Upload
others
View
3
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Enabling Poverty relevant Bio-fertilizer Innovation Systems – Lessons
from India
Sunita Sangar
STADD Development Consulting Pvt. Ltd.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract: Today, increasing cost of chemical fertilizers along with declining yield response
to increased fertilizer application and degradation of soil, limit the soil fertility choices
available to farmers. Even if part of the increased demand for fertilizers could be met from
bio-fertilizers, it is likely to result in savings for farmers. This is especially important for
developing countries such as India where farming will continue to be in the hands of small
farmers, who cannot afford high priced fertilizers (even though there is already a nearly 80%
subsidy being given to the fertilizer industry). Literature on innovation systems points out
that pro-poor innovation in rural areas is most likely to occur through small-scale ventures
and entrepreneurs.
Bio-fertilizers as cheap and safe inputs for farmers provides lot of scope for local
employment through decentralized rural infrastructure, more skills and capacities to address
technology, research and production capacities of soils. The bio-fertilizers innovation system
(BfIS) is marked by the presence of various actors and their linkages that bring diverse set of
knowledge based on their roles and capacities. The innovation systems approach was used for
analyzing organizations along with the institutions and policies specific to the two bio-
innovations to understand their poverty alleviation focus. The main research question
explored was: In what way the poor participate and how are the poor’s needs expressed and
represented in policies and programmes for bio-fertilizers? The analysis reveals that poverty
focus was missing in the agenda of the actors and organizations. There were no specific
institutional changes/arrangements to achieve the poverty focus. This paper provides an
overview of the bio-fertilizers sector, analyses the bio-fertilizers innovation systems to bring
out some missing linkages and present positive lessons from some local efforts which can be
helpful in bringing poverty relevance to the bio-innovations. The paper concludes with
specific intervention points and policy recommendations to enable poverty relevant Bio-
fertilizers Innovation Systems in India.
Key words: Bio-fertilizers, Rhizobium, Azospirillium, bio-innovation, poverty relevance
Enabling Poverty relevant Bio-Fertilizer Bio-Innovation Systems – Lessons
from India
Sunita Sangar
Email: [email protected]
Background
Chemical fertilizers are one of the essential ingredients that gave an impetus to the green
revolution in India helping meet goals of self-sufficiency in food production. The chemical
fertilizers did deliver on counts expected, but progressively led to ill effects manifested
through reduced crop responses despite increase in application dose. It has now been widely
accepted that this model of agriculture has led to resource degradation, prominent being;
depletion of natural resources, increased erosion and loss of natural fertility of soils,
increased incidence of new pests and diseases, reduction of biomass production and
biodiversity (Conway & Barbier 1990; Chopra, 1997). This has an overall impact over the
sustainability of various production systems. Green revolution practices encouraged an
increase in application of fertilizers, particularly nitrogen that has led to a negative
environmental impact. Most prominent among these are, decrease of soil organic matter pool,
modification of soil microbial composition and balance, increase soil compaction and overall
soil quality deterioration. Also in the current energy scenario, with fossil based fuel prices
going up, use of chemical fertilizers has not only become an expensive affair but also
unsustainable given the high rate of resource deterioration. With increasing cost of chemical
fertilizers on account of oil price hikes, degradation of soil, and given the declining yield
response to increased fertilizer application soil fertility choices available to farmers is limited.
Bio-fertilizers have emerged as one of the alternatives to application of chemical inputs for
needs of fertilizers. Their use in agriculture in preference to chemical fertilizers, offers
economic and ecological benefits by way of soil health and fertility to farmers. Field studies
have demonstrated them to be a low cost input that is effective and free from adverse
implications of chemicals. Bio-fertilizers were promoted through integrated plant nutrient
systems (IPNS) that involved combining fertilizers, organic/green manures and bio-fertilizers
to sustain crop production, maintaining soil productivity, health and diversity.
Bio-fertilizers are natural fertilizers that are microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae, fungi
alone or in combination. They are defined as a product containing carrier based (solid or
liquid) living micro-organisms that are agriculturally useful in terms of nitrogen fixation,
phosphorous solubilization or nutrient mobilization (The Gazette of India, 2006). They
augment the availability of essential elements like Nitrogen, Potash, Phosphorous, Sulphur by
directly supplying them or transforming them into soluble form; in addition, they also help
plants to uptake several micronutrients. So far emphasis has been given to certain types of
bio-fertilizers such as Rhizobium, Azotobactor, Azospirillum, and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) (Adholeya and Pant, 2007). However, in practice a large variety of other
microbial inoculants are also available and are being used as bio-fertilizers such as Blue
Green Algae, Trichoderma, Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorriza(VAM) and Azolla.
Contribution of bio-fertilizers depends upon the efficacy of microbial strains present in the
bio-fertilizer packet. These microbial strains that are used in bio-fertilizers production are
either natural isolates obtained by selection process or are strains characteristic improved by
mutation/biotechnological protocols. There is increasing imbalance in fertilizer usage in
Indian agriculture (Shah, 2006). The efficacy of various microbial inoculants in increasing
the yields and saving nitrogen and phosphorous for pulses and oilseeds, cereals has been
convincingly proved in farmers’ fields in most agro-eco-zones. Various soil and inoculants
management practices, suitable carriers, packaging and methods for enhancing shelf-life of
bio-fertilizers have been well standardized (Rao & Sharma, 2009). Earlier, research efforts
related to bio-fertilizers were only seen as means of augmenting nutrients through BNF, and
phosphorous solubilization but recent research reveals that they can improve fertilizers use
efficiency and thus they can be exploited for this purpose (ibid).
2. Bio-fertilizers for sustainable transitions through BNF
Bio-fertilizers have emerged as one of the alternatives for transitions towards more
sustainable development pathways through biological nitrogen fixation(BNF). Biological
nitrogen fixation (BNF) refers to the process of microorganisms fixing atmospheric nitrogen,
mostly within subsoil plant nodules, and making it available for assimilation by plants. This
process gains importance in the context of crop productivity because nitrogen supply is a key
limiting factor in crop production. Investment in BNF research continues to be a high priority
research area with expanding focus both on developing and as well as developed countries
(Serraj, 2004). Use of bio-fertilizers in agriculture, in preference to chemical fertilizers, offers
economic and ecological benefits by way of soil health and fertility to farmers. Field studies
have demonstrated them to be effective and cheap inputs, free from conventionally adverse
implications of chemicals. Bio-fertilizers are now being increasingly used as part of
Integrated Plant Nutrient Systems (IPNS) that advocate involving a combination of fertilizers,
organic/green manures and microbial inoculants as imperative to sustain crop production and
maintain soil health and soil diversity in the long run (Wani, et al. 1995). This is important
for countries like India where farming will continue to be in the hands of small farmer. In
India, the demand for nitrogen fertilizers is expected to go up from the present level of 11.4
million t (2001-02) to 13.9 million t by 2006-07 and 16.2 million t by 2011-2012 AD). The
economic burden and environmental cost of applying such a high quantity of additional
fertilizers is obvious. Even if a part of this increase in demand for N is met through bio-
fertilizers, the likely savings will be enormous (Rao et al. 2004). This holds importance for
developing countries such as India where farming is practiced by a large number of small
farmers and will continue to be in the hands of small farmers, who cannot afford high priced
fertilizers (in spite of nearly 80% subsidy being given to the fertilizer industry). Small
farmers are dependent on government subsidies and suffer from both soil quality
deterioration and declining yield response. Bio-fertilizers can play a major role in transition
to sustainability for these farmers. They are affordable for majority of farmers, have the
ability to take farmers out of total dependence on harmful chemical fertilizers and contribute
to long term sustainability by strengthening of local production systems and improvement of
natural resources (soil quality).
Bio-fertilizers are likely to result in improvement in soil and environmental health and
savings for farmers. The emphasis has largely been on promoting bio-fertilizers as safe and
cheap products for resource poor communities and providing income generation prospects
through decentralization of scientific and production processes that go into the development
and production of bio-fertilizers through local participation. The rationale is that such a
pursuit will directly help in poverty alleviation among small farmers; enhance soil quality,
leading to fulfilling needs of national food security. This research paper provides an overview
of the bio-fertilizers sector and analyses the bio-fertilizers innovation systems for their focus
on poverty, and presents positive lessons from the local efforts which could be helpful in
bringing poverty relevance to the public sector R&D.
3. Bio-fertilizers sector in India: an overview
The first documented production of bio-fertilizers in the form of Rhizobium in India was in
1934 by M.R. Madhok (Yadav & Raychaudhuri, 2004), but the first commercial production
was initiated only in 1956 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. Growth in production remained
very slow till the mid sixties (Tewatia, Kalwe and Chaudhuri, 2007). Introduction of Soybean
along with ‘Nitragin Soybean inoculant’ imported from USA in 1964 was the first major
event in bio-fertilizers history of India. Encouraged by the success of Rhizobium inoculation
in Soybean, efforts were made to replace the requirement of imported inoculant with locally
produced inoculants for soybean in the first phase. This was the extended to other pulses and
legume oilseeds in the second phase. During 1965-1990 around 30 bio-fertilizers production
laboratories were set up in the country to meet the demand (Venkataraman & Tilak, 1990)
and lot of schemes were formulated to popularize their use in different legume crops. Starting
from few tonnes, production and consumption increased gradually and reached a moderate
figure of 1000MT by 1988-89. During this period Rhizobium inoculants was dominating with
other bio-fertilizers also starting to make their presence felt such as Azotobacter. Nineties
saw a dramatic surge in bio-fertilizers industry with adding of new bio-fertilizers such as
Azotobacter, Azospirillum, PSBs added to the list and total production jump from
1000MT(1989) to 10,000MT (2000) (Dwivedi and Motsara, 2001; Bhattacharya & Dwivedi,
2004). The growth of bio-fertilizer started with the initiation of “National Project on
Development and use of Bio-fertilizers during 1983-84 which continued up to September
2004, till the project was subsumed as National Project on Organic Farming. Due to intensive
efforts made under the project overall production of Bio-fertilizers in the country, which
stood at less than 500 tons/annum during 1984-85, was raised to more than 10,000
tones/annum during 2003-04 and more than 20,000 tonnes/annum in 2007-08. The growth
story is still continuing with continued assistance from Government of India (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Growth of Bio-fertilizers Production in India (1992-93 to 2007-08).
Source: Bio-fertilizer Statistics, Fertilizers Association of India (1992-2008).
Contrary to the world bio-fertilizers scenarioi, Indian bio-fertilizers industry is not restricted
to Rhizobium. Almost all production units now produce at least 4-5 different types of bio-
fertilizers. It is clear that the bulk of the growth in the bio-fertilizers production took place by
1992-95 and then again during 2001-2008. There were changes in shares, where as the intial
increase was due to Rhizobium, the later growth phase was largely contributed by the moderate
success in Azospirillum and by far the best performance by Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria
(PSBs). Statewise Bio-fertilzers production comparison in India reveals an overall decline in
Rhizobium bio-fertilzers from 45% in 1992-93 to 14% during 2007-08 (Figure 2) as
compared to other nitrogenous biofertilizers such as Azotobacter and Azospirillum. The
decline in Rhizobium are indicative of lower success in groundnut and pulses. Sharp decline
from 1996-99 has largely been due to emphasis being given to Phosphorpus solubilizing
Biofertisers (PSBs) with its contribution constituting to more that half of the total BF
production in the country after 1996-97. This trend was well envisaged as PSBs are non-
symbiotic and non-crop specific in nature with broad application as a plant growth nutrient to
large number of crops (mostly cereals) which may or may not be leguminous.
Figure 2: Declining Rhizobium production in India.
Source: Bio-fertilizer Statistics, Fertilizers Association of India (1992-2008).
Currently, there are about 164 firms belonging to the public, cooperative and private sector
involved in the production of different types of bio-fertilizers (NCOF Annual Report 2007-
08). These firms have the total annual production capacity of about 67162 tonnes. The
production level of 20111.05 tonnes is much low considering its vast potential. Among
various bio-fertilizers, the maximum growth during 1990s was observed in production and
distribution of phosphate solubilizers (Tewatia, R.K. 2003). Proportion of bio-fertilizers
currently being produced in the country are Azotobactor, Azospirillum and Phosphorous
solubilizing bacteria (PSBs) (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Current Bio-fertilizers production Scenrio in India (2007-08)
Source: NCOF, Annual Report, 2008-09.
Among all the states southern & western states contribute to almost the entire bio-fertilizers
being produced in the Country. The region wise distribution of bio-fertilizers is more
dispersed relative to chemical fertilizers as with highest share going to west followed by
south while north and east claimed lower shares. The distribution does not follow that of
chemical fertilizers they supplement, where north is the largest claimant. Five States, namely
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu account for than
three-fourth of total bio-fertilizers production. The highest number of units are located in the
state of Maharashtra (37), followed by Tamil Nadu (33), Karnataka (23) and Kerala/Andhra
Pradesh (11). The manufacturing units in the above states were analyzed for their nature,
variety of products produced, and number of units the trend revealed states such as
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka as the leading states in terms of bio-fertilizer
manufacturers. Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, witnessed a large degree of private sector
participation with more than half of the bio-fertilizer manufacturers belonging to the private
sector. A good degree of large industrial chemical fertilizers units are also involved in bio-
fertilizer production as their corporate social responsibility along with chemical based
fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides.
The state-wise details of units, their installed capacity and production for the year 2007-08
revealed that bio-fertilizers production is not uniform through out the country. There exists a
wide inter-state variation. Five States, namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu account for than three-fourth (75.5%) of total bio-fertilizers
production. Maharashtra leads in having the highest number of bio-fertilizer producing units
(37), followed by Tamil Nadu (33) and Karnataka (23). This trend varies in the case of bio-
fertilizer production. The leading bio-fertilizer manufacturing state is Andhra Pradesh with
4515.81 tonnes, followed by Tamil Nadu (3466.97 tonnes) and Maharashtra (2486.41
tonnes). Also the overall production has always been lower than the production capacity of
the Bio-fertilizer units (Table 1).
Table 1: State-wise Bio-fertilizers production in India (2007-08).
S. No. State Number of BF
Producing units
Installed
Capacity
(tones)
Total Bio-fertilizer
Production (tonnes)
1. Andhra Pradesh 11 7025 4515.81
2. Assam 3 290 70.901
3. Bihar 1 150 20
4. Delhi 1 1000 168.844
5. Goa 1 150 0
6. Gujarat 4 1850 1263.30
7. Haryana 1 50 8.89
8. Himachal Pradesh 1 75 56.21
9. Karnataka 23 26425 2841.27
10. Kerala 11 5855 814.45
11. Madhya Pradesh 7 1725 1884.87
12. Mizoram 1 25 3.58
13. Maharashtra 37 5775 2486.41
14. Nagaland 1 150 13.98
15. Orissa 4 430 331.94
16. West Bengal 7 1105 922.34
17. Jharkhand 2 220 201.68
18. Punjab 1 2 2
19. Rajasthan 3 800 302.30
20. Tamil Nadu 33 12825 3466.97
21. Tripura 1 30 14.27
22. Uttar Pradesh 5 315 250.06
23. Pondicherry 5 890 471.29
ALL INDIA 164 67162.00 20111.05
Source: NCOF, Annual Report, 2007-08
The past years bio-fertilizers production statistics (1992-93) revealed that the production has
always been lower than the capacity and varied for different years (Table 2). The trend also
makes it clear that the entire production could never be sold by the industry, but the present
decade shows good distribution percentage in the later years compared to the nineties.
However, the percentage increase in distribution generally shows a downward trend (Table
2).
Figure 4: Production capacity vis-a-vis Actual production of Bio-fertilizers(1992-2008)
Source: Bio-fertilizer Statistics, Fertilizers Association of India (1992-2008).
Table 2: Bio-fertilizers production statistics (1992-2008)
Year Capacity
(Tonnes)
Production
(Tonnes)
Distribution
(Tonnes)
Capacity
Utilization
(%)
%
Distribution
of
Production
% Growth
in
distribution
1992-93 5400.5 2005.0 1600 37.1 79.8 -
1993-94 6125.5 3084.0 2914 50.3 94.4 82.1
1994-95 8114.5 5800.5 4988.9 63.8 86 71.2
1995-96 10680.4 6692.3 6288.3 62.6 94 26
1996-97 12647.0 7406.6 6681.4 58.6 90.2 6.2
1997-98 NA 7104.6 6295.6 43.4 88.6 (-)5.7
1998-99 16446.0 5972.1 5065.5 48.7 84.8 (-)19.5
1999-00 NA 5716.0 5452.7 NA 95.3 7.6
2000-01 NA 6242.7 6138.6 NA 98.3 12.5
2001-02 15439.0 9019.2 8429.3 58.4 93.4 12.0
2002-03 18679.5 7181.7 7029.9 38.4 97.8 (-)16.6
2003-04 18632.0 8701.4 8357.0 46.7 96 18.8
2004-05 NA 10479.0 10427.6 NA 99.5 24.7
2005-06 NA 11752.4 11357.6 NA 96.6 8.9
2006-07 26864.0 15871.0 15745.6 59.0 99.2 38.6
2007-08 67162 20111.05 NA 30
Source: Bio-fertilizer Statistics, Fertilizers Association of India (FAI)ii (1992-2008).
Bureau of India Standards(BIS) has published necessary specifications/standards for different
bio-fertilizers (Rhizobium-IS-8268: 2001). But these specifications are purely of voluntary in
nature and are being regulated on firms and producers who have opted for BIS certification
and putting for BIS certification and putting ISI mark on their products. There are few firms
holding BIS certification or putting ISI mark on their products. The bio-fertilizers demand for
2011 has been estimated to be 30,000 tonnes by an expert committee constituted by the
Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers (REF). The Government of India and various State
governments have been making efforts to promote usage of bio-fertilizers involving farmers
and producer/investors. This has been pursued through measures such as farm level extension
and promotion programmes, financial assistance to investors for setting up units, subsidies on
sale, direct production in public sector and cooperative organizations, universities and
research organizations. Government is still the largest producer and distributor of the bio-
fertilizers in the country. They also procure large qualitative of bio-fertilizers from the private
sector in order to meet the targets set by the State government under various schemes. Bio-
fertilizer sector has been largely pushed through the centrally sponsored schemes of the
Government and reaching the farmers through State governments. Emphasis has been
through farm level extension programmes, financial assistance to investors for setting up
units, subsidies on sale, direct production by the public sector and cooperative organizations.
Key Constraints relating to Bio-fertilizers promotion: Despite the required push by the
public sector there is still absence of faith in the farmers/ manufacturers alike, it is still not a
demand based technology and is largely pushed through the government only. Overtime there
has been increase in the sales volumes and diffusion across countries. However, there is lack
of information on the farm level usage or profitability of units by these small entrepreneurs
(Ghosh, 2004). In India, while there are claims that area under bio-fertilizers is increasing
rapidly the reliable statistics are not readily available, and whatever statistics are available,
they are based on the information compiled on capacity and distribution by various bio-
fertilizer units (ibid). The effort by public R & D organizations to collect data on various
aspects bio-fertilizers or identify researchable issues and ways to address the problems is
minimal in India. Mainstream R&D relating to bio-fertilizers in India has been not been
assessed beyond production targets achieved by its research results, especially not for its
other environmental and social benefits. There is lack of information on the farm level usage
or profitability of units by small entrepreneurs. Mainstream R&D is still chemical fertilizers
oriented justifying for food security needs with little assessment on environmental & social
benefits. In addition lot of efforts are required to optimize yield, efficiency, infrastructure for
distribution and storage, poor quality, handling, limited shelf life of bio-fertilizers.
Despite constrains innovations related to bio-fertilizers (bio-innovations) can play an
important role in sustainable transitions in the country. Innovations related to bio-fertilizers
form an important part of the broader agriculture innovation system(AIS) in India.
Innovations for bio-fertilizers have occurred in a very different way with different sources of
knowledge, organizations, institutions and learning processes that forms the Bio-fertilizers
Innovation System(BfIS). Little is known about the BfIS, an important subset of AIS, as the
interlinked and learning network of organizations and individuals together with institutions
and policies that affect their innovative behavior. Innovation systems literature points out that
pro-poor innovation in rural areas is most likely to occur through small-scale ventures and
entrepreneurs. Thus, there is a need to understand the roles, capacities and relationships
among the diverse actors involved in BfIS and identify the major impediments to the pro-
poor application of the innovations related to bio-fertilizers as part of AIS in India. The next
section gives an overview of the major actors and institutions that link up to form Bio-
fertilizers innovation system in India as an important subset of an overall Agricultural
innovation system in India.
3. Bio-fertilizers Innovation System: Actors and institutions
Bio-fertilizers innovation system (BfIS) is dominated by actors and institutions belonging to
the public sector organizations. Major actors include, Central government (Ministry of
Agriculture, Department of biotechnology), R&D organizations (ICAR, CSIR, State
Agriculture universities) State government, several NGO’s and large numbers of private
sector and co-operative sector organizations. These actors are often scattered around various
organizational compartments which are located in different domains, with weak linkages
among them. Some of the actors play an intermediary role of bringing these scattered actors
together by facilitating or influencing successful coalitions or partnerships. However, all
these actors are guided by the mainstream agricultural policies that use yield as the only
yardstick with little concerns for soil or natural resources improvement or sustainability.
Ongoing attempts to promote bio-fertilizers in Indian agriculture began through public sector
intervention, and in keeping with the spirit of the times, the policy motivates private sector
and profit motive to propel their production and sale.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR)-the key actor
ICAR is the main co-coordinating agency for any research work concerning bio-fertilizers in
India. They are largely promoted through the Natural Resource Management Division of the
ICAR which has integrated plant nutrient management as one of its major thrust areas that
focuses on combining inorganic fertilizers, organic manures, composts/bio-fertilizers for
sustained crop health and productivity. The entire focus on bio-fertilizers was triggered by the
oil crisis of the 1970s and consequent sharp rise in the nitrogen prices forced researchers to
look for alternatives to industrially fixed nitrogen (Rao, 2007). ICAR constituted a committee
under the chairmanship of Dr. H. K. Jain, the then director of Indian Agricultural Research
Institute (IARI)iii
to develop a coordinated research project focusing on BNF. This resulted in
the initiation of All India co-ordinated research project on biological nitrogen fixation( BNF)
in 1976, which finally came into force in 1978, and continued up to 2004. Keeping in mind
the expertise available in India and the agro climatic conditions, a network project was
formulated by the committee with a broad mandate to intensify research on Biological
Nitrogen Fixation(BNF) during the Sixth (1980-85) and Seventh (1985-89) five year plans. (
RaoThe prime objective was to generate new and more effective microbial cultures for
various crops in various agro-ecological regions, which were then tested under different
centres in farmer fields and later on in front line demonstrations. During the Eighth five year
plan, the objectives of the scheme were modified to make the work more applied in nature
focusing on supplementing a part of chemical fertilizer needs of crops by enhancing BNF
processes in legumes and cereals through symbiotic and non-symbiotic micro-
organisms(Rao, 2001).
The Ninth five year plan also placed greater emphasis in integrating the use of bio-fertilizers
in farming systems as a component of integrated nutrient management and demonstrations in
farmer fields. During this period ( in 2004) the ICAR initiated the All India Network Project
on Bio-fertilizers, replacing the All India Coordinated Research Project on BNF. This
network project was headed Dr. D.L.N. Rao, project coordinator, Indian Institute of Soil
Sciences (IISS), Bhopal. One of the major aims was to improve bio-fertilizer technology with
particular reference to quality, carriers, consortia, delivery systems and testing methods. It
also focused to exploit the biodiversity of inoculants to diverse cropping systems (Rao,
2008). There were 11 centres of the project during 2004-2007 (Rao, et al, 2004). Concerted
efforts were made to optimize yield, efficiency, storage stability and delivery of this
technology to evolve and meet agricultural demands at the local level. Despite these efforts
there are factors constraining the spread and. These constraints are largely associated
insufficient extension effort related to bio-fertilizers and poor quality of the products due to
poor handling, insufficient infrastructure for distribution & storage, limited shelf life, and
climate specificity. Simultaneous to the successful research efforts cultures are widely
disseminated for bio-fertilizers production by user agencies such as the State Agricultural
Universities, State Department of Agriculture, Regional Bio-fertilizer Development Centres
and the private and the public sector agencies.
Role of Government- policies and institutions
Bio-fertilizers got the necessary impetus when the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India initiated the “National Project on Development and Use of Bio-fertilizers” in 1983 and
UNDP assisted in “National Bio-fertilizers Development project” in 1990 (Rajput et. al.
year). Under this schemeiv
, one national and six regional centers were established to cater to
the needs of northern, southern, western, eastern and central regions in the country. They
were responsible for organizing training, demonstrating programs and quality testing of bio-
fertilizers. The public sector organizations form a bulk of the units in the industry, while similar
units in the private sector are also coming forward. Different State governments also provide
subsidies sometimes up to 50% of the sales realization but the manner of subsidization is rather
unsystematic. In many cases the discrimination and manipulation in subsidizing lead to a lot of
intra industry variation in prices. Thrust to bio-fertilizers has largely been done for their
conjunctive use with chemical fertilizers through promotion of balance use of fertilizers and
various other schemesv. All these schemes come under the Integrated Nutrient Management
initiative of the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, by way of which it seeks to
promote soil test-based balanced and judicious use of chemical fertilizers, bio-fertilizers and
locally available organic manures like farmyard manure, compost, NADEP compost, Vermi
compost, green manure, press mud and other indigenous methods, to maintain soil health and
its productivity. In addition, Government has also been facilitating bio-fertilizers through
various schemes of Department of Biotechnologyvi
and Department of Science and
Technologyvii
have also been promoting bio-fertilizers. India’s national agricultural policy
has given priority to bio-fertilizers for the scope to create local food security and employment
in drylands (NCOF, 2006, Sharma, 2005). The next section explores specific cases of bio-
innovations related to bio-fertilizers for their pro-poor focus.
4. Bio-fertilizer innovation systems and poverty relevance
To begin with, bio-fertilizer promotion was meant to help the poor by making available good
quality affordable products and presenting income generation possibilities at local level.
However, after about four decades of pursuit two divergent views have emerged from
experience. On the one hand, professionals in academia, the government, and the private
sector largely believe that bio-fertilizers need technical and scientific involvement and thus
needs to be centralized or done through organized sector since decentralized production
systems cannot have quality standards which the state can enforce or monitor. While on the
other hand there are views of the Civil Society Organizations based on the experience of units
established by them that there is scope for making bio-fertilizers sector work for the poor
with establishment of decentralized production units with local participation & its
affordability and easy access for poor.
Despite these divergent views and various technical and institutional constraints, there were
successful adoption of some bio-fertilizers to become bio-innovations. Based on interactions
and suggestions of leading stakeholders/sector specialists who were part of BfIS in India, two
successful bio-innovations (cases of bio-fertilizers), located in separate states: Madhya
Pradesh (Central India) & Tamil Nadu (Southern India) were analyzed to understand their
contributions to poverty alleviation. These bio-innovations are are:
The case of Rhizobium(Bradyrhizobium japonicum) bio-innovation for Soybean
production in Madhya Pradesh (MP)
The case of Azospirillum bio-innovation in Tamil Nadu.
The professional actors associated with the organizations along with the institutions and
policies that paved way for these bio-innovations to happen were specifically explored to
understand their poverty alleviation focus. In this context the question that was explored was:
In what way the poor participate and how are the poor’s needs expressed and represented in
policies and programmes for bio-fertilizers? Innovation systems framework- the analytical
framework helped in identifying the actors and institutions, missing linkages, gaps in their
roles and interventions that could enhance pro-poor focus (Hall, et al, 2004).
Rhizobium bio-innovation: Bio-fertilizers hold a lot of promise for Soybean
production in rainfed regions of Madhya Pradesh(MP) in view of low input use
particularly very low chemical fertilzers use where per hectare of consumption of
fertilzers is lowest (30kg) as against all India average consumption of fertilzers
(92.6kg) (GOI, 2008). Rainfed areas in MP were inhabited for Soybean production
giving benefits to poor farmers involved with agriculture. The state dominated in the
production of Rhizobium in the country owing to successful adoption of leguminous
crop-Soybean production in large areas with large number of poor farmers involved in
its production. For this reason the case of Rhizobium bio-innovation has also been
hailed as a pro-poor innovation. Soybean crop has specific rhizobial preference for
Bradyrhizobium japonicum for nodulation and effective biological nitrogen fixation to
improve soil health. Bradyrhizobium japonicum inoculants (hereafter, referred to as
Soybean Rhizobium) also represent the case of first commercial production of bio-
fertilizers in the 1960’s when yellow seeded soybean was introduced in India, largely
in MP. Rhizobium inoculants represents the successful case of bio-fertilizers
producton and adoption for Soyabean production1 in the country. Though MP
dominates with largest area under Soybean cultivation, its productivity is lower
compared to other Soybean producing states. Rhizobium bio-innovation in MP
helped by converging social, environmental and economic benefits for people by
bringing marginal lands under Soybean cultivation.Since regular need and application
of Rhizobium inoculants for Soybean is essential for sustained yield and resource
improvement, this bio-innovation system was explored for identifying the strategies
and capacity building needs of the weak /missing actors beyond the dominant Public
sector R&D in MP.
Azospirillum bio-innovation in TamilNadu: Azospirillum bio-innovation in Tamil
Nadu has not only helped in the improving the yield of major crops (especially rice)
but also helped in resource improvement through its conjunctive usage with chemical
fertilizers. TamilNadu, dominates in usage of chemical fertilizers that is much above
(216.5 kg/ha) as against the all India average (nutrients/kg) of 128.5kg/ha. High cost
of these fertilizers makes them beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers. With
fertilizers subsidies/policies largely in favour of the manufacturers and further
approval by the government to nutrient based pricing of subsidized fertilizers, bio-
fertilizers bring lot of scope especially for the poor farmers due to their lower costs as
compared to the costly chemical fertilizers. Researchers, manufacturers and farmers
are equally aware of its benefits. Azospirillum bio-innovation was possible only
through initial successful uptake of the technology by the State department of
agriculture which later on also got involved in production and distribution. Research
system was flexible with meaningful linkages, not only private sector but also through
direct access to farmers. Though, a very vibrant innovation system with diverse actors
and linkages, the strategies and capacity building needs for bringing poverty relevance
in the innovation system were explored.
4.1. Bio-innovations and Poverty Relevance
Exploration into the key innovation system feature “Poverty relevance” revealed that both
bio-innovations are inclusive of the poor as both poor and non-poor households benefit
equally with lower production costs given the economies of scale due to low cost involved
biofertilizers prodution as compared to chemical fertilzers. Poverty focus was found missing
1 India is 5
th largest producer of Soybean in the World and accounts for 25% of the total oilseeds in the country.
Often referred to as “Miracle crop of the 20th
century”, the crop showed spectacular growth in terms of
cultivation area, production and productivity from 1986-2001, but is passing through a crisis due to stagnating
productivity at the farm level owing to degradation of natural resources in the already resource constraints areas
of central India ( 98% soybean produced from three states: MP, Maharashtra,& Rajasthan) particularly in
Madhya Pradesh.
in the public sector actors/institutions of both innovations. There has been no direct emphasis
placed by public sector on poverty relevence for example, through Government Schemes
through which they are distributed such as ISOPOM, NADP or entrepreneurship
Development Programme on Biofertilizers (DBT). Insights into the patterns and
characteristics of the actors and organizations, with institutions and policies operating with
respect to bio-fertilizers in India reveals that poor participated in the end as mere recipients in
a typical linear transfer of technology mode of research –extension- adoption that does not
distinguish between the socioeconomic status of the farmers. It does not reflect the pro-poor
targetting as:
poverty focus was missing through agendas of the actors and organizations
technology-user perspective did not influence the outcome of partnership processes
No specific institutional change/arrangement to achieve the poverty focus (for
example with respect to selection of target groups/farmers or entrepreneurs)
Though meant to help the poor, it had little linkages to national /international rural
livelihoods projects at the state level
Innovation system analysis revealed that technological and institutional innovations related to
both the cases which have largely been following linear model of R&D and extension have
not been able to directly target or work for reducing poverty and improving social inclusion .
However, there are some pilot efforts facilitated through civil society organizations for
example, MSSRF, which have made it evident that there is a scope for making this sector
pro-poor with establishment of decentralized production units with local participation.
Innovation system framework has been used to understand the local “positive deviance”
situation where pro-poor innovation processes are already taking place in the country (Biggs,
2008).This can provide a framework for building on these experiences for bringing poverty
relevance to the local rural and agricultural innovations. This positive example in Tamil Nadu
is known for establishing eco-enterprises for sustainable livelihoods, in which they organize
and train women SHGs for decentralized production of Azospirillum. This initiative has also
been one of the successful models for scaling down of bio-fertilizers production at the small
level.
4.2. Learning from the positive: pro-poor significance
Innovation systems approach provides a framework to learn from multiple sources. It is
relevant for pro-poor institutional innovations analysis as it helps in identifying areas were
positive changes are taking place as regards sustainable rural livelihoods/social inclusion and
building on these initiatives already taking place. There are some key actors/institutions
which are actually playing positive and influential roles in these innovation systems. It is
important learning from such innovations and building on those positive situations (Biggs,
2008). Decentralized production units for Azospirillum were established as an eco-enterprise
to create local employment opportunity for rural women self Help Groups (WSHGs) in two
villages in TamilNadu. These were established as part of Department of Biotechnology
funded project “Low cost bio-fertilizer production units at the village level as employment
opportunities for rural women”. The main aim was to set up decentralized production units
with demystified technology at the village level which would be run by WSHG as a means of
additional income generation so as to ensure rural job opportunities as well as supply of good
quality bio-fertilizer to promote good agricultural practices locally. Establishment of units at
the village level helped in creation of lot of awareness among men and women farmers for
use of bio-fertilizers for ease of good quality products availability. Some of the positive
innovative features of the decentralized efforts for bringing poverty relevance are discussed
below:
Focus on specific social group: Before starting of the project exploratory survey was done to
select the villages where specific social group could be targeted. The population in the
villages was primarily involved in agriculture and half of the population in these villages
belonged to small and marginal farmers and other half were landless agricultural labourers.
Main aim was to enhance the capacity of these poor rural women among these groups in the
production of bio-fertilizers.
Institutional support through Self Help Groups (SHGs): Several SHG federations were
consulted in identifying the suitable and interested SHG to take up the Azospirillum bio-
fertilzers production as an ecoenterprise. The selection was made through a consultative
process based on certain criteria. These criteria included: members of the group are mostly
agricultural labourers, socially and economically disadvantages households, preferable
women SHG that is three years old, with good credit rating and at least two of the group
members are semi-literates.
Openness & Process mode approach for long term sustainability: MSSRF experimented
openly and learn interactively with farmers on appropriate institutional arrangements (such as
investing in equipments, procuring mother culture, packaging material, marketing strategies,
quality checking, input dealers, regular capacity building) and technologies (scaling down
machinery/equipments, appropriate packaging material, low cost storing facilities). The
initiative followed a process mode for development that was systematic and cyclic in nature.
Its various phases included mobilization, organization, technology incubation, capacity
building, systems management and role change. MSSRF, a not for profit research
organizations got involved as an organization to act as a catalyst facilitating this pattern of
broad based collaboration. The institutional context of these collaboration or partnerships is a
key determinate of their direction and outcome. Azospirillum bio-innovation has focused
specifically on establishing coalitions of local actors around a particular problem area. The
actors included scientific ones but not exclusively as leading actors.
Actors are engaged with complexity: Azospirillum bio-innovation involves dealing with
complex issues related to both technical and socio-economic parts and often involved range
of actors. Both technical and institutional innovations play an important role. Formal R& D is
only one of a series of related tasks required to bring about Azospirillum production. Diverse
actors work in collaboration. Linkages were among different scientific disciplines, between
researchers and technology users and between public and private sectors.
Successful partnerships and changing roles: There is no separate actor responsible to
transfer the technology, learning is equally important for all the actors involved and is the key
to their ability to adapt and seek new institutional arrangements and technologies. There was
pro-active involvement with other actors and encouragement of partnerships appropriate to
each location and resource situation. Even role of MSSRF has changed from mere facilitator
to active participant.
Awareness on advantages of sustainable ways of farming: Benefits of Azospirillum
inoculants for the crops were the main highlights and discussion points during the process of
mobilization and organization of Self Help Groups (SHGs). These are further strengthened
during the training and capacity building programmes. Efforts were also made for creating
awareness through community learning centres, and distribution of handbills and pamphlets
to the local farmers. They also explain usefulness of their products in local SHG meetings,
local exhibitions, farmers’ training and conferences.
Facilitating access to technology: Intensive hands-on training of the members in the
production of Azospirillum in research laboratory helped members in handling various
instruments required for the production. Processes involved: weighing the media constituents,
media preparation, sterilization, adjusting pH, and inoculum production. In order to reduce
the cost of the production unit and enable the women to handle, several technological
innovations got generated such as, low-cost Laminar Air Flow Chamber to ease inoculation,
locally available glass containers for mass production, and locally available FYM was used as
a carrier material.
Focus of both institutional & technological institutions: Each technological or institutional
innovation was made in response to some specific requirement at the local level. The actors
attempt to make meaningful improvements rather than present a list of recommendations to
the other actors in the system.
Capacity building among the rural poor: Capacity building programmes were need basedviii
.
These programmes involved: exposure visits of the members to nearly other BF units. For
technical production few members were given intensive hands –on training in the
microbiology laboratory at MSSRF, Chennai. These members then trained other members of
the group with the support of MSSRF after establishment of the unit. This exposed the
members to various techniques involved in the production process to start a unit. There was
learning by doing after establishment of unit while stabilization in the production process was
on. In addition to technical training leaders were also exposed to group and account
management and other need-based training on the problems encountered during the
production. Some of the members were also sent to TNAU for intensive training programme
on mass multiplication of bio-fertilizer production technology and Quality Control. Members
came back and made changes in the production process to improve production efficiency.
They were trained on the preparation of a business plan and budget for setting up the
production units with a capacity of 12 tonnes (scaling down from standard 150Mt capacity
plant). Since market links for the products was a major constrain, capacity building
programmes in establishing market link were organized by involving WSHG members in the
discussion and negotiation.
Supportive financing mechanisms at the local level: This institution such as “Friends of
MSSRF” is a community banking initiative of the MSSRF, which is involved in supporting
its various projects and initiatives financially. For example, it is one of the financing agencies
of MSSRF’s initiative of eco-enterprises of sustainable livelihoods-decentralized production
of bio-fertilizers.
Promoting sustainable livelihoods opportunities in the rural areas: Facilitating access to
technology along with capacity building among members has helped poor farmers to generate
higher income and diversify the livelihoods in rural areas. Institutional processes to promote
business plan and market linkages also were set up through MSSRF’s Community Banking
Programme, Chennai for Financial support. Sustainability of technical support was ensured
through linkages with TNAU and market linkages were sought through local agriculture
department, input dealers, and wholesale distributors, NGOs facilitating sustainable
agriculture and District Rural Development Agency. Other efforts for sustainability included
SHG members directly selling the products to the local farmers, marketing tie-up with local
fertilizers shops and fertilizer dealers.
From the discussion on innovation features above there an evident poverty focus is visible in
these decentralization efforts. This is also evident through various institutional arrangements
to achieve poverty focus for example, targeting only marginal/landless groups of farmers.
Innovation system analysis of Azospirillum bio-innovation at the decentralized level clearly
indicates that in order to take the benefits of improvements in Science and Technology and
use it for poverty reduction it is essential to fine tune and simplify the technology to suit the
local region and this provides that scope to develop the technology in scale neutral mode and
enable access to rural men and women. The process of decentralization has been done in a
participatory manner in a result-based approach mode in order to identify the constraints and
evolve suitable site-specific strategies. These decentralized production units/enterprises
support the group as an additional income generating activity in addition to their primary
livelihood. Method of training and capacity building involved multidimensional aspects
including technology, management, leadership, as well as entrepreneurship. The training
methods need followed “learning by doing” approach, learning through mistakes and errors.
Market links at the multiple levels were found to be crucial in making the unit sustainable and
maintaining good group dynamics innovative partnership between universities, NGO’s and
CBO’s of the this kind could be good delivery mode for such technology transfer offering
some crucial lessons to the Public sector actors.
5. Conclusions
There was a general consensus on the relevance of bio-fertilizers usage particularly for small
farmers in the context of current climate change concerns as a cheap and safe source of input
for agriculture. Even if part of the increased demand for fertilizers could be met from bio-
fertilizers, it is likely to result in savings for poor farmers for example, bio-fertilizer usage
has been found to reduce chemical fertilizer usage by about 20% in some cases. As a learning
from positive, this paper brought out specific lessons from the case of Azospirillum in Tamil
Nadu, known for establishing eco-enterprises for sustainable livelihoods, in which they
organize and train women SHGs for decentralized production of Azospirillum. This initiative
has also been one of the successful models for scaling down of bio-fertilizers production at
the small level. BfIS, could be strengthened by making available cheap and quality products
on time to the poor farmers. The microbial inoculants production can also be directly taken
up at the decentralized level by the unemployed literate youth, as it embodies sophisticated
infrastructure, specialized skill and qualified manpower. However, poor farmers can be
involved in secondary distribution of microbial inoculants i.e., in the village level
transportation. Instead of giving subsidies to the farmers for using microbial inoculants,
state/centre government should be advised to allocate the funds to raise the grass root level
infrastructure for safe storage of the microbial inoculants and for village level local
transportation to be run by poor farmers (recommendations from the workshop on “Enabling
poverty Relevant Bio-fertilizers innovation Systems”, 30th
July, New Delhi). Landless
farmers/small entrepreneurs can be also get into this production at the decentralized level
with the facilitation of local civil Society organizations. Some of these efforts are already
taking place. There is need to learn from them. This opens up the need for alternate policy
and institutional frameworks that could make bio-fertilizer based innovations profitable for
the small farmers.
Supporting the pulse sector: Integration of legumes with crop production is important for
sustainable agriculture, but there has been decline in pulse/legume availability. The condition
is even worse for small farmers with little place in its food basket. In addition lack of
government support/procurement for PDS is also responsible for the current situation.
Pushing the pulses agenda will give a better chance of poor participation in agriculture. Bio-
fertilizers can play an important role in promotion of the case of legume/pulse crops, which
need to be inoculated with rhizobium, irrespective of the soil conditions.
While Rhizobium inoculants are potentially beneficial to poor smallholder farming system for
example in MP, without adequate policy support to create a suitable environment for active
participation of private entrepreneurs at the local level its wider production and application
are seriously limited. Production of Rhizobium inoculants through active collaborations with
other institutions/projects such as forming a component into the ongoing rural livelihoods
related projects in that State like, Madhya Pradesh District poverty initiative project,
(MPDPIP), Madhya Pradesh Rural Livelihoods Project and Rainfed farming projects.
Farmers participation can have direct influence on the setting up of research priorities,
especially in addressing marginal areas of the country where use of Rhizobium is limited due
to physical constraints and farmers lack access to chemical fertilizers.
Supportive policies: Rural Innovations (in this case bio-innovation) are essential to spur
economic growth and development. But in the absence of supportive public policy
commitment, emergence of alternate innovations will not take place. Previous rural policies
largely focused on small –holder agriculture but in fact most rural poor are landless poor and
therefore unlikely to benefit greatly from agriculture based policies (Sonne, 2010). Poverty
focus targeting was neglected in most of the agriculture related policies in the context of bio-
fertilizers. Pro-poor innovation in rural areas is more likely to occur through small–scale
venture and entrepreneurs than industrial research and development. The case of
decentralized production of Azospirillum however, provides a positive deviance. There is
need of supportive policy measures that do specific pro-poor targeting and help them
integrate with the mainstream flow of development. There is a need for policy attention,
while shunning some of the instituional rigidites to further promote these innovations so that
institutions for promoting the missing links and actors could be placed and larger impact on
the poor can be achieved. Policy should address the need to bring more flexibility and
appropriate atmosphere to allow the entry of other stakeholders and need based partnerships
beyond the public sector.
Supportive institutional mechanisms: Maintaining quality and monitoring of bio-inoculants
material are the important factors for enabling bio-fertilizers innovation systems. There are
two major concerns about the ways in which the institutional system prescribe rules and
controls in the current scenario. For example, Fertilizers Control order ( FCO), 1985, that lays
emphasizes on maintaining the quality of bio-fertilizers products has turned out to be an
entirely ornamental piece, proving meaningless for the industry and the farming community.
FCO is basically a regulation intervention without sufficient provision for actual monitoring
and effective supply of nutrients when needed. Therefore, there is a need to make provisions
for something beyond regulation. It needs to be seen whether the regulation has impacted bio-
fertilizers per se. Strengthening institutions that serve the interest of poor farmers, enhance
their capability and improve their participation in adapting and testing research & extension
services through organization and exchange of information related to the innovation will be
crucial.
A new approach for enabling poverty relevance: The way forward
Bio-fertilizers constitute an important component of the agricultural innovation system. In the
context of its pro-poor relevance, it is important to make available good quality material to
small farmers. The farmers use the necessary dosage in a variety of ways, which need not co-
coincide with the recommended dosages prescribed by the state. Thus, in a way the pro-
poorness rests on the capacity of the actors to respond to the elements of agricultural
production, this also seems to constraint the process. Linear mode of technology of
production-packaging-distribution has been followed throughout the world but failed to help
poor farmers. Bringing systemic thinking demands the production and employment to go
together to have a pro-poor focus. Academia lacks the understanding on existing bio-
fertilizers and sees this as similar to knowledge systems (generation, promotion & adoption)
that exist for chemical fertilizers/pesticides. There is need for efforts to rethink this model
and seek answer from the academicians from various disciplines (agro-ecological,
anthropology, economics, environment sector etc) to have an integrated view on the kind
approaches which are actually working at the local level. For this, a need to change the
mindset of the academia is a must (Emerged from workshop recommendations).
The BfISs have relied far too much on the ICAR at the expense of State Agriculture
Universities. There is need for re-thinking of institutions in terms of science & technology
itself, so that it can respond to bio-fertilizers needs. Government can play an important role
here. Given the focus on poverty, the cost of bio-fertilizers to the farmers is very low as
compared to the chemical fertilizers. Maintenance of R&D quality should be the
responsibility of the government, while the private players should take over the production
part of the system. The distribution outlets of the seed and fertilizer companies can be used
for bio-fertilizers as well. Fragmentation of technology into a form of a 3-tier technology:
highly technical, semi technical and least technical are some of mechanisms suggested for its
successful dissemination and adoption. For example, the mass multiplication of microbes can
be taken up by the unemployed youth, with more specialized processes performed by
technical units, the mother culture supply and the final testing being taken care of by the
ICAR, while the farmers can themselves be engaged in distribution and collection of
feedbacks. Formulation of such a policy has already been in place, which envisages the
mother culture supply and final quality check to rest with the ICAR, with production being
taken care of by big corporate. ICAR system is ready to take the responsibility for the whole
country for mother culture supply and the final testing of products, while the rest of the
components can be handed over to the corporate and farmer groups (Based on “Workshop on
Enabling Poverty relevant Bio-fertilizers innovation systems in India, 30th
July, 2010)ix
.
Bio-fertilizer innovation systems have not been able to generate innovations since their
relevance to poverty is limited. Pro-poor innovations will not come through charity but from
the ability of the poor to organize themselves. The focus should be on how poor can
themselves manage their own innovations. Bio-fertilizers will be pro-poor only if it is a part
of the set of solutions and understands the dynamics of the processes that constitute the small
farming systems.
Acknowledgement
This paper is based on a research study funded in 2009 under the programme, “Enabling bio-innovation for Poverty Alleviation in Asia”, which is a competitive research grants awarding program supported by IDRC-CRDI Asia Regional Office, (Singapore) in partnership with Asian Institute of Technology (Bangkok, Thailand-www.bioinnovationpolicies.ait.asia).
ENDNOTES
i Though produced and referred to as “Bio-fertilizers” for common usage, scientists prefer to use the term
“micobial inoculants” ii The Fertilizer Association of India (FAI) periodically presents information compiled on capacity
and distribution of bio-fertilizers by various units. In the absence of reported information on farm
level use of the inputs, this can help in understanding the progress of the technology and its
adoption in India.
iiiIndian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)is one the pioneering institutes of the ICAR to work on bio-
fertilizers. As one of its major activities, the division was involved in research, which focused on BNF,
molecular biology of Rhizobia, cyanobacteria and other agriculturally important micro-organisms. The
department was also involved in human resource development as it organized various training programmes on
techniques in Microbiology and bio-fertilizers production. Major research achievements included: a lead in the
commercial production of Soybean inoculants which encouraged the Government of India to stop import of
soybean inoculants from USA. The preparation of quality control parameters for peat based Rhizobium and
Azotobacter inoculants have been standardized for the first time in India and division is guiding Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) for evolving quality control standards for various bacterial inoculants. The PL-480
scheme on Survey and Isolation of root nodule bacteria in Indian soils has provided data on the occurrence and
distribution of native efficient strains of Rhizobium for important leguminous crops. Accordingly, Rhizobium
maps have been prepared for different legumes as a ready reference. They were also involved in the
development of production protocols for mass production of various bio-fertilizers (Subba Rao, 2005). iv To attain production targets, the Government of India implemented a central sector scheme called National
Project on Development and use of Biofertilizers (NPDB) during the Ninth Plan for the production, distribution
and promotion of biofertilizers. A National Biofertilizer Development Centre was established at Ghaziabad as a
subordinate office of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation with six regional centers. The purpose of
the scheme covered organization of training courses for extension workers and field demonstrations and
providing quality control services. Production and distribution of different bio-fertilizers were also undertaken
but subsequently discontinued as the centers redefined their role towards R&D and HRD related activities.
Capacity creation and production was however encouraged through one time grant for new units. The financial
assistance, given as grant-in-aid to the tune of Rs 13 lakh and now increased to Rs.20 lakh per unit and thrown
open for all, was routed through the State governments but owing to delays in release of grants the onus is
transferred to NABARD/NCDC. v DAC launched a central scheme during 1991-92, a centrally sponsored scheme, entitled ‘Balanced and
Integrated Use of biofertilizers’. The main objective of the scheme was to promote Integrated Nutrient
Management(INM) to disseminate information on the balanced and judicious use of chemical fertilizers
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) with secondary nutrients (Sulphur, Calcium, Magnesium) and micro
nutrients in conjunction with organic sources of nutrients like green manures, organic manures, vermin
composting etc, and bio-fertilizers based on scientific soil test. The scheme continued during subsequent plan
periods and was subsumed under the Macro Management of Agriculture (MMA) Scheme in 2000. The recently
constituted task force on balance use of fertilizers in the DAC has recommended strengthening and revamping
of soil testing facilities, encouraging production, promotion and production of organic manures and bio-
fertilizers.
viDBT has been funding programmes for rural areas under the domain of Societal Development. Technologies
have been developed for mass production of Rhizobium strains specific for chickpea, rajmash, moongbean and
soybean in fermentors upto 1000 lt. Solid state fermentation has been used for the production of Rhizobial
biofertilisers using exfoliated vermiculite as carrier material. New Initiatives under the Xth Plan: A new network
programme associating 11 centres was launched by the DBT for the development of transgenic bio-fertilizers
with better nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilising ability. In addition efforts are being made to generate
some more projects on the following aspects:
Generating applied and adoptive research programme for the development of bio-fertiliser based
nutrient management practices of high value plantation crops, spices, medicinal and aromatic plants,
protected cultivation and organic farming of high value horticultural crops etc.
Entrepreneurship development among public and private sector institutions, organizations etc. for small
scale production and delivery of biofertilizer inoculants with attention to quality control, farmers’
advisory and adoption (preferably in linkage with state agricultural and other universities, scientific
institutions etc.).
vii
The Science for Equity Empowerment and Development (SEED) division of the DST have been funding
projects on BIOFARM and BFs under different initiatives such as Science and Technological Application for
Rural Development (STARD), Science and Technology (S&T) for Women, Technological Intervention for
assessing Societal Needs (TIASN+SYSP), Special Component Plan (SCP) for the SCs and the Tribal Sub Plan
(TSP) for STs. DST is also co-ordinating a programme on ‘Biological Integration of Farming Activities &
Resource Management’ (BIOFARM). It has been initiated at 15 locations involving science and technology
based field groups from different agro-climatic regions. This program will endeavour to develop a set of
packages/models for small farms which can be used to ameliorate not only the productivity in respective agro-
ecosystems but would also improve the nutritional and livelihood status of the farm households. All India
coordinated Programme on Bio-integrated Farming (Bio Farm). viii
A total of 158 training days were provided to the members, learning by doing after establishing the unit
whole stabilizing in the production process was on: group account management training to leaders and need
based training on the problems encountered during the production.
References
Alok Adholeya and Deepak Pant (2007) Biofertilizers: Are they going to stay? In Biotech
News, 1(1): 3-5. Newsletter of Department of Biotechnology, Government of India
Bhattacharya, P. and Dwivedi., 2004. Proceedings of National Conference on Quality Control
of Bio-fertilizers. New Delhi: National Bio-fertilizer Development Centre.
Chopra Kanchan (1989) ‘Land degradation: Dimensions and Casualities’ Indian Journal of
Agricultural Economics, Vol. 44 (1): 45-54.
Conway Gordon R. and Edward B. Barbier (1990) After the Green revolution: Sustainable
Agriculture for Development, Earthscan publications Ltd., London, p.205.
Gosh, Nilabja (2004) Promoting Bio-fertilzers in India Agriculture, Paper is based on a
research project conducted at IEG for Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Institute
of Economic Growth, Delhi, India.
Hall A., Mytelka L. and Oyeyinka B. 2006. “Concepts and guidelines for the diagnostic assessments
of agricultural innovation capacity”, Working paper Series #2006-017, United Nations University-
Maastricht Economic and social Research and training Centre on Innovation and Technology, Keizer
Karelplein 19, 6211 TC Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Hall, Andy, Willem Janssen, Eija Pehu & Riikka Rajalahti. 2006. “Enhancing Agricultural
Innovation: How to Go Beyond the Strengthening of Research Systems, Economic and Sector
Working paper, Agriculture and Rural Development Department, Washington: World Bank.
NCOF, 2006 National Centre for Organic Farming (NCOF), Annual Report, 200-07,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. New Delhi.
NCOF, 2009, National Centre for Organic Farming (NCOF), Annual Report, 2008-09,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. New Delhi.
Rajput, A.K., Tyagi, M.K., and Ravindranath, P., 2000. Should an act be required for quality
control of biofertilizers? Journal, V(I), p.
Rao, D. L. N., 2007. Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Biofertilizers: Status and Prospects. In
Y. P. Abrol, N. raghuram, and M.S. Sachdev, eds. Agricultural Nitrogen Use & its
Environmental Implications, New Delhi: I. K. Publishing House Private Limited. p. 395-414.
Rao, D.L.N. ed., 2001. BNF Research Progress (1996-2000). Bhopal: All India Coordinated
Research project on Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Indian Institute of Soil Sciences (IISS).
Rao, D.L.N., 2008. Biofertilizer Research Progress (2004-2007), All India Network Project
on Biofertilizers, Indian Institute of Soil Sciences (IISS), Bhopal, p.105
Rao, D.L.N., and Sharma, P.D., 2009. Bio-fertilizers in Indian Agriculture. In S. P. Sharma,
et. al, eds. Policy Issues on Balanced and Integrated Nutrient. Palampur: CSK HP
Agricultural University. p. 47-54.
Rao, D.L.N., and Sharma, P.D., 2009. Bio-fertilizers in Indian Agriculture. In S. P. Sharma,
et. al, eds. Policy Issues on Balanced and Integrated Nutrient. Palampur: CSK HP
Agricultural University. p. 47-54.
Rao, D.L.N., Natarajan, T., Raut, R.S., and Rawat, A.K., 2004. Rhizobium Incolution of
Leguminous Oilseeds-Results of On-Farm and Farmers’ Field Demonstrations in the ICAR
Coordinated Project on BNF. In R. Serraj, ed. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. New Delhi:
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Ch.19, p.301-309.
Serraj, R. ed., 2004. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. USA: Science Publishers
Shah Amita, 2006, Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: Challenges and policy issues,
Working Paper- 277, Institute of Economic Growth, University Enclave, Delhi.
Sharma, Arun K. (2005) The potential for Organic Farming in the Drylands of India, Arid
land Newsletter, vol. 58.
Subba Rao, N.S.S., 2005. “The History of Microbiology at the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute” in: B.D. Kaushik, (Eds.): Advances in Microbiology at IARI 1961-1974. New
Delhi: Indian Agricultural Research Institute pp.1-6.
Tewatia, R. K., 2003. Status of Biofertilizers in India. Fertilizer marketing News, 34 (5), p.1-
7.
Tewatia, R.K., Kalwe, S.P., and Chaudhary, R.S., 2007. Role of Biofertilizers in Indian
Agriculture. Indian Journal of Fertilizers, V(I), p. 111-118.
Venkataraman, G. S., and Tilak, K.V.B.R., 1990. Biofertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture. In
V. Kumar, G. C. Shrotriya, and S.V. Kaore, eds. Soil Fertilty and Fertilizer Use – Vol IV.
New Delhi: PR Department, Marketing Division, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative
Limited (IFFCO).
Wani S P, Rupela O P and Lee, KK, 1995. Sustainable agriculture in the semi-arid tropics
through biological nitrogen fixation in grain legumes, Plant and Soil 174:129-49.
Yadav, A.K., Raychaudhary, S., 2004. Biofertlizers as Agro-inputs-Past, Present and Future
Perspectives. In A.K. Yadav, S. R. Chaudhary, and N. C. Talukdar, eds. Biotechnology in
Sustainable and Organic Farming-Scope and Potential. New Delhi: Shree Publishers and
Distributors. Chp. 1, p.1-17.
Mishra Srijit and Gopikrishna SR.2008. Nutrient Based Subidy (NBS) & Support Systems
for Ecological fertilization in Indian Agriculture, Policy Brief, Greenpeace, India.
Greenpeace 2009. Report on Public Consultations on Fertilizer Subsidy Reforms.
Sonne Lina, 2010. Pro-poor, Entrepreneur-Based Innovation and its Role in Rural
Development, UNU-MERIT, Working paper series No: 2010-037.
Biggs Stephen, 2008, Learning from the positive to reduce rural poverty and increase social
Justice: Institutional innovations in agricultural and Natural Resources Research and
Development, Experimental Agriculture.