 316Stelios P. Mertikas
Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems 323Hayo Hase
Geodesy, Physical 331V. Chakravarthi
Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal UltraBroad Band 336
Carla Braitenberg
Geodynamics 340Alessandro M. Forte
Geoelectromagnetism 341Antal Ádám and László Szarka
Geoid 353Paramesh Banerjee
Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles 356Michael G. Sideris
vi CONTENTS
Geoid Undulation, Interpretation 362Petr Vaníček
Geoid, Computational Method 366Michael G. Sideris
Geomagnetic Excursions 371Martha Schwartz
Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern 373Susan Macmillan
Geomagnetic Field, IGRF 379Aude Chambodut
Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques 381Mioara Mandea and Anca Isac
Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals 386Carlo Laj
Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation 394Monika Korte
Geomagnetic Field, Theory 394Friedrich H. Busse
Geophysical Well Logging 401Miroslav Kobr
Geothermal Heat Pumps 411Ladislaus Rybach
Geothermal Record of Climate Change 415Michael G. Davis, David S. Chapman andRobert N. Harris
GPS, Data Acquisition and Analysis 420Carine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand
GPS, Tectonic Geodesy 431Jeffrey T. Freymueller
Gravimeters 449Andrew Hugill
Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation 456Mikhail K. Kaban
Gravity Data, Advanced Processing 461Christopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby
Gravity Data, Regional – Residual Separation 466Kumarendra Mallick, Anthwar Vasanthi andKrishna Kant Sharma
Gravity Field of the Earth 471Christopher Jekeli
Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from SpaceTechniques 484
Anny Cazenave, G. Ramillien andRichard Biancale
Gravity Field, Time Variations from SurfaceMeasurements 489
Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer
Gravity Measurements, Absolute 494Mark A. Zumberge
Gravity Method, Airborne 497Uwe Meyer
Gravity Method, Principles 500Hans-Jürgen Götze
Gravity Method, Satellite 504Georges Balmino
Gravity Method, Surface 513Dinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari
Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation 518Jean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix
Gravity, Data to Anomalies 524Ron Hackney
Gravity, Global Models 533Nikolaos K. Pavlis
Gravity, Gradiometry 547Christopher Jekeli
Great Earthquakes 561Roger M. W. Musson
Heat Flow Measurements, Continental 569John H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore
Heat Flow, Continental 573Paul Morgan
Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations 582Earl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher
Impact Craters on Earth 593Richard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski
Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity 599Meng H. Loke, Jonathan E. Chambers andOliver Kuras
Instrumentation, EM 604Steven Constable
CONTENTS vii
International Geophysical Year 608Ralph W. Baird
International Gravity Formula 611Hans-Jürgen Götze
International Polar Year 2007–2008 612David J. Carlson
International Year of Planet Earth 614Eduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder
Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks 618William A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton
Inverse Theory, Global Optimization 625Mrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa
Inverse Theory, Linear 632Pravin K. Gupta
Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method 639Malcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher
Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition 645Ajay Manglik
Isostasy 647Anthony B. Watts
Isostasy, Thermal 662David S. Chapman and Derrick Hasterok
Legal Continental Shelf 669Ray Wood, Stuart A. Henrys, Vaughan Stagpoole,Bryan Davy and Ian Wright
Lithosphere, Continental 675David E. James
Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure 681Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal
Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties 693Evgueni Burov
Lithosphere, Oceanic 701James McClain
Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure 709Earl E. Davis and David S. Chapman
Magnetic Anisotropy 717Leonardo Sagnotti
Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation 729Erwan Thébault
Magnetic Data Enhancements and DepthEstimation 736
Clive Foss
Magnetic Domains 746Susan L. Halgedahl
Magnetic Gradiometry 758Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg
Magnetic Methods, Airborne 761Mike Dentith
Magnetic Methods, Principles 767Kusumita Arora
Magnetic Methods, Satellite 771Dhananjay Ravat
Magnetic Methods, Surface 774Nandini Nagarajan
Magnetic Modeling, Theory and Computation 781Mioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur
Magnetic Storms and Electromagnetic Pulsations 792Gurbax S. Lakhina and Bruce T. Tsurutani
Magnetic, Global Anomaly Map 796Kumar Hemant Singh
Magnetometers 810Ivan Hrvoic
Magnetotelluric Data Processing 816Gary Egbert
Magnetotelluric Interpretation 822John F. Hermance
Magnetovariation Studies 830Nandini Nagarajan
Mantle Convection 832David Bercovici
Mantle D00 Layer 851Thorne Lay
Mantle Plumes 857Cinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann
Mantle Viscosity 869W. R. Peltier
Numerical Methods, Boundary Element 877Michele Cooke
viii CONTENTS
Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition 879Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia
Numerical Methods, Finite Difference 883Johan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch
Numerical Methods, Finite Element 892J. N. Reddy
Numerical Methods, Multigrid 895Wim A. Mulder
Ocean Bottom Seismics 901Ingo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh
Ocean, Spreading Centre 908K. S. Krishna
Oceanic Intraplate Deformation: The CentralIndian Ocean Basin 913
D. Gopala Rao and D. A. Bhaskara Rao
Paleomagnetic Field Intensity 919Andrew Biggin, Neil Suttie and John Shaw
Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy 925Donald R. Prothero
Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques andInstrumentation 933
Tallavajhala Radhakrishna and J. D. A. Piper
Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander 945Jean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff
Paleomagnetism, Principles 955William Lowrie
Paleoseismology 964Shinji Toda
Plate Driving Forces 977Alessandro M. Forte
Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving andResisting Forces 983
Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge
Plate Tectonics, Precambrian 991Y. J. Bhaskar Rao and E. V. S. S. K. Babu
Plates and Paleoreconstructions 998Alan G. Smith
Poroelasticity 1003Ran Bachrach
Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals 1006Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma and UrsulaIturrarán-Viveros
Radioactivity in Earth’s Core 1013V. Rama Murthy
Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks 1018Christoph Clauser
Remanent Magnetism 1024Laurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe
Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for TectonicStudies 1030
Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab
Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics 1035Hojjatollah Ranjbar
SAR Interferometry 1041Masato Furuya
Satellite Laser Ranging 1049David Coulot, Florent Deleflie,Pascal Bonnefond, Pierre Exertier, Olivier Laurainand Bertrand de Saint-Jean
Seafloor Spreading 1055Richard N. Hey
Sedimentary Basins 1059Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth
Seismic Anisotropy 1070Thorsten W. Becker
Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing 1081Kabir Roy Chowdhury
Seismic Diffraction 1097Enru Liu
Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone 1102Lev P. Vinnik
Seismic Hazard 1107Andrzej Kijko
Seismic Imaging, Overview 1121Gerard T. Schuster
Seismic Instrumentation 1134Duncan Carr Agnew
Seismic Microzonation 1140Fumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama
CONTENTS ix
Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions 1144Paul G. Richards and Wu Zhongliang
Seismic Noise 1157Dhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed
Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard 1162Dmitry A. Storchak, Johannes Schweitzer andPeter Bormann
Seismic Properties of Rocks 1173Nikolas I. Christensen
Seismic Quiescence and Activation 1178Gennady Sobolev
Seismic Seiches 1184Art McGarr
Seismic Signals in Well Observations:Pre, Co, Post 1185
R. K. Chadha
Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges 1190Donald W. Forsyth
Seismic Tomography 1195Guust Nolet
Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships 1198Kalachand Sain
Seismic Velocity-Temperature Relationships 1199Kalachand Sain
Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media:Numerical Modeling Approaches 1200
Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros andFrancisco J. Sánchez-Sesma
Seismic Waves, Scattering 1210Ludovic Margerin
Seismic Zonation 1224Yanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu
Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation 1230Michel Campillo, Philippe Roux andNikolai M. Shapiro
Seismic, Migration 1236Samuel H. Gray
Seismic, Ray Theory 1244Vlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík
Seismic, Receiver Function Technique 1258Rainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan
Seismic, Reflectivity Method 1269Mrinal K. Sen
Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation 1279Vernon F. Cormier
Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography 1290Yanghua Wang
Seismicity, Intraplate 1301Paul Bodin
Seismicity, Subduction Zone 1305Akira Hasegawa
Seismogram Interpretation 1315Ota Kulhanek and Leif Persson
Seismological Networks 1324Eric Robert Engdahl and István Bondár
Seismology, Global Earthquake Model 1334Peter Suhadolc
Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT 1340Wu Zhongliang and Paul G. Richards
Seismology, Rotational 1344William H. K. Lee
Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics andEarthquake Stress-Forecasting 1355
Stuart Crampin
Single and Multichannel Seismics 1366Tamás Tóth
Slow Earthquake 1374Teruyuki Kato
Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied toPotential Fields 1382
Nikolaos K. Pavlis
Statistical Seismology 1392David A. Rhoades
Subduction Zones 1395Geoffrey A. Abers
Surface Waves 1406Barbara Romanowicz
T Waves 1421Emile A. Okal
x CONTENTS
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat 1423
Christoph Clauser
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, II: Thermal Conductivityand Diffusivity 1431
Christoph Clauser
Time Reversal in Seismology 1449Carène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay
Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-SourceSeismic Data 1453
Colin A. Zelt
Tsunami 1473Steven N. Ward
Tsunami: Bay of Bengal 1493Vineet Gahalaut
Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers 1498Shailesh R. Nayak and Srinivasa Kumar Tummala
Vertical Seismic Profiling 1507James W. Rector, III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis
Very Long Baseline Interferometry 1509Helmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel
Wavelet Analysis 1517Mikhail Kulesh
Author Index 1525
Subject Index 1527
CONTENTS xi
Contributors
Geoffrey A. AbersLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of ColumbiaUniversity61 Route 9W, P.O. Box 1000Palisades, NY [email protected]
Antal ÁdámGeodetic and Geophysical Research Institute of theHungarian Academy of SciencesP.O. Box 59401 [email protected]
Wim AertsDepartment of Reference Systems and PlanetologyRoyal Observatory of BelgiumAvenue Circulaire 31180 BrusselsBelgium
Duncan Carr AgnewInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of California San Diego9500 Gilman DrLa Jolla, CA [email protected]
Imtiaz AhmedBP501 Westlake Park BlvdHouston, [email protected]
Richard M. AllenBerkeley Seismological LaboratoryDepartment of Earth and Planetary ScienceUniversity of California307 McCone HallBerkeley, CA [email protected]
Kusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected][email protected]
Estella AtekwanaBoone Pickens School of GeologyOklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK [email protected]
Jonathan M. AurnouDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
E. V. S. S. K. BabuNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial ResearchUppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
xiv CONTRIBUTORS
Ran BachrachGeophysics and Planetary Sciences DepartmentTel Aviv UniversityP.O. Box 39040Tel Aviv [email protected]
Ralph W. BairdBaird Petrophysical InternationalHouston, [email protected]
Daniel N. BakerLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of Colorado1234 Innovation DriveBoulder, CO [email protected]
Georges BalminoCentre National d’Etudes Spatiales18, Avenue Edouard Belin Cedex 431401 [email protected]
Paramesh BanerjeeEarth Observatory of SingaporeNanyang Technological University50 Nanyang [email protected]
Jean-Pierre BarriotObservatoire Géodésique de TahitiUniversity of French PolynesiaBP 657098702 Faaa-TahitiFrench [email protected]
C. E. BartonAustralian National UniversityCanberra ACT [email protected]
Graeme BeardsmoreMonash UniversityandHot Dry Rocks Pty [email protected]
Thorsten W. BeckerDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Southern California3651 Trousdale Pkwy, MC0740Los Angeles, CA [email protected]
David BercoviciDepartment of Geology & GeophysicsYale UniversityP.O. Box 208109New Haven, CT [email protected]
Jean BesseLaboratoire de PaléomagnétismeInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris4 place Jussieu75252 [email protected]@ipgp.jussieu.fr
Y. J. Bhaskar RaoNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial ResearchUppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
D. A. Bhaskara RaoNational Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad 500 007India
Archana BhattacharyyaIndian Institute of GeomagnetismKalamboli, New PanvelNavi Mumbai [email protected]
Jörg BialasLeibniz-Institut für MeereswissenschaftenUniversity of KielWischhofstr. 1-324148 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xv
Richard BiancaleDTP, OMP18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex [email protected]
Andrew BigginGeomagnetism LaboratoryUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool L69 [email protected]
Joakim O. BlanchBHP Billiton1360 Post Oak Blvd. Ste 150Houston, TX [email protected]
Paul BodinPacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN)University of Washington146 ATG BuildingSeattle, WA [email protected]
Sigrid BöhmResearch Group Advanced GeodesyInstitute of Geodesy and GeophysicsVienna University of TechnologyGusshausstrasse 27–291040 [email protected]
István BondárInternational Seismological CentrePipers LaneThatcham, Berkshire RG19 [email protected]
Pascal BonnefondObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGSAvenue Nicolas Copernic06130 GrasseFrance
Peter BormannDepartment 2: Physics of the EarthFormerly GFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Carla BraitenbergDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia Weiss 134100 [email protected]
Laurie BrownDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of MassachusettsAmherst, MA [email protected]
Carine BruyninxDepartment of Reference Systems and PlanetologyRoyal Observatory of BelgiumAvenue Circulaire 31180 [email protected]
Hans-Peter BungeGeophysics Section, Department of Earth andEnvironmental SciencesLudwig Maximilians University of MunichTheresienstrasse 4180333 [email protected]
Evgueni BurovISTEP – Institute of Earth Sciences of Paris (UMR 7193UPMC-CNRS)University of Pierre et Marie Curie75252 [email protected]
Friedrich H. BusseInstitute of PhysicsUniversity of BayreuthBuilding NW II95440 [email protected]
Michel CampilloObservatoire de GrenobleUniversité Joseph Fourier and CNRSBP 5338041 [email protected]
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
David J. CarlsonBritish Antarctic SurveyIPY International Programme OfficeHigh Cross, Madingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Richard W. CarlsonDepartment of Terrestrial MagnetismCarnegie Institution of Washington5241 Broad Branch Road, NWWashington, DC [email protected]
Anny CazenaveLaboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et OcéanographieSpatiales (LEGOS)Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex [email protected]
Vlastislav ČervenýDepartment of Geophysics, Mathematics and PhysicsCharles UniversityKe Karlovu 3 121 16PrahaCzech [email protected]
R. K. ChadhaNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500007, Andhra [email protected]
V. ChakravarthiNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500 007, Andra [email protected]@ngri.res.in
Jonathan E. ChambersGeophysical Tomography TeamBritish Geological Survey, KeyworthNottingham NG12 [email protected]
Aude ChambodutLaboratoire de Géodynamique Globale: Champs dePotentiels et Déformations Actives (CNRS UMR 7516)Ecole et Observatoire des Sciences de la Terre (UDS)5 rue René Descartes67084 Strasbourg Cé[email protected]
David S. ChapmanDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsThe University of Utah382 Frederick A Sutton Building, 115 South 1460 EastSalt Lake City, UT [email protected]
Nikolas I. ChristensenDepartment of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, BC V6T [email protected]
Ulrich R. ChristensenMax-Planck Institut für SonnensystemforschungMax-Planck Str. 237191 [email protected]
Christoph ClauserInstitute for Applied Geophysics and Geothermal EnergyE.ON Energy Research CenterRWTH Aachen UniversityMathieustr. 652074 [email protected]
Clarence S. ClayMarine Geophysics and Wave PropagationDepartment of GeoscienceUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison1215 W. Dayton St.Madison, WI [email protected]
Emily A. CoBabe-AmmannEmily A. CoBabe and AssociatesBoulder, [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Steven ConstableInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsScripps Institution of OceanographyLa Jolla, CA [email protected]
Michele CookeGeosciences DepartmentUMass – Amherst611 North Pleasant StAmherst, MA [email protected]
Vernon F. CormierPhysics DepartmentUniversity of Connecticut2152 Hillside Road U-3046Storrs, CT [email protected]
David CoulotLaboratoire de Recherche en GéodésieInstitut Géographique National, GRGSEcole Nationale des Sciences Géographiques6 et 8 Avenue Blaise PascalCité Descartes – Champs-sur-Marne77455 Marne la Vallée Cedex [email protected]
Vincent CourtillotInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris1 Place Jussieu75005 ParisFrance
Stuart CrampinBritish Geological SurveyMurchison HouseWest Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3LAScotland, [email protected]
Shamita DasDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordSouth Parks RoadOxford OX1 [email protected]
Michael G. DavisDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of Utah115 South 1460 EastSalt Lake City, UT [email protected]
Earl E. DavisPacific Geoscience CentreGeological Survey of Canada9860 W. Saanich Rd, P.O. Box 6000Sidney, BC V8L [email protected]
Paul M. DavisEarth and Space SciencesUCLA405 Hilgard AveLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Bryan DavyGNS Science1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-3685010 Lower HuttNew Zealand
Eduardo F. J. de MulderNGU, Geological Survey of Norway7491 [email protected]
Florent DeleflieInstitut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul desEphémérides, GRGS77 Avenue Denfert Rochereau75014 [email protected]
Mike DentithSchool of Earth and Environment (M004)The University of Western Australia35 Stirling HighwayCrawley, WA [email protected]
John S. Derr19 Escena DrTijeras, NM [email protected]
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Domenico Di GiacomoDepartment 2: Physics of the EarthGFZ German Research Center for GeosciencesTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Vijay P. DimriResearch, Innovation & Incubation CenterGujarat Energy Research and Management InstituteIT Tower-1, InfocityGandhinagar, [email protected]@germi.res.in
Wolfgang EderDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of MunichLuisenstrasse 3780333 [email protected]
Gary EgbertCollege of Oceanic and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State University104 COAS Administration BuildingCorvallis, OR [email protected]
Eric Robert EngdahlCenter for Imaging the Earth's InteriorDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderCampus Box 390 UCBBoulder, CO [email protected]
Pierre ExertierObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGSAvenue Nicolas Copernic06130 GrasseFrance
Cinzia G. FarnetaniInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris75238 [email protected]
Andrew T. FisherEarth and Planetary Sciences DepartmentUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA [email protected]
Ernst R. FluehLeibniz-Institut für MeereswissenschaftenUniversity of KielWischhofstr. 1-324148 [email protected]
Luca FormaggiaMOX, Department of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoPiazza Leonardo da Vinci 3220133 [email protected]
Donald W. ForsythDepartment of Geological SciencesBrown UniversityProvidence, RI [email protected]
Alessandro M. ForteGEOTOP Département des Sciences de la Terreet de l’AtmosphèreUniversité du Québec à MontréalCP 8888, succursale Centre-VilleMontréal, QC H3C [email protected]
Clive FossCSIROLocked Bag 10Clayton, South VIC [email protected]
Peter FoxRensslear Polytechnic InstituteTroy, [email protected]
Friedemann T. FreundNASA Ames Research Center/San Jose State UniversityMS 242-4Moffett Field, CA [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Jeffrey T. FreymuellerGeophysical InstituteUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks903 Koyukuk DriveFairbanks, AK [email protected]
Masato FuruyaDepartment of Natural History SciencesHokkaido UniversityN10 W8, Kita-kuSapporo [email protected]
Vineet GahalautNational Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Carmen GainaGeodynamics GroupGeological Survey of NorwayTrondheimNorway
Kerry GallagherUMR 6118- Géosciences RennesGêosciences, Université de Rennes 1Campus de Beaulieu35042 Rennes [email protected]
Mengtan GaoInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationNo. 5 Minzudaxue NanluHaidian District, Beijing [email protected]
Edward J. GarneroSchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ [email protected]
Woldai GhebreabDepartment of Geology and Environmental ScienceUniversity of AkronAkron, OH [email protected]
Hans-Jürgen GötzeAbteilung GeophysikInstitut für GeowissenschaftenChristian-Albrechts-Universität zu KielOtto-Hahn-Platz 124118 [email protected]
D. Gopala RaoGeology DepartmentOsmania UniversityHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Samuel H. GrayCGGVeritas715 5th Avenue SWCalgary, AB T2P [email protected]
Marianne GreffInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris1 Place Jussieu75005 ParisFrance
Richard A. F. GrieveEarth Sciences SectorNatural Resources CanadaOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Gottfried GrünthalHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGerman Research Centre for Geosciences GFZTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Harsh K. GuptaNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606, Andhra [email protected]@gmail.com
Pravin K. GuptaDepartment of Earth SciencesIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, Uttarakhand 247 [email protected]
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Ron HackneyPetroleum and Marine DivisionGeoscience AustraliaGPO Box 378Canberra, ACT [email protected]
Susan L. HalgedahlDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of Utah115 South 1460 East, Rm. 383Salt Lake City, UT [email protected]
David J. HamiltonAteeda Limited24 Canning StreetEdinburgh EH3 8EGUK
Ulrich HarmsScientific DrillingGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Robert N. HarrisCollege of Oceanic and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State University104 COAS Admin BldgCorvallis, OR [email protected]
Hayo HaseGeodätisches Observatorium WettzellBundesamt für Kartographie und GeodäsieSackenrieder Str. 2593444 Bad Kö[email protected]
Akira HasegawaRCPEV, Graduate School of ScienceTohoku UniversitySendai, Miyagi [email protected]
Derrick HasterokDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsThe University of Utah382 Frederick A Sutton Building, 115 South 1460 EastSalt Lake City, UT [email protected]
Stuart A. HenrysGNS Science1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-3685010 Lower HuttNew Zealand
John F. HermanceDepartment of Geological SciencesBrown UniversityP.O. Box 1846Providence, RI [email protected]
Richard N. HeyHawaii Institute of Geophysics and PlanetologySchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii2525 Correa RoadHonolulu, HI [email protected]
Jacques HindererInstitut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, CNRSUniversité de Strasbourg5 rue René Descartes67084 [email protected]
Klaus-Günter HinzenEarthquake Geology Group, Institute of Geology andMineralogyCologne UniversityVinzenz-Pallotti-Str. 2651429 Bergisch GladbachGermanyhinzen@uni-koelnde
Albrecht W. HofmannLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY 10964USAandMax-Planck-Institut für Chemie55020 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Ivan HrvoicGEM Systems, Inc135 Spy CourtMarkham, ON L3R [email protected]
Andrew Hugill2 Regal Rd Apt 709Toronto, ON M6H [email protected]
Giampiero IaffaldanoResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityBldg 61 Mills RoadActon, ACT [email protected]
Anca IsacGeological Institute of Romania1 Caransebes Str., Sector 112271 BucharestRomania
Alik Ismail-ZadehGeophysical InstituteKarlsruhe Institute of TechnologyHertzstr. 1676187 KarlsruheGermanyandInternational Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theoryand Mathematical GeophysicsRussian Academy of SciencesProfsoyuznaya 84/32Moscow 117997RussiaandInstitut de Physique du [email protected]
Ursula Iturrarán-ViverosDepartamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de CienciasUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoCiudad Universitaria, Circuito Escolar s/nCoyoacán 04510, México [email protected]
David D. JacksonDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of California Los Angeles595 Charles E. Young BlvdLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
David E. JamesDepartment of Terrestrial MagnetismCarnegie Institution of Washington5241 Broad Branch Rd. N.W.Washington, DC [email protected]
Claude JaupartInstitut de Physique du Globe4 Pl Jussieu75252 [email protected]
Christopher JekeliDivision of Geodetic ScienceSchool of Earth SciencesOhio State University125 South Oval MallColumbus, OH [email protected]
Mikhail K. KabanDepartment 1: Geodesy and Remote SensingSektion 1.3: Earth-System ModellingDeutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam - GFZTelegrafenberg A 1714473 [email protected]
Yan Y. KaganDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of California Los Angeles595 Charles E. Young BlvdLos Angeles, CA 90095USA
Masashi KamogawaDepartment of PhysicsTokyo Gakugei University4-1-1, NukuikitamachiKoganei-shi, Tokyo [email protected]
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Teruyuki KatoEarthquake Research InstituteThe University of Tokyo1-1, Yayoi 1Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo [email protected]
Hartmut KernInstitut für GeowissenschaftenUniversität Kiel24098 [email protected]
Andrzej KijkoAon-Benfield Natural Hazard CentreUniversity of PretoriaRoom 4-30, Mineral Sciences Building0002 PretoriaRepublic of South [email protected]
Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 2.4, SeismologyTelegrafenberg A314473 [email protected]
Jonathan F. KirbyDepartment of Spatial SciencesCurtin University of TechnologyGPO Box U1987Perth, WA [email protected]
Miroslav KobrInstitute of HydrogeologyEngineering Geology and Applied GeophysicsCharles University in PragueAlbertov 6128 43 Prague 2Czech [email protected]
Monika KorteSektion 2.3, ErdmagnetfeldHelmholtz-Zentrum PotsdamDeutsches GeoForschungsZentrum – GFZTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Vladimir KossobokovInternational Institute of Earthquake Prediction Theoryand Mathematical GeophysicsRussian Academy of SciencesProfsoyuznaya 84/32Moscow 117997RussiaandInstitut de Physique du [email protected]
K. S. KrishnaGeological OceanographyNational Institute of Oceanography (Council of Scientificand Industrial Research)Dona Paula, Goa [email protected]
Mikhail KuleshInformation TechnologyDIS AGRathenaustrasse 29A15831 [email protected]
Ota KulhanekDepartment of Earth Sciences, Section of SeismologyUppsala UniversityVillavägen 16752-36 [email protected]
Dhananjay KumarChevron1400 Smith, Room 42007Houston, [email protected]
Oliver KurasGeophysical Tomography TeamBritish Geological Survey, KeyworthNottingham NG12 [email protected]
Cristina La MuraDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P34127 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Carlo LajLaboratoire des Sciences du ClimatUnité mixte CEA-CNRS-UVSQAvenue de la Terrasse91190 [email protected]
Gurbax S. LakhinaIndian Institute of GeomagnetismKalamboli HighwayNew Panvel (W), Navi [email protected]
Carène LarmatGeophysics Group, EES-17, MS D443Los Alamos National LaboratoryLos Alamos, NM [email protected]
Olivier LaurainObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGSAvenue Nicolas Copernic06130 GrasseFrance
Thorne LayEarth and Planetary Sciences DepartmentUniversity of CaliforniaEarth and Marine Sciences BuildingSanta Cruz, CA [email protected]
William H. K. LeeU.S. Geological SurveyMS 977, 345 Middlefield RoadMenlo Park, CA [email protected]
Juliette LegrandDepartment of Reference Systems and PlanetologyRoyal Observatory of BelgiumAvenue Circulaire 31180 BrusselsBelgium
Vincent LesurHelmholtz-Zentrum PotsdamDeutsches GeoForschungsZentrum14473 PotsdamGermany
Enru LiuChina University of Mining and [email protected]
Mian LiuDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO [email protected]
Meng Heng LokeGeotomo Software Sdn. Bhd.115, Cangkat Minden Jalan 5, Minden Heights11700 Gelugor, [email protected]
William LowrieEmeritus Professor of Geophysics, Institute of GeophysicsSwiss Federal Institute of Technology8092 Zü[email protected]
Susan MacmillanBritish Geological Survey Murchison HouseWest Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3LAScotland, [email protected]
Raul MadariagaLaboratoire de GéologieEcole Normale Supérieure24 rue Lhomond75231 [email protected]
Kumarendra MallickNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500 606, Andhra [email protected]
Mioara MandeaUniversité Paris Diderot – Institut de Physique du Globede Paris, Géophysique spatiale et planétaireBâtiment Lamarck Case 7,011, 5 rue Thomas Mann75205 Paris Cedex [email protected]
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Maria-Daphne MangriotisApplied GeophysicsInstitute of Engineering Seismology and EarthquakeEngineering (ITSAK)46 G. Scholis5355102 [email protected]
Jean-Claude MareschalCentre GEOTOP-UQAMUniversity of Québec at MontréalP.O. Box 8888Montréal, QC H3C [email protected]
Ludovic MargerinInstitut de Recherche en Astrophysique et PlanétologieObservatoire Midi-Pyrénées/C.N.R.S.14, Avenue Edouard Belin31400 [email protected]
Yoshihisa MaruyamaGraduate School of EngineeringChiba University1-33 Yayoi-choInage-ku, Chiba [email protected]
Robert McCaffreyDepartment of GeologyPortland State UniversityPortland, OR [email protected]
James McClainDepartment of GeologyUniversity of CaliforniaOne Shields AvenueDavis, CA [email protected]
Suzanne McEnroeNorwegian Geological Survey7491 [email protected]
Art McGarrU.S. Geological Survey345 Middlefield Road MS 977Menlo Park, CA [email protected]
Allen K. McNamaraSchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ [email protected]
Rolf MeissnerInstitut für GeowissenschaftenUniversität Kiel24098 [email protected]
Stelios P. MertikasLaboratory of Geodesy and Geomatics EngineeringExploration and Positioning DivisionDepartment of Mineral Resources EngineeringTechnical University of Crete73100 Chania [email protected][email protected]
Uwe MeyerSub-Department Geophysical Reconnaissance –Resources and Near Surface ProcessesFederal Agency for Geosciences and Mineral ResourcesStilleweg 230655 [email protected]
Andrew J. MichaelU.S. Geological Survey345 Middlefield Road, MS 977Menlo Park, CA [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Dinesh Chandra MishraNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad (CSIR) 500 [email protected]
Jean-Paul MontagnerSeismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du GlobeUniversity Paris-Diderot, UMR CNRS/71541 rue Jussieu75238 [email protected]
Paul MorganColorado Geological Survey1313 Sherman Street, Rm 715Denver, CO [email protected]
Wim A. MulderDepartment of GeotechnologyDelft University of TechnologyP.O. Box 50482600 GA DelftThe [email protected]
Roger M. W. MussonEarthquake SeismologyBritish Geological SurveyWest Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3LAScotland, [email protected]
Toshiyasu NagaoEarthquake Prediction Research CenterInstitute of Oceanic Research and DevelopmentTokai University3-20-1 OridoShimizu-ku, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka [email protected]
Nandini NagarajanNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad [email protected][email protected]
Shailesh R. NayakMinistry of Earth SciencesGovernment of IndiaNew Delhi [email protected]@hotmail.com
J. W. NeubergInstitute of Geophysics and TectonicsSchool of Earth and EnvironmentUniversity of LeedsLeeds LS2 [email protected]
Guust NoletGeosciences Azur250, Rue Albert Einstein6560 Sophia [email protected]
Axel NothnagelVLBI Research GroupInstitute of Geodesy and GeoinformationUniversity of BonnNussallee 1753115 [email protected]
Emile A. OkalDepartment of Earth & Planetary SciencesNorthwestern UniversityEvanston, IL [email protected]
Gordon R. OsinskiDepartment of Earth Sciences/Physics and AstronomyUniversity of Western OntarioLondon, ON N6A [email protected]
Harald von der Osten-WoldenburgNational Heritage DepartmentRegional Government of Baden-WuerttembergBerliner Strasse 1273728 Esslingen am [email protected]@gmail.com
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Giuliano F. PanzaDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P34127 TriesteItalyandEarth System Physics Section/Sand GroupThe Abdus Salam International Centre for [email protected]
M. ParsonsNational Snow and Ice Data CenterUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, [email protected]
Vincenzo PasqualeDipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sueRisorse, Settore di GeofisicaUniversità degli Studi di GenovaViale Benedetto XV 516132 [email protected]
Nikolaos K. PavlisGeodesy and Geophysics Basic and Applied ResearchNational Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)12310 Sunrise Valley Drive, Mail Stop P-126Reston, VA [email protected]
Ingo A. PecherGNS Science1 Fairway Drive, P.O. Box 303685040 Lower HuttNew ZealandandInstitute of Petroleum EngineeringHeriot-Watt UniversityEdinburgh EH14 [email protected]
W. R. PeltierDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of Toronto60 St. George StreetToronto, ON M5S [email protected]
Leif PerssonDepartment of Underwater ResearchFOIGullfossgatan 6164 90 [email protected]
William K. PetersonLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of Colorado1234 Innovation DriveBoulder, CO [email protected]@lasp.colorado.edu
J. D. A. PiperGeomagnetism LaboratoryUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool L69 [email protected]
Donald R. ProtheroDepartment of GeologyOccidental College1600 Campus RdLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Ivan PšenčíkInstitute of GeophysicsAcademy of Sciences of Czech RepublicBoční II 141 31PrahaCzech [email protected]
Alfio QuarteroniMOX, Department of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoPiazza Leonardo da Vinci 3220133 MilanoItalyandCMCS–MATHICSEEPFL1015 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxvii
Tallavajhala RadhakrishnaGeoscience DivisionCentre for Earth Science StudiesP.O. no. 7250, Akkulam, ThuruvikkalTrivandrum [email protected]
V. Rama MurthyDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesInstitute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico313 A Northrop Hall 1Albuquerque, NM [email protected]
G. RamillienDTP, OMP18 Avenue Edouard Belin31401 Toulouse Cedex [email protected]
Sunita RaniDepartment of MathematicsGuru Jambheshwar University of Science and TechnologyHisar [email protected]
Hojjatollah RanjbarDepartment of Mining EngineeringShahid Bahonar University of KermanJomhouri Eslami Blvd.76135-133 [email protected]
Dhananjay RavatDepartment of Earth & Environmental SciencesUniversity of Kentucky101 Slone BuildingLexington, KY [email protected]
James W. Rector, IIIDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of California at Berkeley412 Davis HallBerkeley, CA [email protected]
J. N. ReddyDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringTexas A&M University3123 TAMUCollege Station, TX [email protected]
David A. RhoadesGNS Science1 Fairway Drive, AvalonP.O. Box 30-3685010 Lower HuttNew [email protected]
Paul G. RichardsLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia University61 Route 9W, P.O. Box 1000Palisades, NY [email protected]
Paul H. RobertsInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsUniversity of CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Johan O. A. RobertssonSchlumberger Cambridge ResearchHigh Cross, Madingley RoadCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Fabio RomanelliDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P34127 [email protected]
Barbara RomanowiczBerkeley Seismological Laboratory215 McCone HallBerkeley, CA [email protected]
xxviii CONTRIBUTORS
Philippe RouxObservatoire de GrenobleUniversité Joseph Fourier and CNRSBP 5338041 GrenobleFrance
Kabir Roy ChowdhuryDepartment of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityBudapestlaan 43584 UtrechtThe [email protected]
Ladislaus RybachGeowatt AG ZurichDohlenweg 288050 [email protected]
Leonardo SagnottiIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaVia di Vigna Murata 60500143 [email protected]
Kalachand SainNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Bertrand de Saint-JeanObservatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Géoazur, GRGSAvenue Nicolas Copernic06130 GrasseFrance
Mahmoud Mohamed Selim SalehDepartment of Nature and Applied SciencesAl-Aflaj Community CollegeAL-Kharj University710-11912 Al-Aflaj, RiyadhSaudi [email protected]@yahoo.com
Malcolm SambridgeSeismology and Mathematical GeophysicsResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT [email protected]
Francisco J. Sánchez-SesmaInstituto de IngenieríaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoCiudad Universitaria, Circuito Escolar s/nCoyoacán 04510, México [email protected]
William A. SandhamScotsig40 Westbourne GardensGlasgow G12 [email protected]
John H. SassGreat Lakes Geothermal ServicesP.O. Box 610208Port Huron, MI [email protected]
Magdalena Scheck-WenderothSect. 4.4: Basin AnalysisHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesTelegrafenberg C414473 [email protected]
Harald SchuhResearch Group Advanced GeodesyInstitute of Geodesy and GeophysicsVienna University of TechnologyGusshausstrasse 27–291040 [email protected]
Gerard T. SchusterDivision of Environmental and Earth SciencesKing Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThuleSaudi [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxix
Martha SchwartzDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Southern California3651 Trousdale Parkway ZHS 117Los Angeles, CA [email protected]
Johannes SchweitzerNORSARP.O. Box 532027 [email protected]
Mrinal K. SenDepartment of Geological SciencesUT Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School ofGeosciencesThe University of Texas at AustinPickle Research Campus, 10100 Burnet Road, Bldg 196Austin, TX [email protected]
A. M. Celâl ŞengörEurasia Earth Science InstituteIstanbul Technical University34469 [email protected]
Nikolai M. ShapiroInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris4 place Jussieu75252 ParisFrance
Krishna Kant SharmaDepartment of Applied GeologyUniversity of MadrasChennai 600 025, [email protected]
John ShawGeomagnetism LaboratoryUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool L69 [email protected]
Lydie SichoixObservatoire Géodésique de TahitiUniversity of French PolynesiaBP 657098702 Faaa-TahitiFrench [email protected]
Michael G. SiderisDepartment of Geomatics EngineeringUniversity of Calgary2500 University Drive NWCalgary, AB T2N [email protected]
Kumar Hemant SinghNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterPlanetary Geodynamics LaboratoryGreenbelt, MD 20771USAandGoddard Earth Sciences and Technology CenterUniversity of Maryland Baltimore County5523 Research Park Drive, Suite 320Baltimore, MD [email protected]
Sarva Jit SinghIndian National Science AcademyNew Delhi [email protected]
Satish C. SinghLaboratoire de Géoscience MarinesInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris1 rue Jussieu, Case 8975238 [email protected]
Lee SlaterDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesRutgers University101 Warren St., Smith 136Newark, NJ [email protected]
xxx CONTRIBUTORS
Alan G. SmithDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of CambridgeSedgwick Museum, Downing StreetCambridge CB2 3EQ, CB1 [email protected]
Gennady SobolevInstitute of Physics of the EarthRussian Academy of SciencesB. Gruzinskaya ul., 10Moscow [email protected]
Semere SolomonDet Norske VeritasDNV Research and Innovation1322 Hø[email protected]
Xiaodong SongDepartment of GeologyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign1301 W. Green St.Urbana, IL [email protected]
Ravi P. SrivastavaFractals in GeophysicsNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Frank D. StaceyDivision of Exploration and MiningCSIROP.O. Box 883Kenmore [email protected]
Vaughan StagpooleGNS Science1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-3685010 Lower HuttNew Zealand
Seth SteinDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesNorthwestern UniversityEvanston, IL [email protected]
France St-Laurent125, 68e AvenueLaSalle, QC H8P [email protected]
Paul L. StoffaDepartment of Geological Sciences, UT Institute forGeophysics, Jackson School of GeosciencesThe University of Texas at AustinPickle Research Campus, 10100 Burnet Road, Bldg 196Austin, TX 78758USA
Dmitry A. StorchakInternational Seismological Centre (ISC)Pipers LaneThatcham, Berkshire RG19 [email protected]
Peter SuhadolcDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia Weiss, [email protected]
Neil SuttieGeomagnetism LaboratoryUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool L69 [email protected]
Christopher J. SwainDepartment of Spatial SciencesCurtin University of TechnologyGPO Box U1987Perth, WA [email protected]
László SzarkaGeodetic and Geophysical ResearchInstitute of the Hungarian Academy of SciencesP.O. Box 59401 SopronHungary
CONTRIBUTORS xxxi
Donald H. TarlingSchool of Earth, Ocean and Environmental SciencesUniversity of PlymouthDrake CircusPlymouth PL4 [email protected]
Erwan ThébaultÉquipe de GéomagnétismeInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris1 rue Jussieu75005 Paris [email protected]
Robert ThériaultQuebec Ministry of Natural Resources and Wildlife5700, 4ème Avenue Ouest, Bureau A-401Québec, QC G1H [email protected]
Clifford H. ThurberDepartment of GeoscienceUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison1215 W. Dayton St.Madison, WI [email protected]
Virendra M. TiwariGravity and Magnetic Studies GroupNational Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR)Uppal RoadHyderabad 500 606, Andhra [email protected]@ngri.res.in
Harold J. TobinDepartment of GeoscienceUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison1215 W. Dayton St.Madison, WI [email protected]
Shinji TodaDisaster Prevention Research InstituteKyoto UniversityGokashoUji, Kyoto [email protected]
Tamás TóthGeomega LimitedMester u. 41095 [email protected]
Bruce T. TsurutaniJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, [email protected]
Srinivasa Kumar TummalaIndian National Centre for Ocean Information ServicesHyderabad [email protected]
James A. TyburczySchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ [email protected]
Seiya UyedaJapan Academy7-32, Ueno ParkTaito-ku, Tokyo [email protected]
Franco VaccariDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteVia E. Weiss, 4 Pal. P34127 [email protected]
Petr VaníčekDepartment of Geodesy and Geomatics EngineeringUniversity of New BrunswickP.O. Box 4400Fredericton E3B [email protected]
Anthwar VasanthiNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500 606, Andhra [email protected]
xxxii CONTRIBUTORS
Nimisha VedantiFractals in GeophysicsNational Geophysical Research InstituteUppal RoadHyderabad 500 [email protected]
Lev P. VinnikInstitute of Physics of the EarthBol. Gruzinskaya str., 10GSP Moscow [email protected]
John M. WahrDepartment of Physics and Cooperative Institute forResearch in Environmental SciencesUniversity of ColoradoCampus Box 390Boulder, CO [email protected]
David J. WaldU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterP.O. Box 25046MS966 Lakewood, CO [email protected]
Yanghua WangDepartment of Earth Science and EngineeringCentre for Reservoir GeophysicsImperial College LondonLondon SW7 [email protected]
Steven N. WardInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA [email protected]@ucsc.du
Anthony B. WattsDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordParks RoadOxford OX1 [email protected]
Lianxing WenDepartment of GeosciencesState University of New York, at Stony BrookStony Brook, NY [email protected]
Helmut WiesemeyerMillimeter and Submillimeter AstronomyMax-Planck-Institute for Radio AstronomyAuf dem Hügel 6153121 [email protected]
Ray WoodGNS Science1 Fairway Drive Avalon, P.O. Box 30-3685010 Lower HuttNew [email protected]
Ian WrightNational Oceanography CentreEuropean WaySouthampton SO14 3ZHUK
Guangyin XuInstitute of Geophysics, China Earthquake AdministrationNo. 5 Minzudaxue NanluHaidian District, Beijing [email protected]
Fumio YamazakiGraduate School of EngineeringChiba University1-33 Yayoi-choInage-ku, Chiba [email protected]
Takashi YoshinoInstitute for Study of the Earth’s InteriorOkayama University827 YamadaMisasa, Tottori [email protected]
Yanxiang YuInstitute of Geophysics, China Earthquake AdministrationNo. 5 Minzudaxue NanluHaidian District, Beijing [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii
Xiaohui YuanSection SeismologyGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesTelegrafenberg14473 [email protected]
Colin A. Zelt
Department of Earth ScienceRice UniversityMS-126, P.O. Box 1892Houston, TX [email protected]Wu ZhongliangInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationNo. 5, MinzudaxuenanluBeijing [email protected]
Mark A. ZumbergeInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of CaliforniaLa Jolla, San Diego, CA [email protected]
Preface
All information about the Earth’s interior comes from fieldobservations and measurements made within the top fewkilometers of the surface, from laboratory experimentsand from the powers of human deduction, relying on com-plex numerical modeling. Solid Earth Geophysics encom-passes all these endeavors and aspires to define andquantify the internal structure and processes of the Earthin terms of the principles of physics, corresponding mathe-matical formulations and computational procedures. Therole of Solid Earth Geophysics has gained prominence withincreasing recognition of the fact that knowledge andunderstanding of Earth processes are central to the contin-ued well being of the global community. Apart from persis-tent search for natural resources, this research line is linkedto basic investigations regarding the mutual relationshipsbetween climate and tectonics and on the effects of globalchange in terms of a wide spectrum of natural hazards.Consequently, the pursuit of this science has seen spectacu-lar progress all over the world in recent decades, both infundamental and applied aspects, necessarily aided byadvancements in allied fields of science and technology.
The Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, aims toserve as a comprehensive compendium of informationon important topics of Solid Earth Geophysics and pro-vide a systematic and up-to-date coverage of its importantaspects including primary concepts as well as key topicsof interest. It, however, does not claim to chronicle eachand every niche area that in reality is a part of this multi-disciplinary and multi-faceted science. Neither does itattempt to describe the basic physics of matter and energysystems, which comprise the underlying tenets of geo-physical research. The first edition of this Encyclopedia,edited by Prof. David James, was published in 1989 bythe Van Nostrand Reinhold publishing company. Theextraordinary growth and diversification of this scienceover the last twenty years called for a complete revision.
This is realized by identifying the necessary topics andbringing together over 200 articles covering establishedand new concepts of Geophysics across the sub-disciplinessuch as Gravity, Geodesy, Geoelectricity, Geomagnetism,Seismology, Seismics, Deep Earth Interior and Processes,Plate Tectonics, Geothermics, Computational Methods,etc. in a consistent format. Exceptional ExplorationGeophysics and Geotechnical Engineering topics areincluded for the sake of completeness. Topics pertainingto near Earth environs, other than the classical ‘SolidEarth’, are not within the scope of this volume as it is feltthat the growth of knowledge in these fields justifya dedicated volume to cover them.
Articles written by leading experts intend to providea holistic treatment of Solid Earth Geophysics and guideresearchers to more detailed sources of knowledge shouldthey require them. As basic understanding and applicationof Solid Earth Geophysics is essential for professionalsof many allied disciplines such as Civil Engineering;Environmental Sciences;Mining, Exploration and softwareindustries; NGOs working on large scale social agenda;etc., it would be useful to them to have access to a readyand up-to-date source of knowledge on key topics of SolidEarth Geophysics. Hopefully, this Encyclopedia wouldprove to be an authoritative and current reference sourcewith extraordinary width of scope, drawing its uniquestrength from the expert contributions of editors andauthors across the globe.
I am grateful to Anny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora,Bob Engdahl, Seiya Uyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik,Kalachand Sain and Sukanta Roy, members of theEditorial Board for their constant advice and guidance indeveloping the framework of this Encyclopedia and helpwith the editorial work. I am equally grateful to all theauthors who readily agreed to contribute and honouredthe guidelines and time schedule.
xxxvi PREFACE
Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, Simone Gieslerand D. Nishantini from Springer were very co-operative.It has been a pleasure working with Springer. MsM. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistancein the preparation of this volume. My wife Manju and
daughters Nidhi & Benu supported me through the entireproject.
Harsh K. Gupta(Editor-in-Chief)
Acknowledgments
The manuscripts went through several iterations duringtheir development and at each stage the manuscripts werecarefully reviewed by well known experts in their respec-tive fields. The following have graciously spent their valu-able time in reviewing one or more articles:
Rachel Abercrombie, USA; Nick Ambraseys, UK; JohnAnderson, USA; Kusumita Arora, India; VladislavBabuska, Czech Republic; Georges Balmino, France;Paramesh Banerjee, Singapore; Francois Barlier, France;Jean-Pierre Barriot, France; David Bercovici, USA; EricBergman, USA; Richard Biancale, France; FrancescaBianco, Italy; Sue Bilek, USA; Thomas Bleier, USA;Chaiwoot Boonyasiriwat, USA; Michael Bostock,Canada; C. Boucher, France; Michel Bouchon, France;Carla Braitenberg, Italy; Kevin Burke, USA; Rhett Butler,USA; Anny Cazenave, France; David S. Chapman, USA;George Choy, USA; Christoph Clauser, Germany; SteveConstable, USA; Chris Cramer, USA; Shamita Das,USA; James Dewey, USA; Michel Diament, France;Mathieu Dumberry, USA; Utpal Dutta, USA; Eric RobertEngdahl, USA; Cinzia G. Farnetani, France; Donald W.Forsyth, USA; Alessandro Forte, Canada; C. Mary R.Fowler, UK; Olivier Francis, Luxembourg; BernhardFriedrich, Germany; Yoshio Fukao, Japan; VineetGahalaut, India; Fuchun Gao, USA; Wolfram Geissler,Germany; Louis Geli, France; Harsh K.Gupta, India;Pravin K. Gupta, India; Winfried Hanka, Germany;Yasushi Harada, Japan; Bob Hardage, USA; Robert N.Harris, USA; Derrick Hasterok, USA; Stuart Henrys,New Zealand; I.V. Radhakrishnamurthy, India; HeinerIgel, Germany; Kojiro Irikura, Japan; Alik Ismail-Zadeh,
Germany; Andrew Jackson, Switzerland; Sridevi Jade,India; Thomas Jahr, Germany; Masashi Kamogawa,Japan; Brian Kennett, Australia; Rainer Kind, Germany;Shuichi Kodaira, Japan; Naoji Koizumi, Japan; MonikaKorte, Germany; Ivan Koulakov, Russia; H. Kumagai,Japan; Prakash Kumar, India; Kanani Lee, USA; JoachimLinthe, Germany; William Lowrie, Switzerland;M. Venkateshwarlu, India; M. Ravi Kumar, India;Kumarendra Mallick, India; Subhashish Mallick, USA;Mioara Mandea, France; Ajay Manglik, India; Jean-Claude Mareschal, France; Didier Massonet, France; T.Mtsuzawa, Japan; Walter D. Mooney, USA; Daniel Moos,USA; Roger Musson, UK; Steve Myers, USA;N. Purnachandra Rao, India; Toshi Nagao, Japan; NandiniNagarajan, India; S.W.A. Naqvi, India; Guust Nolet,France; Maheswar Ojha, India; Bob Pawlowski, USA;Mita Rajaram, India; Gilles Ramstein, France; M.V.M.S.Rao, India; V. Vijaya Rao, India; Paul G. Richards,USA; Paul Roberts, USA; Barbara Romanowicz, USA;Sukanta Roy, India; Kalachand Sain, India; MarthaSavage, New Zealand; M. M. Selim, Egypt; Peter Shearer,USA; Anne Sheehan, USA; Satish C. Singh, France;Vipin K. Srivastava, India; Peter Suhadolc, Italy; KiyoshiSuyehiro, Japan; Matthieu Sylvander, France; PradeepTalwani, USA; John Tarduno, USA; Virendra M. Tiwari,India; R.K. Tiwari, India; C.C. Tscherning, Denmark;Shin’ya Tsukada, Japan; Seiya Uyeda, Japan;Chakravarthi V.C., India; David Wald, USA; John T.Weaver, USA; Maximilian Werner, Switzerland; RudolfWidmer-Schnidrig, Germany; Max Wyss, USA; Robert S.Yeats, USA; Yongxian Zhang, China.
