ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMODERN CORAL REEFS

Structure, Form and Process

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MODERN CORAL REEFS – STRUCTURE, FORM AND PROCESS

Volume EditorDavid Hopley is Professor Emeritus in the School of Earth and Environmental Science at James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia,where he has worked since 1965. He has an M.A. from the University of Manchester and Ph.D. from James Cook University. His initial researchinto Holocene sea levels and tropical landforms quickly focused on the evolution of coral reefs, reflecting the importance of the Great Barrier Reefto his home institution. Experience with coral reefs extends to many parts of the world including Australia, Barbados, India, Indonesia, Maldives,Papua New Guinea, Rodrigues and Thailand. He has authored and edited almost 200 scientific publications. Amongst numerous awards have beenthe J.P. Thomson silver medal from the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (1984) and Life Membership of PACON International (1992).

Editorial Board

Guy CabiochInstitut de Recherche pour le DéveloppementCentre d’Ile de France32 avenue Henri Varagnat93143 Bondy CedexFrance

Peter DaviesSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneyCamperdownSydneyNSW 2006Australia

Terry DoneAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Mail CentreTownsvilleQLD 4810Australia

Eberhard GischlerInstitut für GeowissenschaftenJ.W. Goethe-UniversitätAltenhoferallee 160438 Frankfurt am MainGermany

Ian MacintyreSmithsonian InstituteNational Museum of Natural HistoryP.O. Box 37012WashingtonDC 20013-7012USA

Rachel WoodSchool of GeosciencesGrant InstituteUniversity of EdinburghKings Buildings, West Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3JWUK

Colin WoodroffeSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesWollongong UniversityWollongongNSW 2522Australia

Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences.Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrationsand reference lists.

These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published, so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo-gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the dustjacket of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years, he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal ofCoastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He isa graduate of the University ofWestern Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International NickelCompany of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia, the Caribbean, South America, southwest Pacific islands,southern Africa, Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career, he has worked asa petroleum geologist in the Middle East and been a World War II intelligence officer in the southwest Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara,Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated withthe Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMODERN CORAL REEFS

Structure, Form and Process

edited by

DAVID HOPLEYJames Cook University

TownsvilleAustralia

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010933113

ISBN: 978-90-481-2638-5This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-90-481-2639-2 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-90-481-2640-8

Published by SpringerP.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Houtman Abrohols, Western Australia. Photograph taken by Hironobu Kan(Okayama University, Japan)

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights ReservedãSpringer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V. 2011No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Dedication to Rhodes Fairbridge(21st May 1914 to 8th November 2006)

A tribute to Rhodes W. Fairbridge in this Encyclopedia ofModern Coral Reefs could not be more appropriate. Hewas the founding editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth Sci-ences Series, launched in 1966 and continued as SeriesEditor and for a number of volumes, as Editor-in-Chief,until he passed away in 2006. The series consists of almost30 volumes and reflects Rhodes’ holistic knowledge of theearth, ocean and atmospheric sciences.

Although Rhodes spent his career at Columbia Univer-sity in NewYork, he was born in Pinjarra, Western Austra-lia. He graduated with degrees in geology from QueensUniversity, Canada and Oxford University U.K. beforereceiving a DSc. from the University of Western Australiain 1942. During the war he served in the Royal AustralianAir Force where, with friend and colleague Curt Teicherthe became interested in aerial photography of coral reefs,initially from a military point of view but subsequently asan aid to interpreting the surficial features of reefs, his firststudy site being Low Isles on the Great Barrier Reef, thelocation of the 1928-29 Royal Society Expedition led bySir Maurice Yonge.

From this time on Rhodes’ research interests, to 1955 atthe University of Western Australia, then at ColumbiaUniversity, New York were intimately related to the topicsaround which this encyclopedia revolves. His interests incoastal geomorphology and especially in past sea levelfeatures were promoted by the spectacular calcarenitecoastline of south-western Australia. Features of climatechange are also prominent in arid climates, such as mostof Western Australia, and this too became a focus ofRhodes’ interests.

It is not surprising that Rhodes took a very active inter-est in the newly developing techniques of radiometric dat-ing. In particular they allowed for the quantification ofQuaternary events, particularly sea level change. He wasthe first to put together a sea level curve for the Holocene

and, although developed from different locations and notapplicable to all sites, the Fairbridge sea level curve didmuch to promote coastal studies. This was nomore so thanat the 1969 Paris INQUA meeting where the gathering ofthe Sea Level Commission and the associated field excur-sion around the Atlantic coast of France saw the emer-gence of numerous ideas which were developed over thenext few decades and applied to the many areas fromwhere the INQUA delegates had come.

Rhodes was a scientist with extremely wide vision witha natural curiosity which saw him following up explana-tions across different fields of science. Sea level changeled him into oceanography and climate change which heexamined at a broad geological timescale. He was aheadof his time in accepting the Milankovitch theory directinghis interests into the planetary sciences. When global cli-mate change became a focus of discussion no-one was ina better position than Rhodes to put some of the initialideas into a more reasonable context pointing out thatthe earth’s climate has always been changing and that datawas needed to evaluate human contribution to globalwarming. Again he was predicting the future direction ofresearch although his conclusion that “Whatever the pre-sent trend, the last word will always be political”, seemsespecially prognostic!

The ideas of Rhodes Fairbridge permeate through thisencyclopedia which I believe is a most appropriate volumeto pay tribute to his contributions to science in general andto the Earth Sciences Encyclopedia Series in particular.I am especially honoured to be able to make this dedica-tion as Rhodes, who always retained his Australian citi-zenship, had a strong influence on the early part of mycareer. My honours and Masters theses were on the coastof North Wales and reference to Rhodes’ sea level workwas inevitable and even more so for my 1970 PhD. onthe coast and islands of North Queensland. However, by

Field trip on the coast of northern France at the 1969INQUA conference (left David Hopley, right RhodesFairbridge)

vi DEDICATION TO RHODES FAIRBRIDGE

that time I had not only met Rhodes (initially when hepassed through Townsville) but had spent more than 3weeks with him on the second half of his expedition tothe islands east of New Guinea (Misima, Rossell andLouisiades etc.). He had recognised that my experiencewith reefs (coming from the UK) was minimal and saw

this as an ideal opportunity for “field tutoring”. It certainlypaved my way into reef research. Also on the expeditionwas Rhodes’ charming wife Dolores (then working forthe Carnegie Museum) who did much to lighten what attimes were some very dark days (including the edge ofa tropical cyclone). This included suggesting that whilstat sea, the men of the expedition wear lap-laps!

More time was spent with Rhodes a few months later atthe 1969 Paris INQUA meeting. We were also togetheron the field trip around the French coast from Sangatteto Les Sables d’Olonne, where I think Rhodes’ breadthof knowledge and respect from fellow Quaternary scien-tists really shone through. Subsequently, apart froma couple of days with Rhodes and Dolores at their LongIsland home at Amagansett, contact for me unfortunatelyhas only been through occasional sea level meetings andcommittees.

Rhodes Fairbridge has left many testaments by whichhe will be remembered. None, I believe, are more appro-priate than the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.However, it is a privilege to have this dedication to sucha prominent twentieth century ‘Man of Science’ especiallyin this specific encyclopedia on coral reefs.

David HopleyEditor-in-Chief

Contents

Contributors xv

Preface xxvii

Acknowledgments xxix

Acanthaster planci 1Ian Miller

Accommodation Space 2Tom Spencer

Acropora 3Carden C. Wallace

Adaptation 9David Obura

Aerial Photography of Coral Reefs 13David Hopley

Agassiz, Alexander (1835–1910) 15Eberhard Gischler

Airborne Dust Impacts 16Eugene A. Shinn and Barbara H. Lidz

Algae, Blue-Green Boring 18Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler

Algae, Coralline 20Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler

Algae-Macro 30Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler

Algae, Turf 38Mark M. Littler and Diane S. Littler

Algal Rims 39Jacques Laborel

Antecedent Platforms 40Peter J. Davies

Aragonite 47Sue J. McLaren

Atoll Islands (Motu) 47Roger McLean

Atolls 51Colin D. Woodroffe and Naomi Biribo

AUVs (ROVs) 71Noelle J. Relles and Mark R. Patterson

Back-Stepping 77Paul Blanchon

Bafflestone 84Peter Flood

Bahamas 85Paul Enos

Banks Island: Frasnian (Late Devonian) Reefs inNorthwestern Arctic Canada 94

Paul Copper

Banks, Joseph (1743–1820) 96Norman C. Duke

Barbados 97David Hopley and Ian G. Macintyre

Barrier Reef (Ribbon Reef) 102Serge Andréfouët and Guy Cabioch

viii CONTENTS

Bassett Edges 107Roger McLean

Beach Rock 107Roger McLean

Belize Barrier and Atoll Reefs 112Eberhard Gischler

Bermuda 118Alan Logan and Thaddeus Murdoch

Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands 123James E. Maragos

Binding Organisms 136Raphael A. J. Wust

Bindstone 139Peter Flood

Bioerosion 139Pat Hutchings

Bioherms and Biostromes 156Jacques L. Laborel

Bioturbation 158Raphael A. J. Wust

Blowholes 163Colin D. Woodroffe

Blue Hole 164Eberhard Gischler

Boat Channel 165Roger McLean

Boulder Beaches 165Jonathan Nott

Boulder Zone/Ramparts 167Paolo Antonio Pirazzoli

Brazil, Coral Reefs 168Zelinda M. A. N. Leão and Ruy K. P. Kikuchi

Bryozoa 172Roger J. Cuffey

Calcite 179Sue J. McLaren

Calcrete/Caliche 180Barbara H. Lidz

Carbon Fluxes of Coral Reefs 181Marlin J. Atkinson

Carbonate Budgets and Reef FrameworkAccumulation 185

Chris T. Perry

Carboniferous Reefs 190Markus Aretz

Cay Formation 191Peter Flood

Chamisso, Adelbert Von (1781–1838) 193James Bowen

Classification of Carbonates 193Christopher G. St. C. Kendall and Peter Flood

Climate Change and Coral Reefs 198Janice M. Lough

Climate Change: Impact of Sea Level Rise onReef Flat Zonation and Productivity 210

David Hopley

Climate Change: Impact on Coral Reef Coasts 214Charles Sheppard

Climate Change: Increasing Storm Activity 218Joshua Madin

Cocos (Keeling) Islands 221Colin D. Woodroffe

Cold-Water Coral Reefs 225André Freiwald

Conglomerates 229Lucien F. Montaggioni

Conservation and Marine Protection Areas 230Jon C. Day

Cook, James (1728–1779) 236James Bowen

Coral Cay Classification and Evolution 237Scott G. Smithers and David Hopley

Coral Cays – Geohydrology 254Kevin E. Parnell

Coral Cays, Vegetational Succession 256Harold Heatwole

Coral Reef, Definition 261Terry Done

CONTENTS ix

Coral Reefs of India 267Krishnamoorthy Venkataraman

Corals: Biology, Skeletal Deposition, andReef-Building 275

John E. N. Veron

Corals: Environmental Controls on Growth 281Terry Done

Core Plugs 294Eric G. Matson

Daly, Reginald Aldworth (1871–1957) 297Tom Spencer

Dana, James Dwight (1813–1895) 298Tom Spencer

Darwin Point 298Richard W. Grigg

Darwin, Charles (1809–1882) 299Nick Harvey

David, Tannant Edgeworth (1858–1934) 301Peter J. Davies

Davis, William Morris (1850–1934) 302Tom Spencer

Density and Porosity: Influence on Reef AccretionRates 303

David Hopley

Devonian Reef Complexes of the Canning Basin 305Phillip E. Playford

Diagenesis 309Christine Perrin

Dolomitization 321Peter Flood

Double and Triple Reef Fronts 325David Hopley

Earthquakes and Emergence or Submergence ofCoral Reefs 327

Frederick W. Taylor

East Indies Triangle of Biodiversity 333Carden C. Wallace

Eastern Caribbean Coral Reefs 338Dennis Hubbard

Eastern Indian Ocean – Northern Sector 348Barbara E. Brown

Eastern Tropical Pacific Coral Reefs 351Jorge Cortés

Echinodermata 358Maria Byrne

Eco-Morphodynamics 359Paul Kench

Ecomorphology 363Colin D. Woodroffe

El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO 365Joshua S. Feingold

Electro Mineral Accretion 368Andrew C. F. Taylor

Electron Spin Resonance Dating (ESR) 368Gerhard Schellmann, Ulrich Radtke andHelmut Brückner

Emerged Reefs 373Guy Cabioch

Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands 380James E. Maragos

Engineering on Coral Reefs with Emphasis onPacific Reefs 391

James E. Maragos

Eolianite 404Sue J. McLaren

Faroes Reefs 405Roger McLean

Floatstone 406Peter Flood

Florida Keys 406Barbara H. Lidz

FORAM Index 415Pamela Hallock

Foraminifera 416Pamela Hallock

Forereef/Reef Front 422Guy Cabioch

Fossil Coralline Algae 423Juan C. Braga

x CONTENTS

Framestone 427Peter Flood

Fringing Reef Circulation 427Kevin E. Parnell

Fringing Reefs 430Scott Smithers

Funafuti Atoll 446Shigeru Ohde

Gardiner, John Stanley (1872–1946) 451Barbara E. Brown

General Evolution of Carbonate Reefs 452Rachel Wood

Geomorphic Zonation 469Paul Blanchon

Glacial Control Hypothesis 486Tom Spencer

Glacio-Hydro Isostasy 491Kurt Lambeck

Global Ocean Circulation and Coral Reefs 497John E. N. Veron

Great Barrier Reef Committee 503David Hopley

Great Barrier Reef: Origin, Evolution, andModern Development 504

Peter J. Davies

Halimeda 535Edward Drew

Halimeda Bioherms 539Peter J. Davies

Hawaiian Emperor Volcanic Chain and Coral ReefHistory 549

Richard W. Grigg

Heavy Metal Accumulation in Scleractinian Corals 553Sofia Shah and Edward Lovell

Historical Ecology of Coral Reefs 554John M. Pandolfi

Holocene High Energy Window 558Chris Perry

Holocene Reefs: Thickness and Characteristics 561Eberhard Gischler

Huon Peninsula, P.N.G. 562Yoko Ota

Hydrodynamics of Coral Reef Systems 563Clifford J. Hearn

Impacts of Sediment on Coral Reefs 575Michael J. Risk and Evan Edinger

Indian Ocean Reefs 586Eberhard Gischler

Indonesian Reefs 594Terry Done

Infrastructure and Reef Islands 601Michael R. Gourlay

Internal Circulation 608Kevin E. Parnell

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Drivers on Coral Reefs 610Richard B. Aronson

Lagoon Circulation 613Harry H. Roberts and Alexis Lugo-Fernández

Lagoons 617David Hopley

Last Glacial Interstadials 618Yusuke Yokoyama

Last Glacial Lowstand and Shelf Exposure 620Yusuke Yokoyama

Last Interglacial and Reef Development 621Paul Blanchon

Low Wooded Islands 639Paul Kench

Lyell, Charles (1797–1875) 645James Bowen

MacNeil, F. Stearns (1909–1983) 647David Hopley

Makatea 648Lucien F. Montaggioni

Maldives 648Paul Kench

Mangrove Islands 653Norman C. Duke

CONTENTS xi

Mangroves 655Norman C. Duke

Mariana Islands, Coral Reef Geology 663Bernhard Riegl

Mass Extinctions, Anoxic Events and OceanAcidification 671

John E. N. Veron

Mayor, Alfred Goldsborough (1868–1922) 678Lester D. Stephens

Megablocks 679Cliff Frohlich, Matthew J. Hornbach andFrederick W. Taylor

Meltwater Pulses 683Paul Blanchon

Micrite 691Ian G. Macintyre

Microatoll 691Scott Smithers

Microbes 697Elizabeth A. Dinsdale

Mid Holocene 698Sarah Woodroffe

Midway Atoll (Hawaiian Archipelago) 700James E. Maragos, Donald C. Potts,Barbara Maxfield, Daria Sicilianoand Elizabeth Flint

Mining/Quarrying of Coral Reefs 707Barbara E. Brown

Moating 711Scott Smithers

Moats 712Scott Smithers

Molluscs 712José H. Leal

Mururoa Atoll 713Lucien F. Montaggioni

New Caledonia 717Guy Cabioch

Notch and Visor 721Stephen Trudgill

Nutrient Pollution/Eutrophication 722Katharina Fabricius

Ocean Acidification, Effects on Calcification 733Joan A. Kleypas

Oceanic Hotspots 737Paul Wessel

Octocorallia 740Katharina Fabricius

Oil and Gas Reservoirs and Coral Reefs 745J. Frederick Sarg

Ooids 752Maurice Tucker

Pacific Coral Reefs: An Introduction 753James E. Maragos and Gareth J. Williams

Packstone 776Peter Flood

Palaeosols 776Colin D. Woodroffe

Paleoclimate from Corals 777Helen V. McGregor

Patch Reefs: Lidar Morphometric Analysis 785John C. Brock and Monica Palaseanu-Lovejoy

Permian Capitan Reef System 789Rachel Wood

Persian/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs 790Bernhard Riegl and Samuel Purkis

Peysonnell, Jean-Andre (1694–1759) 798James Bowen

Phosphatic Cay Sandstone 798David Hopley

Plate Tectonics 801Paul Wessel

Platforms (Cemented) 812Roger McLean

Poleward Extension of Reefs 813Colin D. Woodroffe

Porites 815Michel Pichon

xii CONTENTS

Porosity Variability in Limestone Sequences 821Barbara H. Lidz

Postglacial Trangression 822Guy Cabioch

Quoy, Jean Rene (1790–1869) and Gaimard,Joseph Paul (1796–1858) 827

James Bowen

Radiocarbon (14C): Dating and Corals 829Stewart Fallon

Recent Sea Level Trends 834Philip L. Woodworth

Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba 839Yonathan Shaked and Amatzia Genin

Reef Balls 844Jason Krumholz and Todd R. Barber

Reef Classification by Fairbridge (1950) 846Charles W. Finkl

Reef Classification by Hopley (1982) 850David Hopley

Reef Classification by Maxwell (1968) 854Peter Flood

Reef Classification, Response to Sea Level Rise 855Ian G. Macintyre and A. Conrad Neumann

Reef Drilling 856Dennis K. Hubbard

Reef Flats 869Kate J. Thornborough and Peter J. Davies

Reef Front Wave Energy 876Alexis Lugo-Fernández and Harry H. Roberts

Reef Interconnectivity/Larval Dispersal 881Claire B. Paris-Limouzy

Reef Restoration 889J. Harold Hudson and William B. Goodwin

Reef Structure 896Lindsay B. Collins

Reef Topographic Complexity 902David G. Zawada

Reef Typology 906Serge Andréfouët

Reefal Microbial Crusts 911Robert Riding

Reefal Sediments 915Peter Flood

Reefs at Risk: Map-Based Analyses of Threatsto Coral Reefs 918

Lauretta Burke

Remote Sensing 920Serge Andréfouët

Residence Time 931Thomas Stieglitz and Peter Ridd

Reticulated Reefs 931Colin D. Woodroffe

Rhodoliths 933Lucien F. Montaggioni

River Plumes and Coral Reefs 934Miles J. Furnas

Royal Society of London 938Tom Spencer

Rudstone 940Peter Flood

Ryukyu Islands 940Hironobu Kan

Scleractinia, Evolution and Taxonomy 947John E. N. Veron

Sclerochronology 958Kevin P. Helmle and Richard E. Dodge

Sea Level Change and its Effect on Reef Growth 966Hajime Kayanne and Chuki Hongo

Seagrasses 973Mark D. Merlin

Sea-level Indicators 978Scott Smithers

Sediment Durability 992Murray Ford

Sediment Dynamics 994Paul Kench

Sediments, Properties 1005Eberhard Gischler

CONTENTS xiii

Seismic Reflection 1010J. Fredrick Sarg

Seismic Refraction 1014Nick Harvey

Shingle Ridges 1016Jonathan Nott

Soils of Low Elevation Coral Structures 1019R. John Morrison

Solution Processes/Reef Erosion 1024Stephen Trudgill

Solution Unconformities 1027Peter J. Davies

Spiculite 1028David Hopley

Sponges 1028Janie Wulff

Spurs and Grooves 1032Eugene A. Shinn

Stable Isotopes and Trace Elements 1034Michael K. Gagan and Nerilie J. Abram

Steers, James Alfred (1899–1987) 1043Tom Spencer

Stoddart, David Ross (1937– ) 1044Tom Spencer

Stromatolites 1045R. Pamela Reid

Submarine Groundwater Discharge 1052Thomas Stieglitz

Submarine Lithification 1052Ian G. Macintyre

Submerged Reefs 1058Elizabeth Abbey and Jody M. Webster

Subsidence Hypothesis of Reef Development 1062Colin D. Woodroffe

Swathe Mapping 1067Robin J. Beaman

Symbiosis 1070Andrew C. Baker

Tahiti/Society Islands 1073Lucien F. Montaggioni

Taphonomy 1076Benjamin J. Greenstein

Temperature Change: Bleaching 1079Tom Spencer

Tethys Ocean 1084Rachel Wood

Tidal Effects on Coral Reefs 1086David J. Dixon

Tidal Jets 1091Edward Drew

Tropical Cyclone/Hurricane 1092Terry Done

Tsunami 1096Paul Kench

Turbid-Zone and Terrigenous Sediment-InfluencedReefs 1110

Chris Perry

Underwater Landscape Mosaics 1121R. Pamela Reid

Unvegetated Cays 1124Peter Flood

Upwelling and Coral Reefs 1125Miles J. Furnas

Uranium Series Dating 1128Jian-xin Zhao and Lindsay B. Collins

Vanuatu 1133Guy Cabioch

Vaughan, Thomas Wayland (1870–1952) 1137Robert N. Ginsburg

Vegetated Cays 1138David Hopley and Harold Heatwole

Volcanic Disturbances and Coral Reefs 1138Peter Houk

Volcanic Loading and Isostasy 1140Kurt Lambeck

Wackestone 1143Peter Flood

xiv CONTENTS

Walther, Johannes (1860–1937) 1143Eberhard Gischler

Wave Set-Up 1144Michael R. Gourlay

Wave Shoaling and Refraction 1149Michael R. Gourlay

Waves and Wave-Driven Currents 1154Michael R. Gourlay

West Indian Coral Reef Classification 1171Jörn Geister

Western Atlantic/Caribbean, Coral Reefs 1174Bernhard Riegl

Western Australian Reefs 1180Lindsay B. Collins

Western Indian Ocean 1184Lucien F. Montaggioni

Yonge, Sir Maurice (1899–1986) 1187Barbara E. Brown

Zooxanthellae 1189Andrew C. Baker

Author Index 1193

Subject Index 1195

Contributors

Elizabeth AbbeySchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneySydney, NSW 2006Australiaelizabeth.abbey@sydney.edu.au

Nerilie J. AbramBritish Antarctic SurveyMadingley RoadCambridge, CB3 0ETUKNABR@bas.ac.uk

Serge AndréfouëtCentre IRDInstitut de Recherche pour le Développement (I.R.D.)UMR 227 - CoRéUs (Communautés Récifales et Usages)101 Promenade Roger LaroqueAnse Vata, Noumea BPA5 - 98848New Caledoniaserge.andrefouet@ird.fr

Markus AretzLMTG (OMP)Université de Toulouse (UPS)14 Avenue Edouard BelinToulouse, 31400Francemarkus.aretz@lmtg.obs-mip.fr

Richard B. AronsonDepartment of Biological SciencesFlorida Institute of Technology150 West University BoulevardMelbourne, FL 32901USAraronson@fit.edu

Marlin J. AtkinsonSchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyUniversity of HawaiiP.O. Box 1346Kaneohe, Hawaii 96744USAmja@hawaii.edu

Andrew C. BakerDivision of Marine Biology and FisheriesRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL 33149USAabaker@rsmas.miami.edu

Todd R. BarberThe Reef Ball Foundation3305 Edwards CourtAtlanta, GA 27858USAreefball@reefball.com

Robin J. BeamanSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityP.O. Box 6811Cairns, QLD 4870Australiarobin.beaman@jcu.edu.au

xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Naomi BiriboSchool of Environmental ScienceUniversity of WollongongNSW 2522Australianb766@uow.edu.au

Paul BlanchonReef Systems UnitInstitute of Marine Sciences and LimnologyNational Autonomous University of MexicoAp Postal 1152Cancun, 77500Mexicoblanchons@gmail.com

James BowenEnvironmental Science & ManagementSouthern Cross UniversityLismore, NSW 2480Australiajamesbowen@exemail.com.au

Juan C. BragaDepartamento de Estratigrafía y PaleontogíaUniversidad de GranadaCampus de Fuentenueva18071 GranadaSpainjbraga@ugr.es

John C. BrockCoastal and Marine Geology ProgramU.S. Geological Survey915-B National Center12201 Sunrise Valley DriveReston, VA 20192USAjbrock@usgs.gov

Barbara E. BrownSchool of BiologyUniversity of NewcastleNewcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RUUKProfBarbaraBrown@aol.com

Helmut BrücknerFaculty of GeographyInstitute of Geography University of MarburgDeutschhausstr. 1035032 MarburgGermanyh.brueckner@uni-koeln.de

Lauretta BurkeWorld Resources Institute10 G Street NE Suite 800Washington, DC 20002USALauretta@wri.org

Maria ByrneDevelopmental and Marine Biology, Anatomy andHistology, F13One Tree Island Research StationUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW 2006Australiambyrne@anatomy.usyd.edu.au

Guy CabiochIPSL/LOCEAN UPMC/CNRS/IRD/MNHNUMR LOCEANIRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement),Centre d'Ile de France32 Avenue Henri VaragnatBondy, CEDEX 93143Franceguy.cabioch@ird.fr

Lindsay B. CollinsDepartment of Applied GeologyCurtin University of TechnologyGPO Box U1987Perth, WA 6845AustraliaL.Collins@curtin.edu.au

Paul CopperDepartment of Earth SciencesLaurentian UniversityRamsey Lake RdSudbury, ON P3E 2C6Canadapcopper@laurentian.ca

Jorge CortésCentro de Investigación en Ciencias delMar y Limnología(CIMAR)Universidad de Costa RicaSan José, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, 11501-2060Costa Ricajorge.cortes@ucr.ac.cr

Roger J. CuffeyProfessor Emeritus of PaleontologyDepartment of GeosciencesPennsylvania State University412 Deike Bldg. (N. Burrowes Rd.)University Park (State College), PA 16802USArcuffey@psu.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Peter J. DaviesSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneyCamperdownSydney, NSW 2006Australiataffiespeter@gmail.com

Jon C. DayEcosystem Conservation and Sustainable UseGreat Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)P.O. Box 1379Townsville, QLD 4810Australiaj.day@gbrmpa.gov.au

Elizabeth A. DinsdaleBiology DepartmentSan Diego State University5500 Campanile DriveSan Diego, CA 92182USAElizabeth_dinsdale@hotmail.com

David J. DixonIndependent Oceanographer/Geomatics Surveyor2 Cleveland Villa, Paynters laneIllogan, Redruth, Cornwall, TR16 4DTUKmypostemail-coraltides@yahoo.co.uk

Richard E. DodgeNSU Oceanographic CenterNational Coral Reef Institute8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL 33004USAdodge@nova.edu

Terry DoneAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Townsville MC, QLD 4810Australiat.done@aims.gov.au

Edward Drew21 Bishop StreetBelgian Gardens, Townsville, QLD Q 4810Australiaedrew1@austarnet.com.au

Norman C. DukeSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of QueenslandSt Lucia CampusBrisbane, QLD 4072Australian.duke@uq.edu.au

Evan EdingerDepartments of Geography, of Biology, and of EarthSciencesMemorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John's Newfoundland and Labrador A1B 3X9Canadaeedinger@mun.ca

Paul EnosDepartment of GeologyUniversity of Kansas1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Room 120Lawrence, KS 66045-7613USAenos@ku.edu

Katharina FabriciusAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville, QLD 4810Australiak.fabricius@aims.gov.au

Stewart FallonResearch School of Earth SciencesAustralian National UniversityCanberra, ACT 200Australiastewart.fallon@anu.edu.au

Joshua S. FeingoldOceanographic CenterNova Southeastern University8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL 33004USAjoshua@nova.edu

Charles FinklDepartment of GeosciencesFlorida Atlantic UniversityCoastal Planning & Engineering, Inc., CPE CoastalGeology & Geomatics2481 N.W. Boca Raton BoulevardBoca Raton, FL 33431USACfinkl@coastalplanning.net

Elizabeth FlintHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBox 50167, 300 Ala Moana Blvd.Honolulu, HI 96744USA

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Peter FloodEarth Sciences Building CO2University of New EnglandArmidale, NSW 2351Australiapflood@une.edu.au

Murray FordSchool of Geography, Geology and EnvironmentalScienceThe University of AucklandPrivate Bag 92019AucklandNew ZealandandUniversity of HawaiiSea Grant College ProgramCollege of the Marshall IslandsP.O. Box 1258Majuro, MH, 96960Republic of Marshall Islandsmurray.ford@auckland.ac.nzmurrayrf@hawaii.edu

André FreiwaldSenckenberg MeeresgeologieSüdstrand 4026382 WilhelmshavenGermanyandre.freiwald@senckenberg.de

Cliff FrohlichJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesInstitute for GeophysicsThe University of Texas at Austin10100 Burnet Rd (R2200)Austin, TX 78758-4445USAcliff@ig.utexas.edu

Miles J. FurnasAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB No. 3Townsville MC, QLD 4810Australiam.furnas@aims.gov.au

Michael K. GaganResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT 0200Australiamichael.gagan@anu.edu.au

Jörn GeisterEarth Science DepartmentNaturhistorisches Museum BernUniversity of BernBernastrasse 153005 BernSwitzerlandgeister@geo.unibe.ch

Amatzia GeninThe Interuniversity Institute of Marine SciencesPOB 469Eilat, 88103IsraelandDepartment of Evolution, Systematics & EcologyThe Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalem, 91904Israelamatzia@vms.huji.ac.il

Robert N. GinsburgDivision of Marine Geology and GeophysicsRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami RSMAS/MGG4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL 33149USArginsburg@rsmas.miami.edu

Eberhard GischlerInstitut für GeowissenschaftenGoethe-UniversitätAltenhoeferallee 160438 Frankfurt am MainGermanygischler@em.uni-frankfurt.de

William B. GoodwinFlorida Keys National Marine SanctuaryP.O. Box 1083, Key Largo, Fl 33037USAbill.goodwin@noaa.gov

Michael R. GourlaySchool of Civil EngineeringThe University of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD 4072Australiam.gourlay@uq.edu.au

Benjamin J. GreensteinDepartment of GeologyCornell College600 First Street SWMount Vernon, IO 52314USAbgreenstein@cornellcollege.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Richard W. GriggEmeritus Professor of OceanographyDepartment of OceanographyUniversity of Hawaii1000 Pope RoadHonolulu, HI 96822USArgrigg@soest.hawaii.edu

Pamela HallockCollege of Marine ScienceUniversity of South Florida140 Seventh Ave. S.St. Petersburg, FL 33701-5016USApmuller@marine.usf.edu

Nick HarveyFaculty of Humanities and Social SciencesThe University of AdelaideAdelaide, SA 5005Australianick.harvey@adelaide.edu.au

Clifford J. HearnWorking Science Consultancies, LLC200, 2nd Avenue South, Suite 519St Petersburg, FL 33701USAclifford_hearn@yahoo.com

Harold HeatwoleDepartment of BiologyNorth Caroline State University140 David Clark LabsRaleigh, NC 27965-7617USAharold_heatwole@ncsu.edu

Kevin P. HelmleAtlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological LaboratoryNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration4301 Rickenbacker CausewayMiami, FL 33149USAandOceanographic CenterNational Coral Reef InstituteNova Southeastern University8000 North Ocean DriveDania Beach, FL 33004USAkevin.helmle@noaa.govkevinh@nova.edu

Chuki HongoDepartment of Earth and Planetary ScienceUniversity of TokyoHongo, Tokyo 113-0033Japanc-hongo@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

David HopleySchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD 4811Australiadavid.hopley@bigpond.com

Matthew J. HornbachJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesInstitute for GeophysicsUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin, TX 78758-4445USAmatth@utig.ig.utexas.edu

Peter HoukPacific Marine Resources Institute, Inc.Saipan, MPUSAandCNMI Marine Monitoring ProgramCNMI Division of Environmental QualityP.O. Box 501304Saipan, MP 96950USApeterhouk@pacmares.competerhouk@gmail.com

Dennis HubbardDepartment of GeologyOberlin CollegeOberlin, OH 44074USAdennis.hubbard@oberlin.edu

J. Harold HudsonReef Tech Inc.8325 SW 68th StreetMiami, FL 33143USAhhudson3@bellsouth.net

Pat HutchingsThe Australian Museum6 College StreetSydney, NSW 2010AustraliaPat.Hutchings@austmus.gov.au

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Hironobu KanGraduate School of Education/Graduate School ofNatural SciencesOkayama University3-1-1 Tsushima NakaKita-ku, Okayama, 700-8530Japankan@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp

Hajime KayanneDepartment of Earth and Planetary ScienceUniversity of Tokyo7-3-1 HongoBunkyo- ku, Tokyo 113-0033Japankayanne@eps.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Paul KenchThe School of EnvironmentThe University of AucklandPrivate Bag, 92019AucklandNew Zealandp.kench@auckland.ac.nz

Christopher G. St. C. KendallDistinguished Professor Emeritus of Geological SciencesUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, SC 29208USAkendall@geol.sc.edu

Ruy K. P. KikuchiGeophysics and Geology Research CenterGeosciences InstituteFederal University of BahiaRua Barão de Jeremoabo s/n, Campus Universitário deOndinaBahia, Salvador 40170-115Brazilkikuchi@ufba.br

Joan A. KleypasInterdisciplinary Studies Program & Climate & GlobalDynamics DivisionInstitute for the Study of Society and EnvironmentNational Center for Atmospheric ResearchP.O. Box 3000Boulder, CO 80307-3000USAkleypas@ucar.edu

Jason KrumholzGraduate School of OceanographyUniversity of Rhode IslandSouth Ferry Rd.Narragansett, RI O2882USAjkrumholz@gso.uri.edu

Jacques LaborelUMR DIMARUniversité de la Méditerranée, Faculte des Sci. de Luminy13288 Marseille Cedex 9Francerutabaga@pacwan.fr

Kurt LambeckResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT 0200Australiakurt.lambeck@anu.edu.au

José H. LealThe Bailey-Matthews Shell MuseumP.O. Box 1580, 3075 Sanibel-Captiva RoadSanibel, FL 33957USAjleal@shellmuseum.org

Zelinda M. A. N. LeãoGeophysics and Geology Research CenterGeosciences InstituteFederal University of BahiaRua Barão de Jeremoabo s/n,Campus Universitário de OndinaBahia, Salvador 40170-115Brazilzelinda@ufba.br

Barbara H. LidzUS Department of the InteriorU.S. Geological Survey, Center for Coastal & RegionalMarine Studies600 4th Street SouthSt. Petersburg, FL 33701-4802USAblidz@usgs.gov

Diane S. LittlerDepartment of Botany, MRC 166National Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionP.O. Box 37012Washington, DC 20013-7012USAlittlerd@si.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Mark M. LittlerDepartment of Botany, MRC 166National Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionP.O. Box 37012Washington, DC 20013-7012USAlittlerm@si.edu

Alan LoganCentre for Coastal StudiesUniversity of New BrunswickP.O. Box 5050Saint John, N.B. E2L 4L5Canadalogan@unbsj.ca

Janice M. LoughAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville MC, QLD 4810Australiaj.lough@aims.gov.au

Edward LovellFaculty of Science and Technology and EnvironmentSchool of Marine StudiesUniversity of the South PacificPMB, Laucala CampusSuvaFijilovell_e@usp.ac.fj

Alexis Lugo-FernándezMinerals Management Service, Physical Sciences Unit(MS 5433), Gulf of Mexico OCS Region1201 Elmwood Parkway Blvd.New Orleans, LA 70123-2394USAalexis.lugo.fernandez@mms.gov

Ian G. MacintyreSmithsonian InstitutionNational Museum of Natural HistoryP.O. Box 37012Washington, WA 20013-7012USAmacintyr@si.edu

Joshua MadinDepartment of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydney, NSW 2109Australiajmadin@bio.mq.edu.au

James E. MaragosHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBox 50167, 300 Ala Moana Blvd.Honolulu, HI 96744USAjim_maragos@fws.gov

Eric G. MatsonAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3 Mail CentreTownsville, QLD 4810Australiae.matson@aims.gov.au

Barbara MaxfieldHawaii and Pacific National Wildlife Refuges and MarineNational MonumentsU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service300 Ala Moana Blvd.Box 50167, Honolulu, HI 96744USAbarbara_maxfield@fws.gov

Helen V. McGregorSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongNorthfields AvenueWollongong, NSW 2522Australiamcgregor@uni-bremen.de

Sue J. McLarenDepartment of GeographyUniversity of LeicesterUniversity RoadLeicester, LE1 7RHUKsjm11@le.ac.uk

Roger McLeanSchool of Physical, Environmental and MathematicalSciencesAustralian Defence Force AcademyUniversity of New South WalesCanberra, ACT 2600Australiaroger.mclean@adfa.edu.au

Mark D. MerlinBiology ProgramUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaDean HallManoa, Honolulu, HI 96822USAmerlin@hawaii.edu

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Ian MillerAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville MC, QLD 4810Australiai.miller@aims.gov.au

Lucien F. MontaggioniDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesCentre de Sédimentologie-PaléontologieUniversity of Provence, Research Unit EA 42343, Place Victor Hugo13331 Marseille Cedex 3FranceLucien.Montaggioni@univ-provence.fr

R. John MorrisonSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongNorthfields AvenueWollongong, NSW 2522Australiajohnm@uow.edu.au

Thaddeus MurdochBermuda Reef Ecosystem Assessment and MappingProgramme (BREAM)Bermuda Zoological SocietyP.O. Box 145Flatts, FL-BXBermudatjmurdoch@gov.bm

A. Conrad NeumanCurriculum in Marine SciencesUniversity of North Carolina12-7 Venable HallChapel Hill, NC 27514USAANeumann@email.unc.edu

Jonathan NottSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityP.O. Box 6811Cairns, QLD 4870Australiajonathan.nott@jcu.edu.au

David OburaCORDIO East AfricaP.O. Box 10135, #9 Kibaki Flats, Kenyatta Beach,Bamburi BeachMombasa, 80101Kenyadobura@cordioea.org

Shigeru OhdeDepartment of Chemistry, Biology, and Marine ScienceUniversity of the Ryukyus, College of Science1 Senbaru, Nishihara-choOkinawa, 903-0213Japansohde@sci.u-ryukyu.ac.jp

Yoko OtaDepartment of Geological SciencesNational Taiwan University106, No. 1, Sect. 4, Roosevelt RoadTaipeiTaiwanandYokohama National University (Professor Emeritus)2-11-13-201, MinamisenzokuOtaku, TokyoJapanyokoota@ntu.edu.tw

Monica Palaseanu-LovejoyJacobs TechnologyU.S. Geological Survey, Florida Integrated Science Center600 4th Street SouthSt. Petersburg, FL 33701USAmpal@usgs.gov

John M. PandolfiARC Centre of Excellence in Coral Reef StudiesThe Centre for Marine Studies and School of EarthSciencesThe University of Queensland60 Gehrmann LaboratoriesBrisbane, QLD 4072Australiaj.pandolfi@uq.edu.au

Claire B. Paris-LimouzyRosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric ScienceDivision of Applied Marine PhysicsUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CausewayMiami, FL 33149USAcparis@rsmas.miami.edu

Kevin E. ParnellSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD 4811Australiakevin.parnell@jcu.edu.au

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Mark R. PattersonVirginia Institute of Marine ScienceCollege of William & MaryP.O. Box 1346Gloucester Point, VA 23062-1346USAmrp@vims.edu

Christine PerrinLMTGUniversité Toulouse 314, Av. Edouard Bélin31400 ToulouseFranceandMuséum National d’Histoire NaturelleUMR 7207 du CNRS CR2P8 Rue Buffon75005 ParisFrancecperrin@mnhn.fr

Chris T. PerryDepartment of Environmental & Geographical SciencesManchester Metropolitan UniversityJohn Dalton Building, Chester StreetManchester, M1 5GDUKc.t.perry@mmu.ac.uk

Michel PichonTropical Marine Consutant23 Manilla CloseMount Sheridan Cairns, QLD 4868Australiapichon01@bigpond.com

Paolo Antonio PirazzoliCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique16, Rue de la Grange Batelière75009 ParisFrancepaolop@noos.fr

Phillip E. PlayfordGeological Survey of Western Australia100 Plain StreetPerth, WAAustraliaphil.playford@dmp.wa.gov.au

Donald C. PottsDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA 95064USApotts@biology.ucsc.edu

Samuel PurkisNational Coral Reef InstituteNova Southeastern University Oceanographic Center8000 N Ocean DriveDania, FL 33004USApurkis@nova.edu

Ulrich RadtkeUniversity of Duisburg-EssenUniversitätsstr. 245117 EssenGermanyrektor@uni-due.de

R. Pamela ReidRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of Miami4600 Rickenbacker CswyMiami, FL 33149USApreid@rsmas.miami.edu

Noelle J. RellesDepartment of Biological SciencesVirginia Institute ofMarine Science, College ofWilliam&MaryP.O. Box 1346, 1208 Greate RoadGloucester Point, VA 23062-1346USAnjrelles@vims.edu

Peter RiddMarine Geophysical LaboratorySchool of Engineering & Physical SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD 4811Australiapeter.ridd@jcu.edu.au

Robert RidingSchool of Earth Ocean & Planetary SciencesCardiff UniversityCardiff, Wales CF10 3YEUKandDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of TennesseeKnoxville, TN 37996USAriding@Cardiff.ac.uk

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Bernhard RieglNational Coral Reef InstituteOceanographic CenterNova Southeastern University8000 N Ocean DriveDania, FL 33004USArieglb@nova.edu

Michael J. RiskDeptartment Of GeologyMcMaster UniversityHamilton L85 4M1CanadaandP.O. Box 1195Durham, ONCanadariskmj@univmail.cis.mcmaster.ca

Harry H. RobertsDepartment of Oceanography and Coastal SciencesCoastal Studies Institute304 Howe-Russell Geosciences ComplexLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA 70803USAhrober3@lsu.edu

J. Fredrick SargDepartment of Geology & Geological EngineeringColorado School of Mines1500 Illinois StGolden, CO 80401USAjsarg@mines.edu

Gerhard SchellmannDepartment of Physical Geography & Landscape StudiesUniversity of BambergAm Kranen 1, P.O. Box 154996045 BambergGermanygerhard.schellmann@uni-bamberg.de

Sofia ShahDepartment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science andTechnology and EnvironmentThe University of the South PacificPMB, Laucala CampusSuvaFijishahsofia@gmail.com

Yonathan ShakedIsrael National Monitoring Program of the Gulf of EilatThe Interuniversity Institute for Marine SciencesPOB 469Eilat, 88103Israelshakedyo@cc.huji.ac.il

Charles SheppardDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of WarwickCoventry, CV4 7ALUKcharles.sheppard@warwick.ac.uk

Eugene A. ShinnCollege of Marine ScienceUniversity of South Florida140 7th Avenue SouthSt. Petersburg, FL 33701USAeshinn@marine.usf.edu

Daria SicilianoSeaweb Institute of the EnvironmentStanford University8407 Colesville Rd., Suite 500Silver Spring, MD 20910USAdaria@biology.ucsc.edu

Scott G. SmithersSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD 4811Australiascott.smithers@jcu.edu.au

Thomas SpencerCambridge Coastal Research UnitDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CambridgeDowning PlaceCambridge, CB2 3ENUKts111@cam.ac.uk

Lester D. StephensDepartment of HistoryUniversity of Georgia1340 Crystal Hills DriveAthens, GA 30606USAlstephen@uga.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Thomas StieglitzMarine Geophysical LaboratoryJames Cook University, School of Engineering& PhysicalSciencesTownsville, QLD 4811Australiathomas.stieglitz@jcu.edu.au

Andrew C. F. TaylorPacificus Biological Services Ltd.5004, Box 2760Port Hardy, BC V0N 2P0CanadaandJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLDAustraliaataylor@pacificus.ca

Frederick W. TaylorInstitute for GeophysicsJohn A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of GeosciencesUniversity of Texas at Austin10400 Burnet Rd.Austin, TX 78758-4445USAfred@ig.utexas.edu

Kate J. ThornboroughSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneyMadsen Building (F09) Room 409Sydney, NSW 2006Australiaktho8544@uni.sydney.edu.au

Steve TrudgillDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Cambridge, Robinson CollegeGrange RoadCambridge, CB3 9ANUKsteve.trudgill@geog.cam.ac.uk

Maurice TuckerDepartment of Earth SciencesDurham UniversityOld ElvetDurham, DH1 3LEUKm.e.tucker@durham.ac.uk

Krishnamoorthy VenkataramanNational Biodiversity Authority475, 9th South Cross Street, Kapaleeswarar NagarNeelankarai, Chennai 600 041Indiaand

Zoological Survey of IndiaMarine Biology Regional Centre130, Santhome High RoadChennai, 600 028Indiavenkyzsi56@yahoo.com

John E. N. VeronAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB No 3, MailCentreTownsville, QLD 4810AustraliaandCoral Reef Research10 Benalla RoadTownsville, Oak Valley, QLD 4811Australiaj.veron@coralreefresearch.com

Carden C. WallaceMuseum of Tropical Queensland70-102 Flinders St.Townsville, QLD 4810Australiacarden.wallace@qm.qld.gov.au

Jody M. WebsterSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneySydney, NSW 2006Australiajody.webster@sydney.edu.au

Paul WesselDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsSchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa1680 East-West RoadHonolulu, HI 96822USApwessel@hawaii.edu

Gareth J. WilliamsSchool of Biological SciencesVictoria University of WellingtonP.O. Box 600, WellingtonNew Zealandinfo@garethjwilliams.net

Rachel WoodSchool of GeoSciencesGrant Institute, University of EdinburghKing's Buildings, West Mains RoadEdinburgh, EH9 3JWUKRachel.Wood@ed.ac.uk

xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Colin D. WoodroffeSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongWollongong, NSW 2522Australiacolin@uow.edu.au

Sarah WoodroffeDepartment of GeographyDurham University Science LaboratoriesSouth RoadDurham, DH1 3LEUKs.a.woodroffe@durham.ac.uk

Philip L. WoodworthProudman Oceanographic LaboratoryNational Oceanography Centre LiverpoolJoseph Proudman Building, 6 Brownlow StreetLiverpool, L3 5DAUKplw@pol.ac.uk

Janie L. WulffDepartment of Biological ScienceFlorida State University319 Stadium DriveTallahassee, FL 32306-4295USAwulff@bio.fsu.edu

Raphael A. J. WustSchool of Earth & Environmental SciencesJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD 4811Australiaraphael.wust@jcu.edu.aurwust@cbmsol.com

Yusuke YokoyamaAtmosphere and Ocean Research InstituteThe University of Tokyo5-1-5 KashiwanohaChiba 277-8564Japanyokoyama@aori.u-tokyo.ac.jp

David G. ZawadaU.S. Geological Survey600 Fourth St. SouthSt. Petersburg, FL 33701USAdzawada@usgs.gov

Jian-xin ZhaoRadiogenic Isotope LaboratoryCentre for Microscopy and MicroanalysisUniversity of QueenslandBrisbane, QLD 4072Australiaj.zhao@uq.edu.au

Preface

From navigational hazards in the seventeenth and eigh-teenth centuries to enigmatic scientific features in thenineteenth century, coral reefs over the last 100 yearshave not only been understood in greater detail but alsohave provided evidence of macroscale geological pro-cesses such as plate tectonics. Charles Darwin’s 1842book based on his 1831–1836 circum global voyage ofexploration on HMS Beagle strongly focused the interestsof science on coral reefs. Interestingly, his ideas of subsid-ing foundations were developed whilst in South Americaand before he had seen a coral reef in the field. However,his work promoted both supportive hypotheses and alter-natives which included ideas on glacial sea-level control,antecedent platforms, and other ideas which were verymuch more divorced from field observation than those ofDarwin himself, who, in the fourth chapter of his bookdevelops the biological aspects of his theory and the vari-ous conditions under which corals can grow.

The ideas, together with his oft quoted wish,

that some doubly rich millionaire would take into his head tohave borings made in some of the Pacific and Indian atolls,and bring home cores for slicing from a depth of 500 or600 feet

were a forecast of the way coral reef research would travelin the twentieth century. Although many hypotheses havebeen applied to all scales of reefal features and processes,hypotheses testing is now expected, and with this hascome the development of research tools such as surveytechniques like aerial photography and satellite imagery.The first views of coral reefs from the sky opened upwhole new dimensions and directly aided the field-basedstudy of coral reefs, to the same extent that the laboratoryanalysis such as palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, hasin more recent times.

The understanding of how small polyps can constructenormous coral reefs more than 100 km2 is of centralinterest to earth scientists but is just as much the areaof many other fields of science. The breakdown of

boundaries around the traditional fields of science is adeveloping theme of the twenty-first century and is nomore so than in the study of coral reefs. Corals were ini-tially thought to be plants until the work of André dePeysonnel (1727) although it took another 24 years forthe Royal Society of London to accept them as animals.Coral reefs are the largest structures on earth built by acombination of plants and animals and inevitably they havebecome the major focus of research for zoologists, bota-nists, and ecologists. It is impossible to study reefs withoutinput of ideas from these disciplines. However, almostevery facet of earth science – geology, geography, geomor-phology, sedimentology, oceanography, palaeontology,tectonics, etc. – contributes to the understanding of coralreefs and is included in this encyclopedia. The purpose ofthe encyclopedia is to promote interdisciplinary researchand to help in the communication between earth scienceand other disciplines by providing a window onto theapproaches of earth science to coral reefs and giving otherdisciplines an understanding of the way corals are viewedby the earth science community. As editor of this volume,I see any way that brings the diverse range of disciplinescloser together and understanding each other’s knowledgeas highly productive. However, it is hoped that within thevolume there will also be much to help other earth scien-tists. Every attempt has been made to make the entries asauthoritative and up-to-date as possiblewith latest referencelists and a range of cross-references which will help in thenavigation of this volume.

Why the title – Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs –Structure, Form and Process? Again, to some extent, it isto make it attractive to multidisciplinary readers.“Cainozoic” or “Quaternary” could have been used butthe technical terms may have made it less attractive toother disciplines. Also, modern coral reefs havea continuous lineage with the earliest Palaeozoic reefs,hence the few entries which cover earlier reefs and theirinfluence on today’s living reefs in the volume. Structure,

xxviii PREFACE

form, and process are the essential ingredients in the earthscience recipe for understanding coral reefs as well asmost other landforms.

During the last 100 years, coral reefs have attained newvalues beyond the support of local subsistence economies.They have provided sites for navigational aids and in daysof aircraft with limited range, stopover refuelling sites.During World War II many mid-oceanic atolls had strate-gic importance and following the war, some became test-ing sites for nuclear weapons. Ironically, the drillingassociated with this testing did much to extend the knowl-edge of the origin of reefs and in particular, supportCharles Darwin. Reefs are important sites for commercialas well as subsistence fishing, and further economic valuehas been added by tourism.

Unfortunately, the future for coral reefs is very uncer-tain. They are one of the ecosystems most at risk fromglobal climate change and because of this have achievedmuch prominence in recent times. They have been com-pared to canaries in coal mines, providing early warningof increasing risks! Both public and scientific perspectiveson the impacts of global warming on coral reefs havechanged over the last 20 years. Initially a rise in sea levelwas seen as positive, encouraging new coral growth overlargely dead reef flats, although at the other extreme wereforecasts of reefs being drowned, all reef islandsdisappearing and even the reefs themselves being erodedaway and tropical coastlines losing their protection. Morebalanced responses have come as scientists working onprocesses opened up a range of possibilities. Earth sciencehas played a major role in these revisions especially wherecooperation with other disciplines has provided balancedassessments. Impacts will be severe with bleaching fromtemperature rise and calcification rates declining inresponse to acidified oceans, leading to unsustainablegrowth rates of corals and many other important organ-isms. The earth science focus here is on the impact on sed-iment budgets and the transportational ability of waves.Many scenarios are possible including an increase inavailable sediment over the reef top, and, with deeperwater greater ability of waves to move both this new sed-iment and that which may have rested on the reef top forseveral thousand years, towards any preexisting reefisland. At least in the foreseeable future, the actual volumeof reef islands may increase, though new areas added willlack vegetation and soils and may be at the expense of theareas which have supported subsistence agriculture formillennia.

What is becoming more apparent, as further researchinto the impact of climate change on reefs is carried out,is that in many instances there are important thresholds

which determine the severity of response. Climatechange impact is undoubtedly the most important focusof coral reef research in all disciplines at present. To someextent, the situation is similar to that of the nineteenthcentury when conflicting hypotheses on the formationof coral reefs were the highlight. Then, as further researchrevealed the depth and lithology of the foundations, ideason glacially controlled sea levels became accepted andthe whole new scenario of plate tectonics was revealed,it became clear that as in many areas of science, theremay be more than one correct answer to a problem. Asmore thresholds are determined, different options forcoral reefs to move into the future will become apparent.Unfortunately, these will mostly be under adverseconditions.

Climate change and coral reefs form one of the majorfoci of this encyclopedia. Although entries are presentedin alphabetical order, they have been organized undermajor compilation headings which should become partic-ularly obvious when the reader uses the cross-referenceswith each entry. Theories and hypotheses, from Darwinto climate change, also provide a substantial number ofentries, together with some of the major methodologiesused in the hypothesis testing. Short biographies are givenof some of the major contributors to the study of coral reefsin the earth science field, including organizations. Classifi-cations of various features are given, which again show thatthere may be more than one critical approach to featuresor processes. Although the encyclopedia does not containa formal glossary, there are many short entries explainingspecific features or processes. As coral reefs vary aroundthe world, a significant number of entries have been devotedto geographical areas. Finally, the past contribution to mod-ern reefs is not forgotten with contributions on specific reefcomplexes of the geological past, whilst the future, howeverfragile, is assessed through a number of contributions onconservation.

This is not an exhaustive list but hopefully, it givesa structure to the encyclopedia’s contents. Of equal valueare the many references given with the entries. Theserange from some of the most classical to material onlypublished in the last 12 months. The interest in coral reefsis such that, over the next few years, further interestingmaterial will be published and updates may be required,but the 260 entries within the present volume, written byauthors from 15 different countries, give a wide perspec-tive of earth science’s interest in an increasingly fragileecosystem.

David HopleySeptember 2010

Acknowledgments

Awork the size of this encyclopedia inevitably relied onthe help and cooperation of a very large number of people,only some of whom can be identified. My particularthanks go to the Editorial Board, an internationalgroup of highly respected coral reef scientists. To GuyCabioch, Peter Davies, Terry Done, Eberhardt Gischler,Ian Macintyre, Rachel Wood, and Colin Woodroffe, thankyou for keeping this project on course by helping tochoose the topics which form the entries, suggestinghigh-quality authors, reviewing the initial manuscripts,and finally checking the proofs with your selected groupsof authors as well as writing important contributionsyourselves.

This leads to the largest group I wish to acknowledge,the authors of the 260 entries which range in size froma few hundred words up to major contributions of10,000 words. Many authors have also taken on more thanone entry within their speciality area. Also, with authorsfrom 15 different countries for many, English is not theirfirst language, yet, with help from the Editorial Boardand from Springer, they have provided quality articles.Inevitably, with such a large group of people there havebeen problems with illness, with members of their family,etc. and yet, the overall production has not deviated to anygreat extent from the original timetable. The writers of thearticles are highly commended for their dedication to thework.

At the production end of this project has been thestaff of Springer. Their help, understanding, and coopera-tion, especially when small problems arose, is somethingI cannot appreciate enough. Their patient collaborationwith authors and board did much to maintain the smoothtimetable. Special acknowledgment must go to Petra vanSteenbergen, Sylvia Blago, and Simone Giesler, who wereinvolved with the encyclopedia from start to finish,a period of over 3 years. In particular, their decision toaccept so many color illustrations has done much to add tothe attractiveness and interpretation of these entries on coralreefs. Advice, especially in the formative stages, from Char-lie Finkl, himself a coastal scientist, and a Series Editor forthe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, did much toguide the project along the most effective tracks.

In many works like this, thanks are expressed to theeditor’s/author’s spouse for their patience and support.My appreciation to Patricia goes far beyond this as with-out her many hours of support, the project would not havebeen completed. Not only did she run an efficient office,maintaining a most complex filing system and, due to myown deficiencies, taking on responsibilities for all commu-nications but also she provided continuous motivationthrough the many hours she spent, furthering the project.

Finally, to the many unnamed people who have contrib-uted to the encyclopedia, thank you for your time and effortand I hope the final product meets with your approval.