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Preface
ThisEncyclopaediaprovidesthestudent(whetherprofessionaloramateur)ofpoliticalthoughtwithareliableguidetothemajorideas
anddoctrinesthatinfluencethecontemporaryworld;itoutlinesthethoughtofleadingpoliticaltheorists,pastandpresent,andconsidersthewaysinwhichthinkingaboutpoliticshasevolvedhistorically.Wehaveconfinedourattentionlargelytothewesterntraditionofpoliticalthoughtalthoughwe
haveincludedsurveyarticlesonChinese,HinduandIslamicpoliticalthoughtwhichwehopewillintroducethereadertothesenon-westerntraditions,wemakenoclaimtocomprehensivecoverage.Wehaveincludedthethoughtofphilosophers,historians,lawyers,economistsandsociologistsonlywhentheyhavemadesome
directcontributiontopoliticaldebate.Inordertokeepentriesonindividualthinkerswithinreasonablebounds,wehavemadeextensiveuseofsurveyarticlestocovermajorepisodesinpoliticalthought(e.g.theGreeks,theRenaissance)andmajortraditions(e.g.liberalism,Marxism);minorfiguresfallingwithinthescopeofsuch
articlesaregiventwoorthreelinesandcross-referenced.Finally,wehavenotattemptedtodealcomprehensivelywiththespecialistliteratureofmodernpoliticalinstitutions,thisbeingthepurposeofaforthcomingcompanionvolume,TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalInstitutions.
Writingaboutpoliticalideasisinasmallwayitselfapoliticalactivity.Ourpolicyhasbeentoselectthebestcontributorforeachtopicregardlessofacademicorpoliticalallegiance,andtoplacenorestrictionsonchoiceofapproach.Webelievethattheoutcomeisacollectionofarticlesthatareauthoritativewithoutbeingdullorstereotyped.
Buttheattentivereaderwillsoonbecomeawarethatfewpoliticalideascanbegivenasimple,straightforwarddefinition;norcantherebeuncontroversialreadingsoftheworksofpoliticalthinkers.Thisisuncomfortableterrainforthosewhobelievethattoeveryquestionthereisonerightanswer.If,besidesbeinginformative,
wehavesucceededincommunicatingsomethingoftheopen-endednessofpoliticalthinkinginthearticlesthatfollow,weshallfeeldoublypleased.
DLMJCWECAROCTOBER1986
Contributors
AzizAl-AzmehAAUniversityofExeter
JuliaAnnasJEAUniversityofArizona
PeterD.AnthonyPDAUniversityCollege,Cardiff
ShlomoAvineriSAHebrewUniversityofJerusalem
TerenceBallTBUniversityofMinnesota
BenjaminR.BarberBRBRutgersUniversity
RodneyBarkerRBLondonSchoolofEconomics
JonathanBarnesJBBalliolCollege,Oxford
BrianBarryBMBLondonSchoolofEconomics
DavidBeethamDBUniversityofLeeds
RonaldBeinerRSBUniversityofToronto
RichardBellamyRPBUniversityofEdinburgh
AntonyBlackAB
UniversityofDundee
EditorialNotes
1Itisimportanttomakefulluseofthecross-referencingsystem.Ineachentrycapitalsareusedtoindicateotherentrieswherefuller
informationcanbefound.Consulttheindexforacompletelistofreferencestoaparticulartopicorperson.
2EachentryisfollowedbyareadinglistthatincludesmodernEnglishlanguageeditions(wheretheseexist)ofthetextsreferredtointheentry,aswellasrelevantsecondary
literature.Materialthatisespeciallysuitableforfurtherreadingisindicatedbyanasterisk(*).
3Whenaparticulartextisdiscussedinanentrythedateoffirstpublicationisgiveninbrackets.(Occasionally,incaseswherethetextremainedunpublishedforalong
period,thedategivenisthedateofcomposition.)Textsgiveninthereadinglistbutnototherwisementionedhavetheoriginaldate(ifthisdiffersfromthatoftheeditioncited)inbracketsafterthetitle.
4Sourcesofquotationsarenormallyindicatedsimplybyauthor'sname
andapagenumber;fulldetailsaregiveninthereadinglist.Iftwoormoreworksbythesameauthorappearinthelistashorttitleisusedtoavoidambiguity.
A
Absolutism
Thetermnowhasnoprecisemeaning.Itislooselyappliedto
governmentsexercisingpowerwithoutrepresentativeinstitutionsorconstitutionalrestraints.Thoughoftenusedtodayasasynonymfortyrannyordespotism'absolutism'isusuallyappliedtoearlymodernstates.AsamemberofafamilyofregimetypesitwasjoinedinthenineteenthcenturybyBonapartismorCaesarism;andinthe
twentieth,bytotalitarianism.Allregimetypesinthisfamilyhavegeneratedanalogousdiscussionsaboutthequestionsofwhetherabsoluteortotalpowerwaseverinfactattained,orisinprincipleattainable.(SeealsoDESPOTISMandTOTALITARIANISM.)
ThetermfirstappearedinFrenchinabout1796andinEnglishandGermaninabout1830.Like'enlighteneddespotism'itwasaneologismcoinedbyhistoriansafterthedisappearanceofthephenomenonitwasmeanttodesignate.Duringthenineteenthcenturyitwasforthemostpartusedpejoratively.Itisstillusedbyhistoriansofpolitical
theory,andbythoseconcernedwiththeemergenceofstatesfromthesixteenthtotheeighteenthcenturies.Ontheonesideabsolutismfiguresindiscussionsofsovereignty,constitutionalism,rights,resistance,andproperty;ontheotheritfiguresinhistoriographicaldisputesamongnon-MarxistandMarxisthistoriansabout
thedating,functions,andclassorsocialbasisoftheperiodoncedescribedastheageofabsolutism(16481789).Somenon-Marxisthistoriansregardabsolutismasacontestedconceptbetterrenderedasabsolutemonarchy.
Historiansofpoliticalandlegalthoughthavelearnedtoexercisecautionwhen
treatingboththedisputesoccasionedbymorecentralizedandefficientmonarchiesandthetheoriesusedtolegitimateortoassailthem.Atissueisthemeaningofthelanguageusedbyearlymoderntheoristsandthedegreeofactualunrestrainedpowerattainedinthepracticesoftheregimestheydesignated.Themost
prominentadvocatesofabsolutismamongpoliticaltheoristswereBODINandBossuetinFrance,HOBBESandFILMERinEngland.Indiscussingthecontestedconceptsusedbyandaboutthem,Dalyhasproposedthatanalystsaskthefollowingquestionsaboutusesofthewordsabsoluteandabsolutismintheseventeenth-century
politicalvocabulary:
[W]hatdoestheusermean?Inwhatpartofthecenturyishespeaking?Whatparty,orfactiondoeshebelongto?...[Ishesaying]Thatthekinghasnosuperior?Orisnotelected?Orcannotberesisted?Does'absolute'refertotheking'spowertooccupythethrone,ortotheextentofpowerthethronegiveshim?Doesitrefertoaparticularlegalrightortotheformofgovernment?
Doesitdenoteamonarch'srighttoraisetaxesandmakelawwithoutconsent?(pp.24950)
JeanBodinwasthemostimportanttheoristofSOVEREIGNTY.ThedisordersofhistimeinFranceledhimtoassumetheneedtoconcentrateauthorityinacentralizedstate.Politicalandsocialstability,heheld,requiredthatin
everystatetherebeasupremeorsovereignauthority,unlimitedinitsjurisdictionandperpetualinitsexerciseofpower.SovereigntydidnotimplyforBodinunlimitedpoweroverthepersonsandpropertyofsubjects.Thesovereignwassubjecttolimitationsimposedbynaturallawandfundamentalcustomarylaw(e.g.consentto
taxation).Butneithernaturalnorcustomarylawmightbeenforcedbythe
B
Babeuf,FranoisNol(Gracchus)(17601797)
Frenchrevolutionary.Babeufextendedthe
radicalprinciplesoftheRevolutiontoademandforsocialequality,arguingforcommunityoflandandgoods.SeeCOMMUNISM.
Bacon,Francis,LordVerulam(15611626)
Britishstatesmanandphilosopher.Baconspentmoreofhislifeinthe
practiceofthepoliticalartsthaninreflectionuponthem.ThenephewofLordBurghley,hewasboththeconfidantoftheEarlofEssexandintheendthemanwhohadtodrawupEssex'sindictmentfortreason.EvenbythestandardsofTudorandJacobeanEngland,Bacon'scareerwasastormyone,involvingalong-drawn-
outstrugglewithSirEdwardCOKEonhiswaytothelordchancellorship,andasuddendismissalfromhighofficeunderimpeachmentforbribery.Notedinhisowndayastheauthorofshrewdmemorandaonmattersofimmediatemoment,hishistoricalreputationrestsonhisphilosophyofscienceandonhisunfinishedsketchesofa
scientificutopia.
AthisaphoristicbestinhisEssays(1625),BaconisathismostseriousinTheAdvancementofLearning(1605)andinhisutopiansketchfortheNewAtlantis(1627).Baconwashostiletotheexcessesofscholasticismandtotheoristswholookedonlyforevidence
tosupporttheirownpreconceptions;hewasanuncomprisingempiricistwhotookthefirststepstowardselaboratinganinductivelogic.Norwasinductionamatterofsimplypilingupsupportingevidence;wecouldonlybeconfidentofageneralizationifwehadlookedforcontraryevidence,too.Buttheadvancementofscience
wasnotjustamatterofgoodmethod;itneededpoliticalsupport.InNewAtlantistheCollegeoftheSixDays'WorkswasanembryonicRoyalSocietywhosefounderswereindeedstimulatedbyBaconwhichwouldsupportinventionanddiscovery.Thepoliticalbackgroundtoallthisisonlyimplicit,butitappearstobean
enlightenedtheocracyalthoughintheEssayshewritesasadiscipleoftherepublicanMachiavelli.
BaconcombinesthemesfromPLATOandtheENLIGHTENMENT,andstandsatthejunctionbetweenChristianEuropeandthesecular,scientificworldwhichreplacedit.AR
Reading
Bacon,F.:TheAdvancementofLearningandNewAtlantis,ed.A.Johnston.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1974.
:Essays,ed.J.Pitcher.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1985.
*Manuel,F.andManuel,F.:UtopianThoughtintheWesternWorld.Cambridge,Mass.:Belknap,1979.
*Quinton,A.:Bacon.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1980.
Bagehot,Walter(18261877)
Britishjournalistandpoliticalandconstitutionaltheorist.BagehotwasbornintoaUnitarianbankingfamilyinthewestofEnglandandeducatedatUniversityCollege,London,afterwardsreturningtoSomersettohelpinrunningthefamilybank.LaterhebecameeditorfirstoftheNationalReviewandthen,from
1860tohisdeath,ofTheEconomist.Hewrotecopiouslyfortheperiodicaljournalsofthetimeandhisbestknownworks,TheEnglishConstitution(1865)andPhysicsandPolitics(1867),bothappearedoriginallyasseriesofarticles.Apolymath,hewroteperceptivelyandentertaininglyon
C
Cabet,tienne(17881856)
Frenchsocialist.Advocatedaregimented
formofcommunisminhisutopiannovelVoyageenIcarie(1840),andattemptedtoimplementit(withlimitedsuccess)atanIcariancolonyinIllinois,USA.SeeCOMMUNISM.
Calhoun,JohnCaldwell(17821850)
Americanstatesman.
Calhounservedasrepresentative(181017)andsenator(183244,184550)forSouthCarolina;hewassecretaryofwar(181725),secretaryofstate(18445)andvice-presidentoftheUnitedStates(182532).HewroteADisquisitiononGovernmentandADiscourseontheConstitutionandGovernmentoftheUnited
States,bothpublishedafterhisdeath,aswellasnumerousaddressesandletters.
Originallyamilitantnationalist,notablyamongthe'warhawks'atthetimeofthewarof1812,CalhounbecamemoreandmoreidentifiedwiththedefenceoftheSouth,slavery,andtherightsof
thestateswithinthefederalunion.
InhisDisquisition,Calhounrejectedthedoctrineofnaturalrights,contendingthathumanbeingsarenotbornfreeandequal,butina'socialandpoliticalstate',subjecttoauthority.Calhoun'stheory,however,restsonindividualisticpremises:
self-preservationis'theall-pervadingandessentiallawoftheanimateduniverse'and'directorindividualaffectionsarestrongerthan...sympatheticorsocialfeelings'.Infact,Calhounsawadangerinsociability;hedefendedinequalityasanecessaryspurtoeffort,anticipatingSOCIALDARWINISMbyarguingthatcompetition
forrankprovidesthe'greatestimpulse'tohumanprogress.Freedomisthenaturalhumangoal,butitisa'rewardtobeearned',notanoriginalright.
Theseargumentsobviouslydidnotapplytoslavery:slaveswereexcludedfromcompetitionandcouldnot
'earn'freedom.Calhoun'smostbasicjustificationofslaveryderivedfromthe'scientific'caseforracialinequality.Healsocontended,however,thatslaverymoderatesclassconflict(becauseslaveownersmustcarefortheir'capital')andtherebypromotessocialstability.
LikemostSouthern
theoristsCalhouncontendedthatthestates,originallysovereign,hadcreatedtheUnionand,sincesovereigntycannotbedivided,retainedtheirsovereignrightofsecession.Hewentbeyondthislegalcase,however,todevelopamoredistinctiveandtheoreticalargument.FollowingMADISONinTheFederalist(no.10),
Calhounmaintainedthatthechiefdangertorepublicangovernmentisthepossibilitythatpowerwillfallintothehandsofsomenarrowpartyorfaction.Publicspiritisnoadequateprotectionagainstthis,giventhepriorityofindividualfeelingsandprivateinterests.Itisnecessarytodesigninstitutionswhichmakeitimpossiblefor
governmenttosuppressanymajorinterestinsociety.Madisonhadconsideredthatthediversityofinterestsinthefederalunion,combinedwithmajorityrule,wouldachievethisresult.Calhounfoundthisargumentinadequate,andwithitthefederalconstitution.
FollowingtheprecedentofTimothyFord'stheoryofthe'dualcontract'(1794),Calhouninsistedthat'interestsaswellasnumber'mustbeconsideredinthedefinitionofamajority.Amajoritymustbe'concurrent',madeupofmajoritieswithineachinterest,sothateach
D
DanteAlighieri(12651321)
Italianpoet.ForDante,theroleofthepoet
includedthemoralist,thephilosopherand,inhisDivineComedy,theprophet.ConvincedbyhisbriefbuttraumaticpoliticalcareerinhisnativeFlorencethatthesocietywhichitrepresentedrequiredfundamentalmoralreformDante,inthelasttwentyyearsofhislife,graduallyarrivedatavisionofanidealsocietywhere
individualswouldbefreetofollowthepathofvirtueleadingtoultimatesalvation,anditisinthisessentiallyreligiouscontextthathispoliticalthoughtmustbeseen.
Dante'sFlorencewasthewealthiestandmostself-confident,butalsothemostturbulent,oftheself-governingItaliancities.It
acknowledgedanominalallegiancetotheHolyRomanEmperor,butinpracticetookadvantageoftheineffectualityofimperialauthorityinItalytoexpandattheexpenseofitsTuscanneighbours,whilekeepingatarm'slengththepowerwhichhadsoughttosupplanttheempireinItaly,thepapacy.InNovember1301thegoverningparty,
towhichDantebelonged,wasoverthrowninacoupwiththeconnivanceofPopeBonifaceVIII,whohopedtherebytoincreasehisinfluenceoverthecity'saffairs.Dante,whowasinRomeonanembassytoBonifaceatthetime,wasamongthosecondemnedintheirabsencebythenewgovernment,andsoneverreturnedtothecity.This
experiencelefthimprofoundlydisillusionedbothwithFlorenceandwithitseconomicandsocialvalues,andwithapoliticallyaggressivepapacy;theconvictionthatbothmustbemadetoacceptconstraintsontheirpoliticalpowerunderliesallhissubsequentthought.
Theworksoftheearly
yearsofhisexileshowDanteexploringtheimplicationsofthisconviction,asitdevelopsintothecomprehensivevisionofsocialandmoralorderoftheDivineComedy.Theseshorterpoemsandunfinishedprosetreatisesrevealamarkedpreferenceforlayasagainstclericalinstitutions,andmoresympathythanwould
havebeennormalinGuelphFlorenceforthelastHohenstaufenclaimantstotheimperialtitle.WhatismissinguntilthelastbookoftheConvivio(c.1307)isthatsenseofthesacreddestinyofRomeasthecapitaloftheuniversalempire,whichisevidentlyderivedfromDante'sre-readingofVirgil'sAeneid,andwhichisproclaimedasanarticle
offaiththroughouthismatureworks.
TheDivineComedy(begunabout1304)reflectsthewideningscopeofDante'spoliticalconcerns.IntheInferno,Florenceanditsproblemsdominatethepicture:acommunitywherefamilyandcivicloyaltiesconflict,whoseprevailing
philosophyismaterialismandwhoseprosperityrestsonthesociallysterileactivityofusury,isshownasfundamentallyunstableandcorrupt.Atthesametime,thechurchisincapableofexercisingitsproperspiritualfunctionbecauseoftheworldlinessofitsleaders;andtheDONATIONOFCONSTANTINE,wherebythefirstChristianemperorsupposedly
bestowedhistemporalpowerintheWestonthepapacy,isseenasafatefulmistakewhichmarkedthebeginningofthechurch'sdeclinefromitsprimitivefaith.InthePurgatorioDanteturnstothelargerpoliticalorderwhichallowssuchdevelopmentstotakeplace.Thereshouldideallybetwopowersor'suns'whichshouldguideman's
spiritualandtemporalaspirations;but'onehasextinguishedtheother'(Purg.xvi,106ff),thechurchhavingtrespassedonthe
E
Ecclesiology
Thetheoryandpracticeofchurchgovernment,developedbypopesand
medievalcanonlawyersfromthetwelfthcenturyonwards,whichincludedthebasesforandorganizationofpapalandepiscopaladministration,withemphasisgiventoconciliarpowers(seeCONCILIARISM).Attheheartofmuchecclesiologicaldoctrineliesthehistoryofmedievalrepresentativeinstitutionsingeneral.(SeeMEDIEVALPOLITICAL
THOUGHT.)JC
Egalitarianism
SeeEQUALITY.
Elitism
Anapproachtounderstandingpoliticsandhistorywhich,inits
strongestform,holdsthatsocietiesarealwaysdominatedbyaminority(theelite)whichtakesthemajordecisionswithinthesocietyandwhichconcentratespowerinitsownhands.Byextensionthetermelitistissometimesusedpejorativelyinpoliticaldebatestodescribepolicieswhichareallegedtopromotetheadvantage
ofaminorityandexcludethewiderpopulation.Thetermeliteoriginallymeantthe'elect'orthebest.Thetermisstilloccasionallyusedinthissenseinordinaryspeechwhenpoliciesaresometimesdefended,particularlyineducation,as'elitist',meaningthattheyareintendedtoproducethebestormostable.Inpoliticalthoughtelitism
hasamoretechnicalreferencetocertainmodesofexplanationwhichderivefromtheworkoftheItaliansociologistsMOSCAandPARETO.
These'classicalelitists'arguedthatthetraditionalclassificationofpoliticalsystemsintomonarchies,aristocraciesanddemocraciesignoredthe
moreimportantcommonfeaturethatallwereruledbyaminority,orelite.Theelitegaineditsdominantpositionasaresultofitspossessionofsomeresourcesorattributeswhichwerevaluedintheparticularsociety.Thisbasisoftheelite'sdominationwasnotnecessarilyeconomic,eventhoughanelitemightpossiblyuseits
dominationtogainwealthandmaterialadvantage.Inmanysocietiesauthoritywasexercisedbypriestswhosecontrolofreligiousdogmaandsymbolsgrantedthemdecisivepoweroverthepopulation.Alternatively,militaryofficersmightconstitutethedominantgroup,governingthecountryeitheropenlyorcovertly.Inothersystems
theseniorstateofficialsmightbetheelitecontrollingpoliticaldecisions.AccordingtoPareto,theeliteheldpowerbecauseitpossessedappropriatepsychologicalqualities,ofcunninganddeceitorofstrengthanddecisiveness.Innocasedidthemassofthepopulationexercisecontrol,eveninademocracywheretheidea
oftheruleofthepeoplewasamythconcealingactualdominationbyaninnergroupofpartyleaderswhomanipulatedthesystemofrepresentation.
Mostelitistsarguethattheelitemaintainsitsdominationbyacombinationofcoercionandmanipulation.The
relativelycompactsizeoftheeliteenablesitsmemberstoacttogetherinaconsciousandcohesivemanner.Theelite'sprocessesofcommunicationareeasieranditsmemberscanberapidlymobilizedtoformulateapolicyandtakeaninitiative.Theelitehastheadvantagesoforganization(particularlystressedbyMICHELS).This
isinsharpcontrasttothe'mass'ofthepopulationwhoaretypicallyregardedasatomizedandincapableofrapidspontaneousactionunlessthemselvesledbyaneliteor'counter-elite'.Theelitenormallyuses
F
Fabianism
ThetermisusedtoreferbothtoageneralpositionwithinSOCIALISMandtothe
viewsofaspecificgroupoflateVictorianandearlytwentieth-centuryBritishsocialists.Thetwousesarerelated.
AsageneraltermFabianismdescribesastyleofsocialismexpressingtheessentialargumentsofthehistoricalFabianSocialists.Itsprincipalfeaturesare:
(1)anemphasisonmeritocracyandtheresponsibilityoftrainedexpertsinthemanagementofpublicaffairs;
(2)adistrustofradicalorconfrontationaltacticsandaconfidencethatplannedanddeliberatereform,carriedoutasaresultof
thetriumphofreasonandthepresentationofevidence,canslowlybutinevitablycreateasocialistsociety;
(3)abeliefinreasonasapossibleanddesirablemotivatingfeatureofgovernmentandpolitics;
(4)thepursuitofefficiencyinpublic
affairs,justifiedbyempiricallydemonstrablecriteria;
(5)commitmenttoaformofdemocracyinwhichindividualsparticipateintheirvariousrolesascitizens,workers,etc.,contributingbytheireffortstothecommongoodfromwhichtheybenefit;anda
correspondingdisinclinationtosupporttheadvocacyofformsofdirectpopularpower.
Inthislast,broadsenseawholeseriesofsocialistthinkersandpoliticiansfromHughDaltontoAnthonyCROSLANDhavebeendeemedtobe'Fabian'.
Asanhistoricallyspecificterm,FabianismdescribestheviewsoftheleadingmembersoftheFabianSocietyfromthesociety'sformationin1884untilthelate1930s.Althoughtheword'Fabian'wasusedtodescribetheviewsofthegroupasawhole,theSocietyhadaheterogeneousmembershipwhichincludedthesometime
secularistandtheosophistAnnieBesant,thefuturegovernorofJamaicaSydneyOlivier,andthepoliticalscientistGrahamWallas.WhatgavetheFabiansunitywasthepresenceofalargenumberofambitiousprofessionalandintellectualmenandwomenwhoseownskillsandaspirationscomplementedthe
meritocraticambitionsoftheSocietyitself.TheprincipalexponentsofFabianviewstypifiedthischaracteristicofthemembership.BeatriceWebbwasanupper-middle-classsocialinvestigator,herhusbandSidneyWebbacivilservantturnedpoliticianandsocialscientist,andGeorgeBernardShawanovelist,playwrightand
journalist.ThemostmaverickmemberoftheSociety,H.G.Wells,wasperhapsthemostambitiousofall,bothonhisownbehalfandonbehalfofthemeritocracywhichonoccasionheelevatedtoacasteofsamuraiorironsides.Thevarietyofopinionsheldbymemberswentfarbeyondanythingthatcouldbepresentedasa
single,distinctiveposition.ThereweredifferencesevenamongtheprincipalFabians,betweentheWebbs'admirationforadministrationandparticipation,Shaw'sbeliefinleadership(aviewwhich,hesaidwithcharacteristicmodesty,hesharedwithLENINandothernaturalTories),andWells'sdepictionofa
dedicatedoligarchiccaste.Nonetheless,certainbroadviewscanbesaidtocharacterizetheclassicFabianismoftheWebbsandShaw.
BysocialismtheFabiansunderstoodthe
G
Gaius(activeAD13080)
Romanjurist.HisInstitutesanticipatedthose
ofJUSTINIAN.SeeROMANLAW.
Gandhi,MohandasKaramchand(18691948)
GreatIndianleader,andastimulatingthinker.GandhiwastrainedasalawyerinEngland,andafteranindifferentlegalpracticeinIndiaheleftfor
SouthAfrica.Duringhisstaythereofovertwodecades,heconductedmanycampaignsagainstracialdiscriminationanddevelopedhiswell-knownmethodofsatyagrahaornon-violentresistance.AfterhisreturntoIndiain1915hebecametheunchallengedleaderoftheIndiannationalistmovement.Heevolvedanewlanguageofpolitical
discourse,anapparentlyarchaicbuthistoricallyevocativesetofsymbols,andasimpleandausterelifeasawayofidentifyinghimselfwithhispoorestcountrymen,andmobilizedthemundertheleadershipoftheradicallytransformedCongressParty.HelaunchedtheNon-cooperationMovementin1920,theCivil
DisobedienceMovementin1930andtheQuitIndiaMovementin1942.HewaslargelyresponsibleforIndia'sindependencein1947.Hismomentoftriumphwasalsohismomentoffailure,forindependencewasmarkedbywidespreadHindu-Muslimriots,theferocityofwhichshatteredhimandsappedhiswilltolive.Althoughfrailand
broken,hetrekkedhiswaytodistanttrouble-spotsandsingle-handedlyrestoredpeaceandgoodwill.WhenafanaticHinduassassinatedhim,AlbertEinsteinthoughtthatfuturegenerationswould'scarcebelievethatsuchaoneasthiseverinfleshandbloodwalkeduponthisearth'.
Gandhi'smoralandpoliticalthoughtisbasedonarelativelysimplymetaphysic.ForhimtheuniverseisregulatedbyaSupremeIntelligenceorprinciplewhichhepreferredtocallsatya(Truth)and,asaconcessiontoconvention,God.Itisembodiedinalllivingbeings,aboveallmen,intheformofself-conscioussoulorspirit.
Thespiritconstitutesman'sessence.Beingmerelyamaterialconstruct,thebodyisultimatelyunrealandhasnomoralclaims.Allwantsanddesiresbeyondthebiologicalminimumareformsofsensualindulgenceandspirituallydegrading.ForGandhicontemporarywesterncivilizationiscentredaroundthebody,asis
evidentinitsmultiplicationofwants,lackofself-restraintandthedeclineofmoralandspiritualdepth,andisunlikelytolastlong.
Gandhiarguesthatsinceallmenpartakeindivineessencetheyare'ultimatelyone'.Theyarenotmerelyequal,but'identical'.Assuch,loveis
theonlyproperformofrelationbetweenthem;itis'thelawofourbeing',of'ourspecies'.Loveimpliescareandconcernforothersandtotaldedicationtothecauseof'wipingeverytearfromeveryeye'.Negativelyitimpliesahimsaornon-violence.Gandhi'sentiresocialandpoliticalthoughtisanattempttoworkouttheimplicationsofthe
principleofloveinallareasoflife.
ForGandhithestate'representsviolenceinaconcentratedform'.Itspeaksinthelanguageofcompulsionanduniformity,sapsitssubjects'spiritofinitiativeandself-help,and'unmans'them.Sincemenarenotyetmorally
developedandcapableofactinginasociallyresponsiblemanner,thestateisnecessary.However,ifitisnottohindertheirgrowth,itoughttobesoorganizedthatitsactivities
H
Habermas,Jrgen(1929)
Germanphilosopherandsocialscientist.Habermas
isthemostimportantcontemporarythinkeroftheFrankfurtSchoolofCRITICALTHEORY.LikeotherthinkersinthattraditionherejectstheorthodoxMarxiannotionthatthenormativestandpointforaradicalcritiqueofcapitalistsocietyistheprivilegedroleoftheproletariat.Habermas'sworkasawholecanperhapsbebest
understoodasawide-rangingsearchfor'adequatenormativefoundationsforacriticalsocialtheory'.
Habermas'seffortshavefocusedontheconceptofRATIONALITYandtheproblemofsocietalrationalization.Hehascriticizedthereductionoftheformertopurely
instrumentalcalculationsandtriedtoconstructa'morecomprehensive'account.Thedevelopmentofsuchanaccountisnecessaryforanadequateunderstandingandcritiqueofthe'one-sided'processofsocietalrationalizationwhichhascharacterizedthedevelopmentofcapitalism.Thisnotionofone-sidednessreferstoanincreasingtendencyfora
technical,instrumentalorientationtosociallifetomarginalizemorereflective,normativeandaesthetic,expressiveorientations.
ThisdualfocusonrationalityandrationalizationhasmeantthatHabermas'sworkhascontinuallyengagedbothabstracttopicsin
epistemologyandthephilosophyoflanguage,aswellasmoreconcretequestionsinsocialtheorysuchaslegitimationproblemsinadvancedcapitalismandtheimportanceofnewsocialmovements(e.g.women,radicalecologists,counter-culturalmovements,gays).
InthecourseofhiswritingsHabermashasshiftedhisstrategyfortreatingrationalityandrationalization.Hisfirstmajorbook,KnowledgeandHumanInterests(1968),attemptedanepistemologicalcritiqueoftheprevailingpositivistmodelofknowledge(seePOSITIVISM).Briefly,hearguedthatthismodelincorporatedonlyone
knowledge-constitutiveinterestofthehumanspecies:thetechnicalinterestincontrol.Thismodelthreatenedtousurptheplaceofother,equallybasic,modelsofknowledgewhicharegroundedintwootherknowledge-constitutiveinterestsandwhichcanhelpilluminatetheproblemsofsocietalrationalization.
Hermeneuticorinterpretiveknowledgeanswerstothepracticalinterestinexpandingcommunicativeinteraction,andcritical,emancipatoryknowledge(suchascriticalsocialtheory)answerstotheemancipatoryinterestinremovingstructuresofdomination.
Bythemid-1970sHabermaswasbecomingincreasinglydissatisfiedwiththisframeworklinkingknowledgeandreasontouniversal,'anthropologicallydeep-seated'interests.Heshiftedhisfocusawayfromepistemologytolanguage.Hedecidedthataproperunderstandingofrationalitywouldemergenotfromspeculation
aboutknowledge-constitutiveinterests,butfromatheoreticalreconstructionofthecompetenceactorsdemonstrateinlinguisticinteraction.Wheneveractorsengagein'communicativeaction',thatis,orientthemselvestowards'reachinganunderstanding',theymutuallyimputeacertainaccountabilitytoone
anotherinrelationtothevalidityoftheclaimstheyraiseintheirspeechacts.Habermasarguesthattherearethreeuniversalclaims:truth,normativelegitimacy,andsincerity.Eachactorhasanintuitiveunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweentheseclaimsaswellasof
I
IbnKhaldun*
AbuZayd'Abdal-Rahman
JavaScript:doPopup('Popup','Page_229_Popup_1.html','width=288,height=192,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes')Ibn*Muhammad(13321406)Arabcourtier,condottiere,
judge,historian,andpolymath.BorninTunis,IbnKhaldunspentmorethanhalfhisstormycareerpursuingelusiveambitionsatthecourtsofFez,Granada,
Tlemcen,andBougie.InthemorestableconditionsofCairo,wherehesettledin
1378,hepursuedasuccessful
JavaScript:doPopup('Popup','Page_229_Popup_2.html','width=384,height=192,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes')andcontroversialcareerasjudgeandprofessor;in1401hehadacolourfulencounterwithTamerlaneoutsidethewallsofDamascus.Ibn
KhaldunisbestknownforhisMuqaddima(1377),theprolegomenontohis
UniversalHistory(137782);heisalsotheauthorofatreatiseonmysticism,ajuveniletheological
commentary,andofotherjuvenilianolongerextant.
IbnKhaldun'swasanhistoricalenterprise.HesetouttocomposehisUniversalHistoryoftruthfulandconnectednarratives,andinthisspirithewrotetheMuqaddima.Inithediscussedtheemergenceofhumancollectivities('umran*)asaresultofpropitiousecologicalandclimatic
factorswhichmadepossible
JavaScript:doPopup('Popup','Page_229_Popup_4.html','width=288,height=192,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes')thecontinuityandthepreservationoforganizedhabitation;thisinitselfhadcomeintobeingaftermen,naturallyfractiousandpredatorybutunableto
survivesingly,hadtogethercontractedtoliveinsociety.Inorderforsocietytocohere,itplacesoverandaboveitselfacoerciveauthority,muchasalivingorganismisheld
togetherbythedominanceofaparticulartemper.This
coerciveauthoritystartsundertribalconditionsas
chieftaincy,andchieftaincy,animatedbytheanimal
facultyofthepsyche,yearnsforgreaterglory,andwhensuccessfulbecomeskingshipwiththeestablishmentofastate,daula.Ascoercive
authority,politicalleadershipwieldstogetheracommunityasacohesivepoliticalunit,'asabiyya.Butwiththe
foundationofthestatethis
unity,basedonrealorfictitiousbondsofkinship,
ultimatelybreaksdownasthesovereigndissociateshimselfinpracticefromhisoriginalconstituencyandembarksuponanabsolutistcourse.Thisbringsinitswakegreatwealthandprosperity,buteventuallydevelopsintoa
tyrannywhichhasadeleteriouseffectonthe
welfareofthesubjects,withtheincreasinguseof
monopoliesandextortionatetaxation,withthe
fragmentationofthestateatitsextremities,andwitha
highincidenceofpestilentialandothercalamities.Thuswithinthespaceofthreegenerationsthestaterunsthroughfivephaseswhichbringsaboutitssenescencewitheffeminacyandtyranny;thelife-spanofthestateis
thus,underoptimalcircumstances,120years,the
lengthoftheGrandLunarYearoftheastrologers.Finally,theMuqaddima
providesauniquesketchofsocial,cultural,scientific,andeconomicconditionsthatprevailundertheaegisofaprosperousstatebeforeit
atrophiesandistakenoverbynewclaimantsforanother
dynasticround.
IbnKhaldun'sdiscussionislearned,andinformedbya
robustrealismderivedfrompoliticalactivityandhistoricalknowledge.Hisobservationshaveoftenbeenconstruedasabasisforascribingtohimsociologicalandothermoderntheoriesofthestate.ThestateintheMuqaddima,however,iscastinamouldderiveddirectlyfromArabichistoricalwriting,andtheparadigmIbnKhaldun
developedwasmeanttoserveasagaugefordifferentiatingtruefromfalsehistoricalnarratives,'Umranand'asabiyyaareunthinkablewithoutthecontextofthestate
J
Jacobinism
ThetermderivesfromtheJacobins,therevolutionarygroup
which,underRobespierre'sleadership,imposedtheReignofTerroronFranceduring17934.Usedmorewidely,itisthebeliefthatthewillofthepeoplecanberepresentedbyasmallelitegroupwhoactintheirnamebutarenotformallyaccountable.Inthissenseithasbeenapplied,usuallyinacriticalspirit,tothetheory
andpracticeoflatergroupsandindividuals,includingBLANQUIandLENIN.DLM
Jefferson,Thomas(17431826)
Americanstatesmanandpoliticalphilosopher.JeffersonservedasgovernorofVirginia,
delegatetotheContinentalCongress,andthirdpresidentoftheUnitedStates,18019.HewrotetheDeclarationofIndependence,theVirginiaStatuteforReligiousFreedom,NotesontheStateofVirginia,andnumerousaddressesandletters.Neartheendofhislife,JeffersonfoundedtheUniversityofVirginia.
Jefferson'searlypoliticalwritingscentredaroundtherevolutionarycauseoftheNorthAmericancoloniesseekingindependencefromtheBritishEmpire.DrawingontheEnglishtheoryoflibertiesderivedfromanANCIENTCONSTITUTION,anduponJohnLOCKE'spoliticaltheory,Jefferson
developedafederatedtheoryoftheBritishEmpire.Inthisfederatedview,alllegislativebodieswithintheEmpire(e.g.theBritishParliamentandtheVirginiaHouseofBurgesses)were'free,equalandindependent',andtheCrownservedmerelyasanimpartialarbiteramongtheseseparatelegislatures,preservingtherightsof
each.Giventhisview,theBritishParliament'sregulationoftheAmericancoloniesinthe1760sand1770swasregardedasausurpationofthecoloniallegislatures'prerogatives,andtheCrown'ssupportofParliamentwasconsideredtyrannical.Jefferson'sviewsduringthisperiodaremostsuccinctlyexpressedinA
SummaryViewoftheRightsofBritishAmericaandtheDeclarationofIndependence.
AftertheAmericanWarofIndependence,Jefferson'spoliticalwritingsfocusedontheformationofanewrepublicinAmerica.FollowingARISTOTLE,Jeffersonconsideredman
naturallysocial,butrequiringparticipationinsmalldemocraticcommunitiestocultivatehissocialandpoliticalfaculties.JeffersonencouragedthedivisionofVirginiainto'Wards'of56squaremilesand100citizenstoreplicatetheclassicalGreekpolis.HealsobelievedthatthroughparticipatoryDEMOCRACYcitizenswouldrecognize
thebestamongthem,thoseof'wisdomandvirtue',whomJeffersoncalledtheNaturalAristocracy.ThisNaturalAristocracywouldthenbeelectedtoprominentpositionsofpoliticalleadershipandwouldserveasrepresentativestotheincreasinglycentralizedgovernments(county,stateandnational)ofthelarge
Americanrepublic.Insupportofthisidealoflocaldirectdemocracy,Jeffersonadvocateduniversalpubliceducationandrougheconomicequality.Advancementintheeducationalsystemwastobeaccordingtomerit,andthestatewastogrant50acresoflandtoeverycitizennotholdingsuch.Jeffersonopposedtheinstitutionofslavery,
butadvocatedagradualemancipationofblackslavesandtheirresettlementinAfrica.Hewasopposedtowomenparticipatinginpolitics.
Jefferson'sreligiousbeliefscorrespondedtohispoliticaltheory.AconservativeUnitarian,
K
Kant,Immanuel(17241804)
Germanphilosopher.Kantwasbornanddiedat
Knigsberg,EastPrussia.HisphilosophicalreputationrestsonthethreeCritiques-PureReason(1781),PracticalReason(1788)andJudgment(1790).In1785hepublishedtheGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals,whichfirstsetforththecelebratedcategoricalimperativealwaystohavea'goodwill',totreat
personsasendsinthemselves,nevermerelyasmeanstoarbitraryends.Kant'spoliticalthoughtwasdevelopedaftertheFrenchRevolutioninTowardEternalPeace(1795),theMetaphysicalElementsofJustice(1797),andTheConflictoftheFaculties(1798);itscentralideaisthatpoliticsmust'bendtheknee'tomorality.
ItisplainlyKant'scentralpoliticalconvictionthatmoralityandpoliticsmustberelated,since'truepoliticscannottakeasinglestepwithoutfirstpayinghomagetomorals'.Atthesametime,however,Kantdrewaverystrictdistinctionbetweenmoralmotives(actingfromgoodwillor
respectforthemorallaw)andlegalmotives,andinsistedthatmoralandlegalincentivesmustneverbecollapsedintoeachother;thisiswhyheargued(inTheConflictoftheFaculties)thatevenwithgrowing'enlightenment'and'republicanism'therestillwillnotbeagreaterquantityofmoralactionsintheworld,butonlya
largenumberoflegaloneswhichroughlycorrespondtowhatpuremoralitywouldachieveifitcould.(Attheendoftime,apurelymoral'kingdomofends'willpredictablynotberealizedonearththoughitoughttobebutonecanreasonablyhopeforabetterlegalorderwhichisclosertomoralitythanarepresentarrangements.)Morality
andpubliclegaljusticemustberelatedinsuchawaythatmoralityshapespoliticsbyforbiddingwar,byinsistingon'eternalpeace'andthe'rightsofman'withoutbecomingthemotiveofpolitics(sincepoliticscannothopefor'goodwill').
Giventhistension
betweenamoralityandapubliclegaljusticewhichmustberelatedbutwhichequallymustremaindistinct,itmaybethatthenotionof'ends'canhelptoserveasabridge:forpubliclawcertainlyupholdssomemoralends(e.g.nomurder),eventhoughthatlawmustcontentitselfwithalegalmotive.
Usingteleologyasabridgeconnectingthemoraltothepolitical-legalrealmisnotaveryradicalinnovation,sinceKanthimselfused'ends'intheCritiqueofJudgmenttounitehiswholephilosophy.Hedidthisbyarguingthatnaturecanbeestimated(thoughneverknown)throughpurposesandfunctionswhich
mechanicalcausalityfailstoexplain,thatpersonsasfreeagentsbothhavepurposeswhichtheystrivetorealizeandviewthemselvesasthefinalendofcreation,andthatartexhibitsa'purposivenesswithoutpurpose'whichmakesit(notdirectlymoralbut)thesymbolofmorality.Surely,then,ifendscanlinkorbethoughtofas
linkingnature,humanfreedomandart,theycanlink(muchmoremodestly)twosidesofhumanfreedom:namelythemoralandthelegalrealms.
Nowif'goodwill',inthemoralrealm,couldmeanneveruniversalizingamaximofactionwhichwouldfailtorespect
personsasendsinthemselves,thenmoralityandpoliticslawcouldbeconnectedthroughKantianteleology.Ifallpersonshadagoodwill,thentheywouldrespectallothersasendsindeedasmembersofa'kingdomofends';but,althoughitoughtto,thisdoesnotactuallyhappen,thankstothe
L
LabourTheoryofValue
Thistheorymaintainsthateverycommodityeverygoodproducedbyhuman
labourandcapableofbeingexchangedforothergoodshasavaluethatisdeterminedbythetotalquantityoflabourneededforitsproduction;thisincludesboththelabourexpendeddirectlyonmakingitandthelabourrequiredtoproducetherawmaterialsandimplementsusedintheprocessofproduction.
Thisthesishasplayedaninfluentialroleinsocialandpoliticaltheory,buttheusemadeofithasvariedagreatdeal.InsomehandsithasbeenusedtodefendprivatePROPERTY:LOCKE,forexample,claimedthatnine-tenthsorevenninety-ninehundredthsofthevalueofanythingdependedonthelabour
employedinmakingit,andusedthistosupporthisargumentthatthepersonwholaboursonsomethingbecomesitslegitimateowner.InCLASSICALPOLITICALECONOMY,thelabourtheoryofvaluewasusedprimarilyasanexplanatorytool,theclaimherebeingthattheratiosinwhichallcommoditieswouldtend
toexchangeweregovernedlargelybytheirlabour-determinedvalues.MARXmadeanadditionalandmorecriticalclaim.Hearguedthatlabour,asacommoditylikeanyother,wouldnormallyexchangefortheequivalentofitsowncostofproductiontheminimumsubsistencerequiredtomaintainandreproducethelabourer.
Thelabourpowersoldwould,however,beusedbythecapitalisttocreatesurplusvalue,hencetheworkingclasswasthevictimofEXPLOITATION.
Thelabourtheoryofvaluehasbeenattackedonanumberofgrounds:itoverlooksthefactthatcapitalaccumulationrequiresdeferred
consumption,andcapitalthereforeunavoidablycommandsapremiumoverandabovethelabouritembodies;itmistakenlyassumesthatthelabourusedinproductionishomogenous;anditneglectstheinfluenceofdemandontherelativepricesofcommodities.AsaresultithasnowbeenabandonedoutsideMarxistcircles,andeven
withinthemitremainsamatterofcontroversyhowessentialthelabourtheoryistotheMarxistcritiqueofcapitalism.DLM
Reading
Meek,R.L.:StudiesintheLabourTheoryofValue,2ndedn.London:Lawrence&Wishart,
1973.
Labriola,Antonio(18431904)
ItalianMarxistphilosopher.LabriolawasborninsouthernItalyandstudiedundertheHegelianBertrandoSpaventaatNaplesUniversity.Heisprincipallyknownasthe
firstHegelianMarxist,althoughVICO,SPINOZAandthepsychologyofHerbartwereequallyimportanttohisintellectualdevelopment.Hewasthefirsttostress,somethirtyyearsbeforethepublicationofMARX'sEarlyWritings,theroleofconsciousnessandofpraxisinMARXISM,andcriticizedtheevolutionarymaterialismofhisfellow
ItalianMarxist,AchilleLoria.Labriola'sprinciplewritingsareInMemoryoftheCommunistManifesto(1895),OnHistoricalMaterialism(1896)andTalkingaboutSocialismandPhilosophy(letterstoSorel,1897).Noneoftheseworksisasystematictreatise;rathertheyare'preliminaryclarifications'ofthematerialistconceptionof
history.Thefirsttwopieces,publishedinFrenchbySORELandinItalianbyCROCE,becameminorclassicsofMarxistliterature,winningthepraiseof
M
Macaulay,ThomasBabington(18001859)
Britishhistorian,politicianandessayist.
Macaulaywasthesonofaleaderofthemovementagainsttheslavetrade,andwasbroughtupamongEvangelicals.HeattendedTrinityCollege,Cambridge,andlaterbecameabarrister.Hisbrilliantessaysonliterary,historicalandpoliticaltopicsintheEdinburghReviewmadehimitsleadingcontributorandledtohiselectiontothe
HouseofCommonsasaWhig(18304,183947,18526);hisspeechesmadehimaleadingfigure,especiallyduringtheReformBilldebates(18312).HewasLawmemberoftheGovernor-General'sCouncilinIndia(18348),andproducedthePenalCodeforIndia.HislastingfamerestsonhisHistoryofEngland(184861).
InspeechesandwritingMacaulaydiscussedauthorsandproblemsthatarewithintheprovinceofpoliticalphilosophy.HisessayonMACHIAVELLIaddressedissuesofpoliticalmorality.HisspeechonthecivildisabilitiesoftheJewsusedargumentsthathadacloseaffinitywithLOCKE's
LetterConcerningToleration.HisarticlesontheutilitariantheoryofgovernmentdefendedBENTHAM'scontributionstolawreformbutcriticizedJamesMILL'smethodofdeductivereasoning,andhereheusedargumentsthatcanbetracedbacktoBURKE.HisessayonMILTONallowedhimtopresentarationaleforlibertyofexpression.In
speechesinsupportofparliamentaryreformheanalysedthecausesofrevolutionanddefendedgradualandconciliatoryconstitutionalchangeasawayofavoidingit.
Macaulay'spositionontheseissueslendsupporttotheconventionalviewinwhichheislabelledaliberalWhigandmoderate
liberal(seeLIBERALISM).Thisview,however,failstorecognizethatbothinhispoliticalcareerandinhiswritingheputforwardthepoliticsoftrimming.AsadistinguishableandprincipledtheoryofpoliticstrimmingisassociatedwithGeorgeSavile,MarquessofHalifax,authorofTheCharacterofaTrimmer(1688).Inthistheory,for
MacaulayasforHalifax,regimeswerethreatenedbycentrifugalforcesthatdrovethoserepresentingdiverseopinionstoextremessome,whowereexcessivelycriticaloftheregime,threateninganarchy,others,zealoustodefendestablishedwayswithrepression,threateningdespotism.Thetaskofthepoliticianwastoavoidsuch
extremes,tocombinelibertythatstopsshortofanarchywithorderthatstopsshortofdespotism.Thisgoalwouldbeachievedbyfrustratingthefanatics,zealotsandirreconcilablesthatrepresentedextremistsectsandfactions,andbypromotinggradualchange,reconciliation,stabilityandcentristpolitics.Thosewho
sharedthisunderstandingweregivenheroicstatus,mostnotablyWilliamIIIandHalifax,and,toacertainextent,Burke;thosewhoseextremismmadethemobstaclestotrimmingwerevillains,e.g.JamesII,TitusOates,Paine,Ultra-Tories,philosophicradicals,doctrinaires.AsapoliticianMacaulaywassensitivetodiscontents
thatcouldleadtorevolutionandthatcouldprovokedemandsforrepression.HesoughtamiddlecoursebetweentheextremesofradicalismandUltra-Toryism,andhesympathizedwithflexibleTories,especiallyCanning,andbecamespokesmanfortheconciliatoryWhigs(seePHILOSOPHICRADICALISM).
Macaulay'strimmingwasespeciallyevidentintheHistoryofEnglandwhichcontainedthe
N
NationalSocialism
TheideologyoftheNationalSocialistGermanWorkersParty(NSDAP),
betterknownastheNaziparty,whichwasformedin1919andunderHitlerruledGermanybetween1933and1945.Nationalsocialismessentiallycombinedtwodoctrines:thefascistbeliefthatnationalunitycouldbestbesecuredbyanall-encompassingstatedirectedbyapartywithonesupremeleaderembodyingthenational
will,andtheracistbeliefinthesuperiorityoftheAryanpeoples,implyingthatotherracesmightjustifiablybesubjugatedoreliminatedentirely.Althoughnationalsocialismwasthemostspectacular,andinsomerespectsthemostsuccessful,ofallformsoffascism,itwasintellectuallylesssophisticatedandless
interestingthanFrenchorItalianfascism.
Itspoliticalsuccesslayinitsabilitytosynthesizeoftencontradictoryelementsintoadoctrinewithuniversalappeal'socialism'fortheworkingclass,anti-bolshevismfortheemployers,nationalismfortraditional
conservatives,andanti-semitismforallwholookedforascapegoatonwhomtopintheblameforthelossofworldwaroneandtheeconomicdisastersofthe1920s.Domestically,thisrecipewasagreatsuccess;internationally,itweakenedtheso-calledAxis,orwartimealliancebetweenItaly,GermanyandJapan.Italyhadevery
reasontofearGermannationalism,whichcouldonlyreviveseparatistaspirationsintheformerSouthTyrolandbodedillforItalianambitionsinAfrica;JapancouldhardlybeunawarethatHitler'sambitionsfortheAryanraceleftlittleroomforitsown,andthatthe'YellowPeril'hadfrequentlyfeaturedintherhetoricofhispre-warspeeches.
Nazismhadintellectualpretentions,buttheycameapoorsecondtoanenthusiasmforbruteforceandthecultoftheleader.LiberalshaveoftenaccusedHegeloflayingthefoundationsofNazism(seePopper,vol.II);theNazisthemselvesfrequentlyclaimedanintellectualkinshipwith
Nietzsche.Infact,Hegel'sconservativeliberalismwasatworstintermittentlyauthoritarian,andhisinsistenceontheruleoflawandconstitutionalsafeguardsforprivaterightswasutterlyuncongenialtoNazism,whileNietzsche'scontemptforthepretensionsoftheGermanEmpireisanindicationofhowremovedhisideals
werefromanythinginnationalsocialism.WhereItalianfascismcouldboastofGentile,andFrenchfascismofBARRSandMAURRAS,Nazismwasintellectuallybarren.AlfredRosenberg(born1893,hangedasawarcriminalOctober1946)wasitsonly'philosopher',andhisbest-knownwork,TheMythoftheTwentiethCentury(1930)isa
discordantjumbleofracistandvolkischideaslooselyattachedtoahistoryofEuropeanculturewhichbizarrelyattemptstoprovethateverythingworthhavinginEuropeanhistoryisofNordicorigin.
Nationalsocialismisofsociologicalratherthanintellectualinterest.Ithasbeenhandledbestby
writerswhohaveunderstooditasanintellectualpathology,whetherthathasbeeninterpretedasanepisodeinthehistoryofmasssociety(seeArendt)orasaresponsetothedesireforthetranscendental(seeNolte).Its'socialism'meantlittlemorethanthatthestate'srightstranscendedthoseofprivateowners;itsappeal
totheVolkwashardlymorethananexcusetodestroythesecondaryorganizationsofliberalsociety,tradeunionsinparticular,and
O
Oakeshott,MichaelJoseph(1901)
Britishpoliticalphilosopher.Oakeshott
graduatedfromCambridgeUniversityin1923,andtwoyearslaterbecameafellowofGonvilleandCaiusCollege.In1951hewasappointedtotheuniversitychairofpoliticalscienceattheLondonSchoolofEconomics,fromwhichheretiredin1968.
Inhisfirstmajor
philosophicalwork,ExperienceanditsModes(1933),Oakeshottsetouttoelucidatetheconstitutivecharacteristicsofdifferentformsofunderstandinghumanexperience.Forhimexperienceisasinglewholeofwhichthemindandtheexternalworld,thesubjectandtheobject,areone-sidedabstractions.Allattemptstounderstandit
fallintooneoftwocategories.Theyunderstanditeitherfromspecificstandpoints,or'asawhole'and'foritsownsake'.
Byitsverynatureeverystandpointisbasedoncertainassumptionsorpresuppositions,whichitdoesnotandcannotquestion.Itabstracts
relevantaspectsofthetotalityofexperienceandoffersahomogeneous,sovereignandself-containedaccountofthem.Oakeshottdistinguishesthreesuchstandpointsor'modes',namelypractice,scienceandhistory,towhichhelateraddedpoetry.Thepracticalmodeviewsexperiencesubspecievoluntatis(underthe
aspectofwill).Itpresupposesseparate,uniqueandself-containedindividualswantingtosatisfytheirdiversedesires,andunderstandsthetotalityofexperienceintermsofsuchconceptsastheself,theother,change,desire,good,bad,ought,pleasureandpain.Historyviewsthetotalityofexperiencesubspeciepraeteritorum(underthe
aspectofthepast)andsciencesubspeciequantitatis(undertheaspectofquantity).
Unlikethemodes,philosophyisconcernedtoofferunconditionalandunabstractedexperience.Assuchitavoidsallpartialstandpointsandassumptions.ForOakeshottphilosophyis
uniqueamongallintellectualinquiriesinbeingradical,self-consciousandrigorouslyself-critical.Aconstantandrelentlesscritiqueofassumptions,itsownandthoseofthemodes,isitsmostdistinctivecharacteristic.
InExperienceanditsModesOakeshottsaid
littleaboutthenatureofpoliticsandpoliticalphilosophy.Hebegantowriteabouttheseafewyearslater,forexample,inhisIntroductiontoHobbes'sLeviathan(1946),severalessaysinPoliticaandtheCambridgeJournal,andhisInauguralLecture(1951).SomeoftheseessayswerelatercollectedinhisRationalismin
Politicsandotheressays(1962).DuringthisperiodOakeshottadvancedseveraldifferentviewsonthenatureandtaskofpoliticalphilosophy,suchastheexplorationof'thenatureandearthlydestinyofman',acriticalexaminationofcontemporarycivilization,andconceptualanalysis.AsforPOLITICS,hesawitastheactivityofattending
totheperiodicallyhighlightedincoherencesinthe'atoncecoherentandincoherent'patternofarrangementsobtainingineverycommunity.Itdoesnotandcannotconsistindecidingeachdaywhattodoandhowastheempiricistsmaintain,norinimplementingsomeabstractprinciples,ideasordoctrinesastherationalistsmaintain,but
inpursuingtheintimationsoftheexistingtraditionsofbehaviour.ForOakeshotttheempiricistsandrationalistswhollymisunderstandthenatureoftimeandknowledge,thetwocentraldimensionsofpoliticallife.Forone,timeisa
P
Pacifism
Thebeliefthatallwarsarewrong,howevergoodthecausethatisbeingfought
fororwhateverthethreattoone'sowncountry.Thisbeliefhasoftenbeenbasedonreligiousconvictionbutitalsohashumanistandpoliticalroots.Pacifismiscloselylinkedtoresistancetowar,butnotidenticalwithit,sincesomemovementshaveopposedwarsfornon-pacifistreasonsandbynon-pacifistmeans.
PacifismintheWestspringsfromearlyChristianity,whichinterpretedliterallytheNewTestamentteachingto'resistnotevil'andtoturntheothercheek.ChristiansrefusedtoserveintheimperialRomanarmies.GraduallytheChristianchurchevolvedatheoryofJUSTWAR,whichtriedtolimitwarfareby
specifyingjustcausesandjustmethodsofwar,butenabledChristianstofightwhentheirgovernmentsrequiredthemtodoso.NeverthelessautopianstrainwithintheChristianfaithhaskeptreappearingandreassertingapurepacifism.SectswhichupholdapacifistwitnessincludetheQuakers,theMennonites,theDukhoborsandJehovah's
Witnesses.SomeChristianshavethereforeviewedpacifismasprimarilyareligiousratherthanapoliticalcommitment,althoughtheQuakershavealwaysbeenactiveinpoliticsaswell.
BytheRenaissance,politicalwriterswereputtingforwardsecularargumentsagainstwar.
Erasmus,theDutchphilosopherofthesixteenthcentury,attackedthecultofchivalryandtheglorificationofwartoexposethebarbarityofwarfare.Overthenexttwocenturiesanumberofpoliticaltheoristsconcernedthemselveswiththeproblemofhowtosecureinternationalpeace,andaftertheendoftheNapoleonicwarsin
1814popularpeacemovementsgrewupinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Thesemovementsdrewprimarilyonaliberalbeliefthateconomicprogressandcooperationandthespreadofreasonthrougheducationshouldmakethebrutalityanddestructivenessofwarobsolete.
Themajorityofpacifistshavebeenliberaldemocrats,andpacifismisusuallydismissedbyMarxistsas'bourgeois'.Butthesocialistinternationalcongressesatthebeginningofthiscenturyadvocatedworking-classresistancetocapitalistandimperialistwars,andaminorityofsocialistswere
alsopacifistswhoopposedallwars.Resistancetowar,includingstrikes,desertionandmutiny,ispartoftheanarchisttradition,andlinkedtoanarchistoppositiontothestate(seeANARCHISM).Mostanarchistshaveacceptedtheneedforviolentmethodsofpoliticalresistanceagainstthestate,butsome
anarchistshavealsobeenpurepacifists.ThebestknownexampleisLeoTOLSTOY,whosewritingsinfluencedGANDHI'Sexperimentsinnon-violentresistance.
DuringthefirstworldwartheintroductionofconscriptioninBritainandtheUnitedStatesledtowidespreadconscientious
objectionbyindividualswhorefusedtofight.Sincethenpacifismhasbeendefinedmorestrictlytomeanapersonalcommitmentnevertoserveinthearmedforces.InthissenseithasbeenmostcommonincountrieswithaProtestantandaliberaltradition,whichencouragesindividualstotakeaconscientiousstandandalsotendstomake
governmentsmoretolerantofreligiousconscientiousobjectiontowar.
Manypacifistshavebecomeincreasinglycommittedtotheuseofnon-cooperationornon-violentresistancetoopposeracialismor
Q
Quesnay,Franois(16941774)
Frencheconomist.Intellectualleaderofthe
physiocrats,andanearlyexponentofthedoctrineofLAISSEZ-FAIRE.SeePHYSIOCRACY.
R
Racism
Asapoliticaltheoryand
asthebasisforatheoryofhistory,racismbecameafactorinEuropeanhistoryinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Asapoliticalforce,itcametotheforeintheanti-semitismoftheturnofthecenturyanditconstitutedtheintellectualfoundationofNazism.
Theintellectualoriginsof
racialexplanationsofthehumanworldgobacktotheeighteenthcentury.Itwasatthattimethatanthropologycameintobeing,anewscientificdisciplinewhichattemptedtodetermine,bytheuseofempiricalmethods,theplaceofmaninnature.Menwereobserved,evaluated,compared.Atthesametime,asearchforunity
andharmonyinhumanaffairsgaverisetoabeliefintheunityofthefleshandthespirit.Thisunity,itwasbelieved,couldalsobeobservedandevaluated.
AlthoughthegreatnaturalistsandanthropologistsoftheeighteenthcenturysuchasLamarck(17441829),
theauthorofPhilosophiezoologique(1809),whosestudiesonthemutationofspeciesheraldedthoseofDarwin,orBuffon(170788),theauthorofthecelebratedHistoirenaturelledel'homme(1778)offeredamaterialistandenvironmentalistexplanationofracialdifferences,theircriteriaofclassificationwere
alreadyofahighlysubjectivecharacter.Theuseofstereotypesbecameverycommon,andvariationsinphysicalcharacteristicswereheldtoindicatetheexistenceofmental,psychologicalandculturaldifferences.Fromthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturymanyscientifictexts,suchasworksofnaturalhistoryoranthropology,were
alreadyopenlyracist.Thenewsciencesofhumanity,modellingthemselvesasfaraspossibleonthehighlyrespectedphysicalsciences,tended,atthatperiod,toattributetomentalormoralcharacteristicsthesame
S
Saint-Simon,Claude-HenrideRouvroy(17601825)
Frenchsocialist.An
aristocratbybirth,Saint-Simonabsorbedfromtheeighteenth-centuryENLIGHTENMENTaninterestinphilosophyandthesciences,andtheapplicationofknowledgetothesolutionofsocialproblems.Yethisownfirstpronouncementsonthesemattersdidnotappearinprintuntilthefirstdecadeofthenineteenthcentury,by
whichtimehisexperienceofviolentupheavalintheAmericanandFrenchrevolutionshadconvincedhimoftheurgentneedforaprogrammeofsystematicsocialreorganization.Hesubsequentlyundertookpioneeringinvestigationsconcernedprincipallywiththeestablishmentofascientificstudyofmanandsociety-a'social
physiology'.Asasocialreformerheputforwardproposalswhichatfirstcouldhardlybedistinguishedfromliberaldoctrines,buthegraduallymovedawayfromorthodoxliberalismtowards'industrialism',atheorywhichcontainedmanysocialisticelements.
Oneofthemost
significantfeaturesofSaint-Simon's'socialphysiology'wasitsunderlyingconceptionofhistory.InspiredbythemechanicaldeterminismoftheNewtonianworld-viewandtheoptimismofEnlightenmentphilosophiesofPROGRESS,Saint-Simonattemptedtorevealtheinexorablepatternofhistoricalchange,notonlyinthe
pastandpresent,butalsothroughscientifically-basedanticipationsofthefuture.Thisperspectiveledhimtostresstherelationshipbetweenscience(theoreticalknowledge)andindustry(meaning,atthistime,allproductiveactivity,notjustmanufacturing)asthekeyagentsatworkinshapingsuccessivetypesofsocietyinthecourseof
man'sevolutionfromprimitivetomoderntimes.
Saint-SimonwasoneofthefirstthinkerstoidentifythemainfeaturesofanemergentINDUSTRIALSOCIETY(or'industrialsystem'),andtotrytoshowhowsuchasocietywaslikelytodevelopoutofthecollapseoffeudalism.Centraltothis
endeavourwastheargumentthateverytypeofsocietyisbuiltonthefoundationsofaparticularsystemofbeliefs,andthatoncethesebeliefslosecredibility,thesocialordermustitselfdisintegrate.Thus,forSaint-Simon,itwasultimatelytheEnlightenmentattackontheologywhichprecipitatedthe
destructionofthefeudalsystem;anditfollowedthatonlyanew,alternativesetofbeliefsmodern'positive'sciencecouldfurnishthebasisforthepost-feudal,industrialorder.Thiswouldhappenonlywhentheoldrulingclassesoflandednobilityandclergy(thetwinpillarsoffeudalism)hadbeenreplacedbythenew,
ascendantclassesofscientists,engineersandartists(intheintellectualsphere),andentrepreneurs,industrialistsandproducers(inthemorepracticalsphereofpoliticsandadministration).Suchanimageofmodernsocietydoesperhapssuggestrulebytechnocrats,oritmightbeseenasanothervariation
onthethemeofcapitalisticutilitarianism.Boththeseinterpretationshavesomejustification,sinceSaint-Simonclearlyhopedtoelevateprofessionalexpertsofvariouskindstopositionsofauthority,expertswhosemaintaskwouldbetopromotehumansatisfactionswithinanessentiallycapitalisticframeworkbasedonthe
maintenanceofprivatepropertyrights.YetothermorecollectivistictendenciesinSaint-Simon'sthoughtmustbetakenintoaccount,
T
Tawney,RichardHenry(18801962)
Britishsocialphilosopherandeconomichistorian.
BorninIndia,andeducatedatRugbyandBalliolCollege,Oxford,Tawney'sChristiansocialmoralismandaprevailingconcernwiththe'socialquestion'firstledhimintoeducationalsocialworkatToynbeeHallinLondon'sEastEnd.However,soonconvincedthatsocialreconstructionwasmoreimportantthancharitablesocialrelief,he
increasinglyturnedhisattentiontowardseducation,economicandsocialresearch,andpolitics.ThusbeganhislifelongassociationwithadulteducationthroughtheWorkers'EducationalAssociation;withtheLabourandtradeunionmovements(hewrotemanypolicydocumentsfortheLabourParty,andrepresentedtheunionside
ontheSankeyCommissionontheCoalIndustry);andwiththeLondonSchoolofEconomics,whereheheldthechairofeconomichistory.OnhiseightiethbirthdayTheTimeswrote:'NomanalivehasputmorepeopleintohisspiritualandintellectualdebtthanhasRichardHenryTawney...'.
Inpart,suchaclaimrestedonTawney'sownpersonalqualitiesandmoralstature.However,itrestedevenmoreonhiscontributiontosocialthoughtinBritainduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.InaseriesofinfluentialbookshesetouttoidentifythemoraldisorderofBritishcapitalistsociety(The
AcquisitiveSociety,1921),toexploreaspectsofthehistoricalgenesisofthiskindofsociety(mostnotably,inhisReligionandtheRiseofCapitalism,1926),andtooutlinethebasisforanalternative,socialist,formofhumansocialorganization(inEquality,1931).Thesepivotalworksweresupplementedbyessays,speeches,and
papersoneducation,socialreform,Christiansocialthinking,andsocialism.SomeofthismaterialiscollectedinTheAttack,andotherpapers(1953)andTheRadicalTradition(1964).Takentogether,Tawney'sworkarguablyrepresentsthemostinfluentialandauthenticstatementofearlytwentieth-centuryBritishSOCIALISM.
Itwasasocialismthataddresseditselftogeneralhumanvaluesandtheirsocialexpression,areflectionofTawney'sChristianhumanism.Itwas,therefore,notasocialismofclasspower,economicdetermination,orhistoricalinevitability.IfTawney'shistoricalstudiesofthe
developmentofcapitalismgavehisworkaffinitieswithMarxism,bothhisindictmentofcapitalismandhispresentationofthesocialistprojectrestedondistinctivefoundations.InthenotesforhisCommonplaceBook,writtenintheyearsjustbeforethefirstworldwar,Tawneyhadrecordedthatsocietywas'sickthroughtheabsenceofamoral
ideal'.ItwasthismoralsicknessthatprovidedthethemeforTheAcquisitiveSociety,withitsanalysisofasocietyinwhichindustryandpropertyhadbecomedetachedfromanyprinciplesoffunctionandpurpose(thesearekeyTawneywords)andsoinhabitedarealmofmorallawlessnessinwhichacquisitionand'industrialism'were
unconstrained.Thedisordersofcapitalistsociety,reflectedinaneconomiclifethatis'inaperpetualstateofmorbidirritation',weretobeseenasinevitableconsequencesofitsmoralvacuum.Againstsuchasociety,Tawneyadvancedadoctrineoffunctionalpropertyandcommonsocialpurpose.
Inhishistoricalwork,Tawneywasconcernedtoexplorehowacapitalisteconomyhadcometoacquireitsautonomyfromageneral
U
Utilitarianism
Thenameofthattraditioninethicaltheorythat,eitherdirectlyor
indirectly,assessestherightnessofacts,policies,decisions,andchoicesbytheirtendencytopromotethehappinessofthoseaffectedbythem.ItisassociatedwiththenamesofJeremyBENTHAMandJohnStuartMILL,morerecentlywiththoseofHenrySIDGWICKandG.E.Moore,and,morerecentlystill,withthoseofJ.J.C.SmartandR.M.Hare.
SincethedaysofBenthamandMill,ithasneverceasedtooccupyacentralplaceinmoraltheorizing;andtoday,asaresultofthewidespreadgrowthofappliedethics,ineveryareaofwhichitunderpinsoneofthecontendingpositions,ithascometohavesignificantimpactuponthemoralthinkingofmanylaymen.
Benthamheldthatactsarerightiftheytendtopromotehappinessandwrongiftheytendtoproducethereverseofhappiness,andthathappinessistobeunderstoodaspleasureandunhappinessaspainortheabsenceofpleasure.Pleasuresandpainsweretobeassessedorweighed
bymeansofafelicificcalculus(forexample,bytheirintensity,duration,andpropinquity)thatenabledunitsorvaluesofpleasuresandpainstobeassignedandtobesummed.Thiscalculuswasperson-neutral,capableofbeingappliedtothedifferentpleasuresofdifferentpeople,aswellasintensity-sensitive,capableofcapturingthe
differentlevelsofpleasuresofdifferentpeople.Extent,orthetotalnumberofpersonsaffectedbytheact,wasanimportantpartofthecalculus.Rightnesswasdetermined,therefore,bysummingtheunitsorvaluesofthedifferentpleasuresandpainsproducedinthedifferentpeopleaffectedbytheact:anactwasrightifit
producedanetbalanceofpleasureoverpain.Theoverallaimwastomaximizepleasure,thatis,toproducethegreatestnetbalanceofpleasureoverpainforthecollectivityofthoseaffected.Theformula'thegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber'cametoexpressthisaim,andthecircleofsocial,political,andlegalreformersthathad
gatheredaroundBenthamcarriedthisformulaforchangeintosociety(seePHILOSOPHICRADICALISM).
Inspiteofsomereservations,JohnStuartMillacceptedBentham'sgeneralposition,includingBentham'shedonismandhisviewthatouractionsaremotivatedentirelybypleasureandpain.Mill
wanted,however,todistinguishqualities,aswellasquantities,ofpleasuresandtospeakofhigherandlowerpleasures;andthisposesdifficulties.Foritisunclearwhetheradistinctionbetweenqualitiesofpleasurescanbesustained(alongthelinesthatpleasureispleasure,thoughwhatcausesitcanvary)and
whethersuchadistinctionlendsitselftoacalculusthatenablesunitsorvaluestobeassignedtopleasuresandsoforpleasurestobesummedandcompared,interpersonally.
TheclassicalutilitarianismofBenthamandMillisaformofact-utilitarianism(doubts
haveoccasionallybeenexpressedaboutthisinterpretationofMill),andthistypeofutilitarianism,accordingtowhichanactisrightifitsconsequencesareatleastasgoodasthoseofanyalternative,istodaycontrastedwithothertypes,suchasrule-utilitarianismandutilitariangeneralization(and,also,motive-
utilitarianism).Accordingtorule-utilitarianism,anactisrightifitconformstoarulethegeneralfollowingofwhichwouldhave(orhas)goodconsequences.Thepointofthistypeoftheory,whichexistsin
V
Vattel,Emmerichde(17141767)
Swissjurist.Hismajorwork,TheLawofNations
(1758),wasaninfluentialexpositionoftheprinciplesofINTERNATIONALLAW.
Vico,Giambattista(16681744)
Italianphilosopher,historianandjurist.Vicolivedanddied,incomparativeinternationalobscurity,inNaples,
whereheheldthechairofrhetoricattheuniversityfrom1699to1741.Internationalinterestinhisworkcameinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,throughthepowerfuladvocacyfirstoftheFrenchhistorianMicheletandthenoftheItalianphilosopherCROCE.
Ofhismoreimportant
earlyworks,OntheStudyMethodsofourTime(1709)revealsaninterestintheeducationofthelegislatorandinthenatureofpoliticalwisdom,butOntheAncientWisdomoftheItalians(1710)isprimarilyconcernedwithanon-Cartesiantheoryofknowledge.AmoresystematicinterestinpoliticaltheoryisfirstexpressedinOnthe
CoherenceoftheJurist(1721),butislaterdevelopeddifferentlywithinthecontextofascienceoftheprinciplesofhumanity,whichisthesubjectofhismasterpiece,TheNewScience.Thisexistsinthreedifferenteditions(1725,1730,and1744)betweenthefirsttwoofwhich,inparticular,therearemajordifferencesinform.
ThecentralfeaturesofVico'spoliticalthoughtareconsequencesoftwodifferenttheses.First,thatnationsshareacommondevelopmentalnaturewhichchangesascertainfundamentalconcepts,primarilythoseoftruthandofjustice,emergeanddevelopinthecourseofhumaninteractionwithin
society.Second,thattheformofastateandofitsgovernmentmustconformtothenatureofthepeoplegoverned.Fromthesetheses,itfollowsthattheformsofastateanditsgovernmentwillchangeinaccordancewiththedevelopmentofthesefundamentalconcepts.
Vicodevelopsthese
claimsinproducingatheory,the'idealeternalhistory',aboutanecessaryprocessofcultural,social,andpoliticaldevelopmentanddecaywhich,incertaincircumstances,wouldoccurinthehistoryofanyactualnation.Inthefirstphaseor'era'ofthisprocess,awhollypoeticorimaginativesocialandphysicalworldisseen,inatotally
mythicalway,asdifferentaspectsofGodorofthegods.PossessionbelongsimmediatelytoGodbutmediatelytothosewhoclaimtointerpretHiswishes,makesacrificestoplacateHimandbringHislawtothepeople.Makingcertainassumptionsaboutthenaturaldevelopmentoffamilies,Vicoconcludesthattheformofstateappropriatetothis
phaseisthatofatheocraticdespotisminwhichallrightsofpossessiondevolveuponthefatherofthefamily,inwhosepersonareunitedallthreesacerdotalfunctions,andthencetohisnearestkin.
Inthesecondera,theformofthestateisdeterminedbythedesire
ofthefathers'descendantstoretainthevastprivatepossessionswhichtheyhaveinherited,thejustificationforwhichliesintheirclaimtosemi-divinestatus,i.e.,tobebornofunionsofmortalsandgods.ToexplainthisformofstateVicomakestwofurtherassumptions.First,thataclassdistinctionwillhavearisenwithintheoriginal
familystatesthroughtheadmissionintothemofexternalvagrantswholacksemi-divinestatusand,therefore,anycivilrights.Second,that
W
Webb,Beatrice(18581943)andSidney(18591947)
Britishsocialreformers.
ProminentmembersoftheFabianSociety,theWebbswereknownespeciallyfortheircollaborativeresearchineconomicandsocialhistory.SeeFABIANISM.
Weber,Max(18641920)
Germanpoliticaleconomistandtheoretical
sociologist.Afterearlystudiesinthehistoryofcommerciallaw,WeberestablishedhimselfasoneoftheleadingfiguresinanewgenerationofhistoricalpoliticaleconomistsintheGermanyofthe1890s.Apersonalbreakdownin1898ledtohiswithdrawalfromacademicteaching,butdidlittletoimpairtheflowofhiswriting,the
rangeofwhichwasenormous.Itsunifyingfocuswasaconcernwiththemutualrelationshipbetweenlegal,politicalandculturalformationsontheonehand,andeconomicactivityontheother.Hisconcernwiththeseissuesbecameincreasinglytheoretical,involvingasystematizationofthemajorcategoriesofsocial
andpoliticallife,bothuniversallyandasdefinitiveofthespecificcharacterofmodernwesterncivilization.WeberwasalsoactivelyandoftencontroversiallyinvolvedinthepoliticalissuesofWilhelmineGermany,fromaprogressivenational-liberalstandpoint,aninvolvementwhichgaveparticularpointtohis
concernwiththedistinctionbetweensocialscienceandpoliticalpractice,andtheplaceofvaluejudgmentsintheformer.Itwasonlycomparativelylateinhislifethathecametothinkofhisworkas'sociology',anditisasoneofthe'foundingfathers'ofsociologythatheisnowknown.Hisworkis,however,toocomplexto
allowofanysimpleclassification,whetherintermsofdisciplinaryboundariesorofanyparticularschoolofthought.
WebermadehisinitialreputationinGermanywithastudyoftheimpactofcapitalistorganizationontheagriculturalestateseastoftheElbe,andits
implicationsforthecontinueddominanceoftheJunkersoverGermany'spoliticallife.Itisforamuchwiderstudy,however,oftheoriginsofcapitalismitself,thatheisbestknown(TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism,19045).Theargumentofthisworkisthattheprofit-maximizingbehavioursocharacteristicofthe
bourgeoisie,whichcouldbeexplainedunderfullydevelopedcapitalistconditionsbyitssheernecessityforsurvivalinthefaceofcompetition,couldnotbesoexplainedundertheearlierphasesofcapitalistdevelopment.Itwastheproductofanautonomousimpulsetoaccumulatefarbeyondtheneedsofpersonalconsumption,animpulse
whichwashistoricallyunique.Webertraceditssourcetothe'worldlyasceticism'ofreformedChristianity,withitstwinimperativestomethodicalworkasthechiefdutyoflife,andtothelimitedenjoymentofitsproduct.Theunintendedconsequenceofthisethic,whichwasenforcedbythesocialandpsychologicalpressures
onthebelievertoprove(butnotearn)hissalvation,wastheaccumulationofwealthforinvestment.
EarlycriticsofWeber'sthesismisunderstooditasapurelyculturalexplanationforcapitalism,asifa'SiberianBaptistoraCalvinistinhabitantoftheSahara'must
inevitablybecomeasuccessfulentrepreneur.Weberwas,infact,wellawarebothofthematerialpreconditionsforcapitalistdevelopment,andofthesocialintereststhatareneededtosupportthe
Y
YoungHegelians
DisciplesoftheGermanphilosopherG.W.F.HEGEL,characterizedand
broughttogetherbytheirstressontheradicaltheologicalandpoliticalimplicationsofHegel'sthought.Thesetheysawasexposingthe'contradictions'andmystificationonwhichestablishedreligionandthePrussianmonarchy(andothermonarchies)rested.ThisbroughtthemintoconflictwithOldorRightHegelianswho
followedtheMaster'sviewthattherealwasrational,thatProtestantChristianityembodiedthetruthsofphilosophyinpictorialformandthatthePrussianmonarchyandcivilserviceapproximatedtotherationalstate,withanundividedsovereignwillandabureaucracyactingimpartiallyinthepublicinterest.Increasinglyanti-
theological,republican,democraticandevenrevolutionary,theYoungHegeliansstoodforhumanemancipation,substitutingindividualconsciousness,ortheuniversalconsciousnessofthehumanspecies,forHegel'sobjectivespirit.Theypreachedself-determination,andtheovercomingofalienationandofdivisivenessand
particularityinsociallife.TheythusimplicitlystressedKantianandFichtianthemesinHegel'swork,especiallyKANT'selevationofautonomyanduniversality,withoutsubordinatingthesetothesystematicand'external'structuresthatHegelthoughtnecessarytomakefreedomrational.
LeadingmembersofthegroupwereDavidFriedrichStrauss(180874),LudwigFEUERBACH(180472),BrunoBauer(180982)andhisbrotherEdgar(182086),ArnoldRuge(180380),MaxSTIRNER(realnameJohannCasparSchmidt,180656)andMosesHess(181275).Between1839and1842theyoungKarlMARXand,separately,
FriedrichENGELSwereassociatedwithmembersofthisgroupandwerestronglyinfluencedbythem.By1844MarxandEngelshadbecomesharplycriticaloftheYoungHegeliansfortheirelevationoftheoreticalcriticismandofconsciousness,andtheirneglectofsocialandmaterialrealities;in1845/6theydenounced
theminTheGermanIdeology.Thefailureofthe1848RevolutionandthedeclineofHegelianphilosophicalinfluenceintheGermanyofthe1850sand1860sspeltanendtotheYoungHegeliansasamovement.TheywenttheirseparatewaysandarenowstudiedchieflyfortheirroleintheintellectualevolutionofMARXISM.Ludwig
Feuerbach,whosereputationlongovershadowedthoseoftheotherYoungHegelians,becamelessandlessHegelianinthe1840s;heremains,however,animportantfigureinthecritiqueofreligionandthehistoryoftheology.MosesHesshasattractedindependentinterestasGermany'sfirstcommunist,preceding
Marxinthatrole,andastheauthorofRomeandJerusalem(1862),animportanttextinthemakingofmodernZionism.AnotherwriterlooselyattachedtothegroupwasthePolishnoblemanAugustvonCieszkowski(181494)whocametoBerlinin1832andwhoseProlegomenazurHistoriosophie(1838)
attractedinterestthen,andagainrecently,bycarryingYoungHegelianpositionsbeyondphilosophytoademandthatpracticalaction,'spontaneous,willedandfree',beappliedtochangetheworld.
IntimationsofthescandaltobecausedbytheYoungHegeliansandofthe
potentiallyradicalimplicationsoftheHegelianmethodwerefirstgivenbythepublication,anonymously,in1830,ofLudwigFeuerbach's
Index
TheEditorsandPublishersaregratefultoMaryNorriswhocompiledtheindex.Pagereferencestomajorentriesonasubjectare
inboldtype.
A
absolutemonarchy43,193
inEngland2,73
inFrance
2,5,167,168,215
absolutism(seealsodespotism;totalitarianism)13,126,1678,194,294,
369
action20,134,184,366
ActionFranaise98,328
Acton,JohnEmerich
Dalberg,Lord34,286
Adams,John45
Adorno,Theodor5,106,107,315,388
Aemilianus,PubliusScipioseeScipioAemilianus,Publius
agrariancommunism867,284,394
agriculture81,84,3723
inRussia2701
AlaricII448
Alembert,JeanleRondd'
5,91,167,168,345
Algeria58,147
alienation68,279,381,467,553
Marxon60,320
rightsand4434
Althusius,Johannes89,379,522
Althusser,Louis910,325,399
altruism,inHegel197
Ambrose,St2589
AmericaseeUnitedStates
ofAmerica
AmericanDeclarationofIndependence
3,223,254,291
AmericanRevolution20,1602,437
Burkeon50,53
FrenchEnlightenment
and1689
influenceonBritishradicals
416
republicanismand435
Ammon,Otto415
Anabaptists10,55,4245
anarchism1014,289,290,350,486,
535
Bakuninand334
communismand87
Godwinand1778
Kropotkinand2701
pacifismand363
politicalobligationand381
Proudhonand
4067
Tolstoyon524
ancientconstitution14,51,283,417
animalrights1416,445,532
anomie16,129,279
Anscombe,Elizabeth259
Apel,Karl-Otto108
Aquinas,Thomas1619,216,259,261,333,
429
architecture,Ruskinon460
Arendt,Hannah1921,29,209,541
mentioned108,117,118,279,351,388,
436,441,525
aristocracy4,43,46,186,193,339
Aristotleon22
attackson215,365,370,371,438
Burkeon52
Aristotle214,1812,218,220,429,
504
oncitizenship74
ondespotism120
onjustice127,136
onrevolutions437
mentioned16,27,115,138,155,193,198,201,254,261,318,334,344,376,434,502,515
Arnauld,Antoine175
Arnold,Matthew327,514
Aron,Raymond209,464
Arrow,Kenneth117,3845
arts
109,110,190,265,315,317,460,524
assassination13,541
associations889,360,520
political416
religious
94
typesof8
Athens182,375,489,490
atomism240,382
atomization46,320
Augustine,St,BishopofHippo17,247,68,115,2189,
329,479
andjustwar258,259
andprogress402
Aurelius,Marcus452
Austin,John278,38,309,369,370,494
Australia
federalstateof151
separationofpowersin473
Austria,liberalcorporatismin
104
authority2831,34,47,74,92,107,
108,156,284
(seealsopower)
anarchismand1011,178
inChristianthought319,425,426,427
elitismand131
inIslamicthought250
Lockeon217,293
Nietzscheon357
TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalThought
EditedbyDavidMiller
AdvisoryEditorsJanetColemanWilliamConnollyAlanRyan
Contents
Preface
vii
ListofContributors
ix
EditorialNotes
xiii
TheBlackwellEncyclopaediaofPoliticalThought
1
Index
555
MichaelH.CrawfordMHCUniversityCollegeLondon
AlfonsoJ.DamicoAJDUniversityofFlorida
MarkDavieMDUniversityofExeter
R.W.DaviesRWDUniversityofBirmingham
GraemeDuncanGCDNewcastlePolytechnic
RobertEccleshallRREQueen'sUniversityofBelfast
DanielEilonDEUniversityofWarwick
JeanBethkeElshtainJBEVanderbiltUniversity
JosephV.FemiaJVFUniversityofLiverpool
MosesFinleyMIF
MurrayForsythMGFUniversityofLeicester
ElizabethFox-GenoveseEFEmoryUniversity
MichaelS.FreedenMSFMansfieldCollege,Oxford
R.G.FreyRGFBowlingGreenStateUniversity,Ohio
RichardB.FriedmanRBFStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo
RuthGavisonRGHebrewUniversityofJerusalem
IreneL.GendzierILGBostonUniversity
NormanGerasNGUniversityofManchester
PatrickRileyPRUniversityofWisconsin
AlanRitterAIRTrinityCollege,Hartford,Connecticut
JohnC.RobertsonJCR
StHugh'sCollege,Oxford
F.RosenFRUniversityCollegeLondon
NancyL.RosenblumNLRBrownUniversity
AlanRyanARPrincetonUniversity
LymanTowerSargentLTSUniversityofMissouri,StLouis
DavidLewisSchaeferDLSCollegeoftheHolyCross,Massachusetts
GordonJ.SchochetGJSRutgersUniversity
MortonSchoolmanMS
StateUniversityofNewYorkatAlbany
R.AndrewSharpRASUniversityofAuckland
JeremyShearmurJSGeorgeMasonUniversity
GarrettW.SheldonGSUniversityofVirginia
L.A.SiedentopLASKebleCollege,Oxford
G.W.SmithGWSUniversityofLancaster
JohnStanleyJLSUniversityofCalifornia,Riverside
PeterG.SteinPGSQueens'College,Cambridge
community;legally,asovereigncouldnotberesistedordeposed.Sovereigntyisabsoluteandindivisible.Eithertheprinceofanindependentstateisabsolute,orelseheissubjecttosomeotherpowersuchastheestates,whichisthensovereign.
AmoretheologicalversionofabsolutisttheorywasthatofBishopBossuet,acontemporaryofLouisXIV.BossuetcombinedtraditionalscripturalandmetaphoricalconceptswithnewerjuridicalandHobbesianarguments.ApplyingamodeofthoughtlongfamiliarinFrance,Bossuettreated
thekingasplacedbyGodinapositiontoadvancethepublicinterest,aswellastoprotecthumblesubjectsfromlocaltyrants.Suchfunctionsrequireapowerfulcentralauthority.BossuetwentontoclaimforthekinginthestatethesamepositionasthatheldbyGodintheuniverse.AHobbesianargumentwasaddedbyBossuetwhenheclaimed
thateveryoneinthestategainssecuritybysurrenderingtothesovereignallindividualrights.Themonarchy,likeGod,isbothconstitutiveanddirective;italonepreservesthepeoplefromanarchy.Bossuetmultipliedmoralinjunctionstotheking:heshouldruleinwaysatoncebeneficentanddisinterested;heshould
followestablishedlaw;heshouldrememberthatGodwilljudgehim.
Although'absolutism'wasanineteenth-centurycoinageinEnglish,thetermabsolutewashotlydisputedinsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurypoliticalandlegaldiscussionsofabsolutemonarchy.InTudor
EnglandSirThomasSmithcouldusethewordabsoluteinbothpejorativeandlaudatorysenses.HeblamedLouisXIforchangingFrancefroma'lawfulandregularraigne'to'absoluteandtyrannicalpowerandgovernment'.ButSmithproudlyascribedtoParliament'themosthighandabsolutepoweroftherealmofEnglande'(seeDaly,pp.
2289).
AmbiguitiesinTudorpoliticalusesof'absolute'gavewayintheseventeenthcenturytosharplyfocuseddisagreementsduringtheCivilWarandafter.Parliamentarywritersequatedabsolutepowerwithtyrannyororientaldespotism.Theyrefused
toallowthatthekinghadanyabsoluterighttoobedience.SamuelRutherfordwrotethat'anabsoluteunlimitedmonarchy...istheworstformofgovernment'(seeDaly,p.237).
AlthoughCivilWarroyalistwritersagreedaboutthepowersofthekingtheydidnotall
concurindescribingthesepowersasabsolute.SomewhoheldthatEnglandwasamonarchylimitedbylawdeniedthatthekinghadarbitrarypowertolegislateathis'willandpleasure'.EvenHenryFerne,whenarguingforcompleteandpassiveobedience,deniedthatnon-resistanceimpliedabsolutemonarchy:'Itisnotthedenialof
resistancethatmakesamonarchabsolute,butthedenialofalawtoboundhiswill'.Otherroyalisttheorists,aftertheRestoration,arguedthattheking'spowerswereabsoluteinthesensethattheycouldnotbelimitedbylaw.
Thetwobest-knowntheoriststoarguethatthe
king'spowerswerebothabsoluteandarbitrarywereHobbesandFilmer,bothofwhomappliedBodin'stheoryofsovereigntytoEngland.Hobbesascribedexclusive,unlimited,andirresistiblepowertothe'absolutesovereign',whetherkingorassembly.Healsotriedtoremovethedistinctionbetweenlimitedandabsolute
monarchybydenyingthattyrannymeantanythingmorethanmonarchydisliked.
Hobbes'stheoryofsovereigntywassharedbySirRobertFilmer,whoalmostaloneamongroyalistswentontodescribethemonarchyasarbitraryinthesensethatthekingcoulddo
whateverhewished.Thiswentbeyonddenyingthatanylegallimitationcouldbeplaceduponthesovereign,orthepositiveassertionthatthekingcouldexercisepowersbelongingtohim.Filmer,likeHobbes,deniedthattyrannywasameaningfulterm.Filmeralsoidentifiedthepowersofkingswiththoseoffathersasbeingalikenaturaland
bestowedbyGod.
ThesepositionsofferedopportunitiestoFilmer'sWhigcritics.LOCKEattackedFilmer'sidentificationofabsolutewitharbitrarymonarchyasincompatiblewithcivilsocietyandasnoformofcivilgovernment.Whilefoundamongorientals,suchastheTurks,such
rulewasdespotic.EnglishmencouldnotacceptwhatFilmeradvocated,describedbyLockeas:
aDivineunalterableRightofSovereignty,wherebyaFatherorPrincehathanAbsolute,Arbitrary,Unlimited,andUnlimitablePower,overtheLives,
variousdoctrinalpressures,theboundariesoftheconceptofauthorityhaveturnedouttobeelasticafterall,thusopeningoutontoMaxWeber'sprojectevenwithinthe'modern'world.RBF
Reading
Arendt,H.:Whatisauthority?InBetweenPastandFuture.ClevelandandNewYork:Viking,1968.
*Flathman,R.:ThePracticeofPoliticalAuthority:AuthorityandtheAuthoritative.Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress,1980.
*Friedrich,C.J.ed.:NomosI:Authority.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1958.
Gadamer,H.-G.:TruthandMethod.NewYork:Continuum,1982.
Hobbes,T.:Leviathan(1651),ed.C.B.Macpherson.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1968.
Oakeshott,M.:OnHumanConduct.London:ClarendonPress,1975.
Raz,J.:TheAuthorityofLaw.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1979.
Spinoza,B.:Theologico-politicalTreatise(1670).InTheChiefWorksofBenedictdeSpinoza,vol.I,ed.R.H.M.Elwes.NewYork:Dover,1951.
*Watt,E.D.:Authority.London:CroomHelm,1982.
Weber,M.:TheTheoryof
SocialandEconomicOrganization(1922),trans.A.R.HendersonandT.Parsons.NewYork:Macmillan,1947.
Wolff,R.P.:InDefenseofAnarchism.NewYork:Harper&Row,1970.
Autonomy
Literallymeaning'self-rule',autonomyisascribedinpopularpoliticalparlancetoself-governingstates,ortoinstitutionsorgroupswithinstatesthatenjoyasubstantialdegreeofindependenceandinitiative.InpoliticalthoughtthetermisoftennowusedtorefertoanaspectofpersonalFREEDOM.Autonomous
individualsarethosewhoseendsandpurposesareauthenticallychosen,asopposedtothosewhoallowthemselvestobeconditionedbyexternalforces.But,aswithpositivesensesoffreedomgenerally,thecriteriaofauthenticchoicemaybespecifiedindifferentways,andsoitmaybeamatterofdisputewhichpersonsshouldbecounted
asautonomous.DLM
Reading
Young,R.:PersonalAutonomy:BeyondNegativeandPositiveLiberty.LondonandSydney:CroomHelm,1986.
literary,political,historicalandeconomicsubjects,withaliterarymannerwhichwasgenial,tolerantandconversational;hisstancewasthatofashrewd,pragmaticmanoftheworldwhounderstoodbusinessandthestolid
Englishnationalcharacterbutwhoneverthelessunderstoodtheimportance,inthelongrun,oforiginalspeculativeideas.
Bagehot'spoliticalpositionwasthatofanunillusionedconservativeliberalwhovaluedintelligenceandbelievedinprogressbutwhoknew
thatintelligenceneededtobecomplementedbyrealismandtheabilitytoworkwiththeprejudicesandlimitationsofaveragemankind,andthatprogresswasthereforenecessarilyslow.Itwasaviewwhichreadilyfoundjustificationinthegradualistnotionsof'socialevolution'whichwerebecomingestablishedinhistimeand
ofwhich,inPhysicsandPolitics,hebecamealeadingexponent.Bagehotwasalsoastrongbelieverinanotherpopularnotionoftheperiod,theimportanceof'nationalcharacter'inpolitics;hesawtheEnglishaspredominantlysluggishandinneedofideastosavethemfromstagnation,theFrenchastoovolatileandlacking
thestabilityofhabitwhatheprovocativelycalled'stupidity'necessarytoself-government.HisearliestarticleswerewrittenfromParisin1852onthecoupd'tatwhichestablishedtheSecondEmpire;Bagehottooktheline,unpopularwithliberals,thatthecircumstancesjustifiedstrongmeasures,thoughhelaterbecamea
criticofNapoleonIII'sregime.
InTheEnglishConstitutionBagehotsetouttoattackwhathepresentedastheorthodoxviewofthedivisionofpowersbetweenexecutiveandlegislature.Infactthisviewwasalreadyold-fashionedandBagehot'srevisionwasnotquiteas
originalasheclaimed,butitwashewhogavedefinitiveformtotheneworthodoxy.HearguedthatexecutiveandlegislaturewerecloselylinkedbytheCabinet,whichwasessentiallyacommitteeoftheHouseofCommons.ThenewinterpretationthatBagehotproposedwasadistinctionbetweenthe'efficient'and'dignified'partsofthe
constitution.TheefficientpartwastheHouseofCommonswiththeCabinetasitsexecutivearm,themonarchyandtheHouseofLordschieflybelongedtothedignifiedpart;thefunctionoftheformerwastoconductbusiness,thatofthelattertoprovidestabilitybytheimpressionitmadeonthepopularmind.
InPhysicsandPoliticsBagehottriedtoadaptmodernbiologicaltheories,notablytheDarwinianstruggleforexistenceandphysiologicalexplanationsofhabitualandreflexbehaviour,toanaccountofhumanhistorysignificantlyderivedfromHenryMAINEandfromGeorgeGrote'sHistoryof
Greece(seeSOCIALDARWINISM).Bagehotarguedthatprogressrequiredbothstabilityandinnovation.Stabilitywasproducedchieflybythepowerfulinfluencesofimitationandhabit,whichcoordinatedsocialbehaviorina'cakeofcustom',butthestruggleforexistencebetweensocietiesalsoattachedadvantagestosomekinds
ofinnovation.Abalancebetweenthetwowastheideal,andinthelateststageofhumanhistory,'theageofdiscussion',innovation,insteadofbeingaccidental,becomesthesubjectofrationalscrutiny.Liberalconstitutionalismisthereforepresentedasthelateststageofhistoricaldevelopmentandthebestguaranteeofcontinued
orderlyprogress.JWB
Reading
Bagehot,W.:CollectedWorks,ed.N.StJohn-Stevas.London:TheEconomist,1965.[Vol.VcontainsTheEnglishConstitution,vol.VIIPhysicsandPolitics.]
:TheEnglishConstitution.London:Collins,1963.
:PhysicsandPolitics.Boston,Mass.:Beacon,1956.
Buchan,A.:TheSpareChancellor:thelifeofWalterBagehot.London:Chatto&Windus,1959.
*StJohn-Stevas,N.:WalterBagehot:astudyofhislifeandthought,togetherwithaselectionfromhiswritings.London:Eyre&Spottiswoode,1959.
Bakunin,Michael(18141876)
Russiananarchist.
BakuninwasinfluencedinhisearlyyearsbyHEGEL,butonvisitingGermanyduring183941heabsorbedthemoreradicalideasoftheYOUNGHEGELIANS.DuringthenexttwodecadeshewaschieflyinvolvedinpropagatingthecauseofSlavnationalism.Imprisonedbythetsarfrom1851to1857,hereturnedtoWestern
Europeinthe1860s,andpassedtheremainderofhislifeasanagitatorandpropagandistforANARCHISM.Famousforhisintriguesandthesecretsocietiesthathewas
Burke'sdefenceoftheAmericanrevolutionariesissometimesseenassurprisinginviewofhislaterattackontheFrench.However,BurkesawtheAmericans'claimsasbasedonthetraditionalandpositiverightsofEnglishmentoreject
taxationwithoutrepresentation,andnot,aswastobethecasewiththeFrench,rootedinabstractionssuchasthe'naturalrightsofmen'.WherehefoundAmericanshavingrecoursetospeculativepoliticalarguments,heroundlydeprecateditastheconsequenceoftheirmisgovernment.
Burke'sreputationreacheditszenithinthenineteenthcentury,buthehascontinuedtoprovideinspirationforconservativeswellintothesecondhalfofthetwentieth.Awiderangeofinterpretativeliteraturecharacterizeshiminvariousways,fromakindofintuitiveandconservativeutilitarian,
throughaproto-romantictoanessentiallylegalisticthinker.Sincethesecondworldwarthelegalisticschoolhasdominated,thoughsomehistorianscontinuetotrytoformulateatheoreticallyrespectable'pragmatic'Burke.
Burke'suseoflegalterminologyis
everywhereabundant,butwhetherheshouldbeseenpredominantlyinthecommonornaturallawtraditionisunclear,asistheparticularhistoricaltwistthathegivestoboththesepatternsofthought.FutureworkonBurkebyhistoriansofpoliticalthoughtmaywellinvolvereassessinghisrelationshipwiththeSCOTTISHENLIGHTENMENT
school,notablySMITHandHume,onwhommuchworkhasrecentlybeendone.ScholarsapproachingBurkefromliteraryfieldshavefocusedonhisstyleratherthanonthesubstanceoftheargumentsheuses.AsatisfactoryinterpretativesynthesismaywellresultfromviewingBurkeasprimarilyarhetorician,whodreweclecticallyon
thefullrangeofargumentscongenialtohisaudience.IWH-M
Reading
Boulton,TJ.:TheLanguageofPoliticsintheAgeofWilkesandBurke.London:Routledge&KeganPaul;Toronto:Uni