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Empowerment Strategies: Empowerment Strategies: Theory and ActionTheory and Action
By By Douglas D. PerkinsDouglas D. Perkins,,
Program in Community Research & ActionProgram in Community Research & ActionDept. of Human & Organizational DevelopmentDept. of Human & Organizational Development
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, USAPeabody College, Vanderbilt University, USAhttp://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/hod/http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/hod/
[email protected]@vanderbilt.edu
Four Dimensions of Individual-Four Dimensions of Individual-level Social Capital (from Perkins level Social Capital (from Perkins
& Long, 2002)& Long, 2002)
Cognition/Trust Social Behavior
Informal
Sense of
community
Neighboring
Formally
Organized
Collective efficacy
Citizen
participation
Collective efficacyCollective efficacy (or (or empowermentempowerment; formal-; formal-
cognition cell of Figure 1)cognition cell of Figure 1) “ “trust” in the effectiveness of organized trust” in the effectiveness of organized
community actioncommunity action an extremely influential concept in an extremely influential concept in
community psychology & beyond community psychology & beyond represents a new approach to social capital represents a new approach to social capital
by focusing on the cognitive attributions & by focusing on the cognitive attributions & motivations that lead community members to motivations that lead community members to engage professionals as collaborators rather engage professionals as collaborators rather than as authoritative experts.than as authoritative experts.
Empowerment defined:Empowerment defined:
Must mean more than the Must mean more than the individualindividual psychological psychological constructs with which it is sometimes compared or constructs with which it is sometimes compared or confused (e.g., self‑esteem, self‑efficacy, competency, confused (e.g., self‑esteem, self‑efficacy, competency, locus of control)locus of control)
"an intentional ongoing process centered in the local "an intentional ongoing process centered in the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring, and group participation, through which people caring, and group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of valued resources gain greater lacking an equal share of valued resources gain greater access to and control over those resources" (Cornell access to and control over those resources" (Cornell Empowerment Group, 1989)Empowerment Group, 1989)
or simply a process by which people gain control over or simply a process by which people gain control over their lives, democratic participation in the life of their their lives, democratic participation in the life of their community (Rappaport, 1987), and a critical community (Rappaport, 1987), and a critical understanding of their environment (Zimmerman, 1992).understanding of their environment (Zimmerman, 1992).
I.E., it is at core a I.E., it is at core a collectivecollective construct construct
Empowerment levels, Empowerment levels, processes & outcomes processes & outcomes (based on (based on
Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995)Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995) Levels:Levels: Processes:Processes: Outcomes:Outcomes:
communitycommunity collective action to collective action to access resourcesaccess resources
pluralism, pluralism, coalitions, coalitions, community community resourcesresources
organizationorganizationcollective decision-collective decision-making, shared making, shared leadershipleadership
organizational organizational development, development, networks, policy networks, policy leverageleverage
individualindividualparticipation in participation in community community organizationsorganizations
perceived control, perceived control, resource resource mobilization skillsmobilization skills
Characteristics of Characteristics of Empowering Settings Empowering Settings (based on (based on
Maton & Salem, 1995)Maton & Salem, 1995)Resource Cultivation:Resource Cultivation: Activating of personal resourcesActivating of personal resources Opportunity role structure, participatory nichesOpportunity role structure, participatory niches Increasing benefits, reducing costs of member participationIncreasing benefits, reducing costs of member participation MentoringMentoringBelief System:Belief System: Group-based belief system, transcending self-concernGroup-based belief system, transcending self-concern Focus on strengths of membersFocus on strengths of members Fostering of critical awareness among membersFostering of critical awareness among membersGroup Climate:Group Climate: Shared events, celebrationsShared events, celebrations Inspiring leadershipInspiring leadership Peer-based social support systemsPeer-based social support systems Appreciating interdependenciesAppreciating interdependencies Boundary spanningBoundary spanning Appreciating and managing conflictAppreciating and managing conflictTask Functioning:Task Functioning: Inclusive efforts to define community issues, resourcesInclusive efforts to define community issues, resources Structured, clear goals & tasksStructured, clear goals & tasks Inclusive, democratic decentralized decision-makingInclusive, democratic decentralized decision-making Shared leadershipShared leadership Subgroups for specific tasks or sectors of communitySubgroups for specific tasks or sectors of community
Organizations studied for Organizations studied for their empowering ways their empowering ways (from (from
Perkins, D.D. (1995).Perkins, D.D. (1995).Speaking truth to power: Empowerment ideology as social Speaking truth to power: Empowerment ideology as social
intervention and policy. intervention and policy. AJCP, 23AJCP, 23, 765-794):, 765-794): self-help groups, educational programs self-help groups, educational programs religious congregations other faith-based community religious congregations other faith-based community
action, service, & advocacy organizationsaction, service, & advocacy organizations substance abuse prevention & health promotion substance abuse prevention & health promotion
coalitionscoalitions environmental organizations environmental organizations large companies large companies community development organizations community development organizations school-based associationsschool-based associations citizen advisory boards of government agenciescitizen advisory boards of government agencies youth sports & recreation groupsyouth sports & recreation groups community crime prevention groupscommunity crime prevention groups resident associations & many other contextsresident associations & many other contexts
10 recommendations to policy-makers, 10 recommendations to policy-makers, program planners & empowerment program planners & empowerment
researchersresearchers (Perkins, 1995) : (Perkins, 1995) :
1. Greater attention should be paid to 1. Greater attention should be paid to different different levels of empowermentlevels of empowerment... look ... look beyond individualistic conceptions... to beyond individualistic conceptions... to collectivecollective conceptions... that are conceptions... that are commensurate with solving group, commensurate with solving group, organizational & community problems.organizational & community problems.
2. 2. Smaller is better.Smaller is better. Beyond the community Beyond the community & organizational level... higher levels of & organizational level... higher levels of policy-making...result in progressively policy-making...result in progressively more ambiguous conceptions of more ambiguous conceptions of empowerment & diminishing returns... empowerment & diminishing returns... local grassroots efforts may work best.local grassroots efforts may work best.
3. The paradox implied in 1 & 2 illustrates a 3. The paradox implied in 1 & 2 illustrates a dialectic of dialectic of empowermentempowerment. Other possible dialectics include (a) . Other possible dialectics include (a) emphasizing both personal & collective (and, for some, emphasizing both personal & collective (and, for some, spiritual) control, (b) the paradoxical requirements of spiritual) control, (b) the paradoxical requirements of leadership, order, & organization in helping others to leadership, order, & organization in helping others to help themselves, (c) people's needs for both individual help themselves, (c) people's needs for both individual & community identity & (d) for both change & stability & community identity & (d) for both change & stability (Brown & Perkins, 1992), (e) the personal & (Brown & Perkins, 1992), (e) the personal & organizational benefits of empowerment along with its organizational benefits of empowerment along with its risks & challenges, (f) a political orientation of both risks & challenges, (f) a political orientation of both populism & progressivism, & (g) an approach to theory populism & progressivism, & (g) an approach to theory & research that allows for both deductive & inductive & research that allows for both deductive & inductive logic & both specific & general info... pay more logic & both specific & general info... pay more specificspecific attention to what models of empowerment work with attention to what models of empowerment work with what what populationspopulations in what in what settingssettings & why. & why.
4. The relationship between empowerment cognitions, 4. The relationship between empowerment cognitions, person-env. transactions, & behaviors must be person-env. transactions, & behaviors must be explored... In particular, because many vague explored... In particular, because many vague descriptions of "empowering thought patterns," descriptions of "empowering thought patterns," emotions & other intrapsychic constructions have emotions & other intrapsychic constructions have clouded the... concept, greater emphasis on clouded the... concept, greater emphasis on empowering empowering behaviorsbehaviors-- such as citizen participation in -- such as citizen participation in the community, workplace, & government-- is needed.the community, workplace, & government-- is needed.
5. Researchers need to become more familiar with 5. Researchers need to become more familiar with the policy-making process... & more comfortable the policy-making process... & more comfortable disseminating & directly applying their research, disseminating & directly applying their research, not just in a particular organization, but by not just in a particular organization, but by working with executive, legislative, & judicial working with executive, legislative, & judicial bodies & advocacy organizations at bodies & advocacy organizations at allall levels, levels, from local to federal & international agencies.from local to federal & international agencies.
6. Follow Coleman's 5 steps to planning effective 6. Follow Coleman's 5 steps to planning effective policy research: "1) identify the parties in policy policy research: "1) identify the parties in policy outcomes & with some power... to affect policy; 2) outcomes & with some power... to affect policy; 2) determine interests of these parties; 3) find what determine interests of these parties; 3) find what kinds of information are relevant to their kinds of information are relevant to their interests; 4) determine the best way to obtain this interests; 4) determine the best way to obtain this information; 5) determine how to report the information; 5) determine how to report the results."results."
7. Policy researchers must become more 7. Policy researchers must become more proactiveproactive, , not only in the planning & evaluation stages, but not only in the planning & evaluation stages, but throughout the processthroughout the process, from agenda formation & , from agenda formation & policy adoption to policy implementation & policy adoption to policy implementation & review.review.
8. Researchers should play the role more of 8. Researchers should play the role more of learner/collaboratorlearner/collaborator than "scientist". ...graduate than "scientist". ...graduate programs in community psychology & related disciplines programs in community psychology & related disciplines should do a better job of training for such a role.should do a better job of training for such a role.
9. Learn to disseminate more 9. Learn to disseminate more practical informationpractical information & to & to deliver it in (more user-friendly) ways... cultivate deliver it in (more user-friendly) ways... cultivate information channels within the policy-making information channels within the policy-making bureaucracy. may include choosing multiple target bureaucracy. may include choosing multiple target audiences (e.g., legislators, voters, other interest audiences (e.g., legislators, voters, other interest groups), understanding each one's unique orientation, & groups), understanding each one's unique orientation, & tailoring the focus & style of presentation accordingly. tailoring the focus & style of presentation accordingly. It requires the ability to present complicated theories & It requires the ability to present complicated theories & data concisely, in plain but accurate terms (i.e., without data concisely, in plain but accurate terms (i.e., without overgeneralizing or overstating the case)...overgeneralizing or overstating the case)...
10. Both theory & research would be more practical if 10. Both theory & research would be more practical if more psychologists carefully examined & tried to more psychologists carefully examined & tried to understand the understand the qualitativequalitative knowledge about real-world knowledge about real-world empowerment processes that practitioners bring...The empowerment processes that practitioners bring...The clearest definitions & descriptions of empowerment may clearest definitions & descriptions of empowerment may come more from voices on the front lines of movements come more from voices on the front lines of movements for social change than from the policy or even research for social change than from the policy or even research literatures... literatures...
Social Capital at the Social Capital at the Organizational Level: The Organizational Level: The “Learning Organization”“Learning Organization”
A “learning organization” helps staff & A “learning organization” helps staff & volunteers engage in critical analysis of:volunteers engage in critical analysis of: (a) the organization’s (a) the organization’s demonstrateddemonstrated goals & values goals & values
(not just its mission statement),(not just its mission statement), (b) power relationships in decision-making (b) power relationships in decision-making
practices,practices, (c) the interdependent role of participant (c) the interdependent role of participant
stakeholders & organizations as part of a complex, stakeholders & organizations as part of a complex, community-wide (or larger) system, & community-wide (or larger) system, &
(d) how to work toward fundamental change of all (d) how to work toward fundamental change of all the above. the above.
Organizational learning only Organizational learning only happens with opportunities for happens with opportunities for critical reflectioncritical reflection, , collaborationcollaboration, ,
& & effective communication.effective communication. The lit. suggests that “learning organizations:”The lit. suggests that “learning organizations:”
include all affected staff and clients in program include all affected staff and clients in program planning, which will enhance individual learning & planning, which will enhance individual learning & development, & organization effectiveness.development, & organization effectiveness.
facilitate critical reflection, open communication, & facilitate critical reflection, open communication, & team learning.team learning.
focus on focus on bothboth an organization’s development & its an organization’s development & its managers’ & staff’s professional developmentmanagers’ & staff’s professional development
AND (we add):AND (we add): facilitate participants’ development, not only as facilitate participants’ development, not only as
workers (e.g., skills), but also as citizens workers (e.g., skills), but also as citizens (empowerment & participation)(empowerment & participation)
encourage participants to respect differences, value encourage participants to respect differences, value justice, fairness, & community, take active roles in justice, fairness, & community, take active roles in society society
Learning Organizations & Learning Organizations & Social CapitalSocial Capital
Learning & other psychological bases of social Learning & other psychological bases of social capital largely untestedcapital largely untested
““Learning organization” processes & outcomes Learning organization” processes & outcomes in small non-profit & voluntary organizations & in small non-profit & voluntary organizations & communities not well established or studied as communities not well established or studied as they have been in larger for-profit corporationsthey have been in larger for-profit corporations
Values, norms, beliefs, & aspirations of civic Values, norms, beliefs, & aspirations of civic responsibility are learned through child responsibility are learned through child socialization & adult learning in communitiessocialization & adult learning in communities
Learning communities linked to social capital in Learning communities linked to social capital in educational reform & community developmenteducational reform & community development
Individual Learning or Development
Organizational Learning
Community Change
Orders of Change & Levels
1st Order
Incr
em
en
tal
2nd Order
Sys
tem
s
Organization/CivicRole/Task
1st-order 1st-order changechange: effects : effects just part of just part of system vs. system vs.
2nd-order 2nd-order changechange: : systems-level systems-level change in the change in the basic goals, basic goals, structure or structure or processes of processes of the org.the org.
““Learning Communities & Learning Learning Communities & Learning Organizations” Pilot Study (Center for Organizations” Pilot Study (Center for
Community Studies, Vanderbilt Community Studies, Vanderbilt University)University)
focuses on structures, processes, & cultures in focuses on structures, processes, & cultures in community and nonprofit organizations that community and nonprofit organizations that promote individual, team, & organizational promote individual, team, & organizational learninglearning
how community organizations create learning how community organizations create learning opportunities & empowering settings opportunities & empowering settings
Organizational learning practices positively Organizational learning practices positively affect group & organizational communication, affect group & organizational communication, culture, job satisfaction, & performance culture, job satisfaction, & performance
Dewey: democracy depends on the creation of Dewey: democracy depends on the creation of a “civil society” by the education & a “civil society” by the education & participation of its citizens participation of its citizens
Decision-Making Practices, Decision-Making Practices, Participation, and Learning in Participation, and Learning in
Non-Profit OrganizationsNon-Profit Organizations
Kimberly Bess, Douglas Perkins, Dan Cooper, Diana JonesKimberly Bess, Douglas Perkins, Dan Cooper, Diana JonesOrganizational Change Work Group, Organizational Change Work Group,
Center for Community StudiesCenter for Community StudiesPeabody College of Vanderbilt UniversityPeabody College of Vanderbilt University
Prepared for:Prepared for:
**Research funded by Learning Sciences Institute, Vanderbilt University [email protected] http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/hod/cra.htm"
Prepared for the10th Biennial Conference for the Society for Community Research & Action
University of Illinois Urbana Champaign
Presentation FocusPresentation Focus
Study BackgroundStudy Background Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework Working ModelWorking Model Research MethodsResearch Methods Case Study ComparisonsCase Study Comparisons Lessons, Limitations & Future Lessons, Limitations & Future
DirectionsDirections
Study BackgroundStudy Background Part of a larger two-year exploratory project Part of a larger two-year exploratory project using mixed
methods to study community organizations as contexts for multi-level learning
Phase 1: Compilation, from multiple sources, of a comprehensive database of all 2,361 community-based, nonprofit human service, volunteer, and member organizations throughout mid-size southern city.
Phase 2: Brief telephone survey of 270 organizations, measuring such organizational characteristics as staff/membership size, use of volunteers, the nature and extent of their activity, organizational type and goals
Phase 3: Case studies of 16 oPhase 3: Case studies of 16 organizations, stratified by organizational type, were selected for in-depth qualitative case studies.
Current examination of decision making will focus on data Current examination of decision making will focus on data from 2 grassroots neighborhood-based community from 2 grassroots neighborhood-based community organizations from qualitative studyorganizations from qualitative study
Exploratory Research Exploratory Research QuestionsQuestions
What is the relationship between What is the relationship between participation, decision making, and participation, decision making, and individual & organizational learning & individual & organizational learning & empowerment? empowerment?
What is the nature of external influences What is the nature of external influences on how decisions are made in community-on how decisions are made in community-based non-profits?based non-profits?
What is the impact of organizational What is the impact of organizational learning and of how decisions are made on learning and of how decisions are made on the organization’s capacity to fulfill their the organization’s capacity to fulfill their community change goals? community change goals?
Theoretical Framework: Theoretical Framework: Participation ->Decision-Making -> Goals Attainment & Participation ->Decision-Making -> Goals Attainment &
LearningLearning
Organizational Learning TheoryOrganizational Learning Theory Senge (1994)Senge (1994) Marsick & Watkins (1993, 2000)Marsick & Watkins (1993, 2000)
Organizational Empowerment TheoryOrganizational Empowerment Theory Peterson & Zimmerman (2004)Peterson & Zimmerman (2004) Mathews, Diaz, & Cole (2003)Mathews, Diaz, & Cole (2003) Riger (1984)Riger (1984)
Theoretical Framework: Learning Organization Characteristics, Practices, and Foci (based on Marsick, 2000)
Learning Organization Characteristics
Learning Organization Core Practices (Watkins &
Marsick, 1993)
Foci for enhancing organizational
learning
Systems thinking capacity
Providing strategic leadership for learning
Critical reflection: “provide people and
systems with the ability to enhance
what is an otherwise tacit, experiential learning process”
Connecting the organization to its environment
Continuous learning at the systems level
Creating continuous learning opportunities
Greater participation and accountability by a larger percentage of employees
Encouraging collaboration and team learning
Collaboration: “can provide avenues for
building joint knowledge”
Empowering people toward a collective vision
Culture and structure of rapid communication and
learning
Promoting inquiry and dialogue
Communication: “provides for
feedback loops across the system”Knowledge generation and
sharingCreating systems to capture
and share learning
Forces driving decision-making process:•Crisis•Maintenance•Growth
Impact of decision-making practices on:•individual learning•organizational learning•Employee/volunteer morale•Employee/volunteer ownership•accountability for outcomes
Community Level Change
Individual Level Change
Impact/ Outcome
External environment factors that influence the decision-making process:•Funding organization demands •Resource environment•Umbrella organization relationship•Community Needs/Issues
External Influences on Organizational Decision-Making in Non-Profit Settings
Stated Mission
and Goals
Mediating Factors
Decision-Making Processes and Structures :•Process for getting input from members to inform decisions•Process for building alignment across different levels and work groups•Structures for communicating decisions across the organization
Internal Organizational Decision-Making Practices Based on Learning Organization
TheoryCulture of decision making:•Members invited to contribute to the organization’s vision•Members are viewed as resources for decision making •Client’s/community’s views brought into the decision making process•Members given responsibility for decisions related to work
Working Model of Organizational Decision Making
Qualitative MethodsQualitative Methods Triangulation of Methods: Participant Triangulation of Methods: Participant
Observation, Interviews, Public DocumentsObservation, Interviews, Public Documents Triangulation of Sources: Semi-structured Triangulation of Sources: Semi-structured
Interviews with staff, leaders, volunteers, & Interviews with staff, leaders, volunteers, & board membersboard members
Interview data content analyzed using Interview data content analyzed using NVIVO by 2 ratersNVIVO by 2 raters
Content categories based on a framework developed by Peterson and Zimmerman (2004) of intra-, inter-, and extra-organizational themes.
Decision Making in Grassroots Decision Making in Grassroots Community OrganizationsCommunity Organizations
Radcliff Community Org. Community-based HSO Community-based HSO
serving defined geographic serving defined geographic areaarea
20 years old20 years old Serves rapidly changing, Serves rapidly changing,
working-class, most working-class, most ethnically diverse area of ethnically diverse area of citycity
Multi-level change mission: Multi-level change mission: individuals, families, individuals, families, communitycommunity
Programs incl. ESL, Programs incl. ESL, housing & job housing & job assistance/development, assistance/development, youth/mentoring, youth/mentoring, WIC/food, clinic, literacy, WIC/food, clinic, literacy, immigrant svcs.immigrant svcs.
United NeighborsUnited Neighbors Neighborhood-based, Neighborhood-based,
community decides issues community decides issues to focus onto focus on
Started by organizing Started by organizing around urban renewal in around urban renewal in ’60’s’60’s
Currently focuses on Currently focuses on housing and development, housing and development, education, crimeeducation, crime
Community level change Community level change focusfocus
External Influences on External Influences on Organizational Decision MakingOrganizational Decision Making
Radcliff Community Org. Crisis & MaintenanceCrisis & Maintenance
Financial Crisis: from Financial Crisis: from $50K to $1.5M budget in $50K to $1.5M budget in 4 years; accounting 4 years; accounting expertise did not keep expertise did not keep up, causing a problem w/ up, causing a problem w/ biggest funderbiggest funder
# & variety of programs # & variety of programs expanded rapidlyexpanded rapidly
Funding Organization Funding Organization DemandsDemands Funding more indiv. svcs.Funding more indiv. svcs.
Vanderbilt U. volunteers Vanderbilt U. volunteers also more svc.-orientedalso more svc.-oriented
Diverse community needs & Diverse community needs & constituenciesconstituencies
United NeighborsUnited Neighbors Crisis & MaintenanceCrisis & Maintenance
Ongoing Struggle with Ongoing Struggle with fundingfunding
Maintaining participation Maintaining participation from members and partnersfrom members and partners
Neighborhood problemsNeighborhood problems Community Needs/IssuesCommunity Needs/Issues
Development pressures; Development pressures; affordable housingaffordable housing
CrimeCrime Lack of amenitiesLack of amenities
Organizational Decision-Making Organizational Decision-Making Structure, Practices, CultureStructure, Practices, Culture
Radcliff Community Org. Mix of top-down management Mix of top-down management
& participatory& participatory 3 or 4 paid senior staff 3 or 4 paid senior staff
(incl. strong Ex. Dir.) make (incl. strong Ex. Dir.) make most decisionsmost decisions
Others w/ some input: Others w/ some input: volunteers/participants volunteers/participants used as collaborators & used as collaborators & source of expert source of expert knowledgeknowledge
board members (mostly board members (mostly residents from residents from neighborhood)neighborhood)
volunteer staff (many who volunteer staff (many who live outside of the live outside of the neighborhood)neighborhood)
other outside other outside organizations (funders, organizations (funders, university)university)
persons served by persons served by programsprograms
United NeighborsUnited Neighbors Bottom-Up: Neighborhood Bottom-Up: Neighborhood
resident input informs decision of resident input informs decision of what issues to focus on.what issues to focus on.
Residents volunteer to serve on Residents volunteer to serve on issue related committees; gather issue related committees; gather research.research.
Top-Down: Board decides action Top-Down: Board decides action steps and strategies without steps and strategies without much resident (volunteer) inputmuch resident (volunteer) input
Formal structure for soliciting Formal structure for soliciting resident participation and input resident participation and input in org. decision making; however, in org. decision making; however, not continuous across all levels of not continuous across all levels of org. decision makingorg. decision making
Outcomes & Impact of Decision Outcomes & Impact of Decision Structures, Practices, CultureStructures, Practices, Culture
Radcliff Community Org. Good learning/human capital Good learning/human capital
development opportunities development opportunities w/in programsw/in programs
Some [limited] participatory Some [limited] participatory mgmt. opportunities for mgmt. opportunities for individual learning & individual learning & empowermentempowerment
But big decisions made at top, But big decisions made at top, thus hurting:thus hurting: role clarity for staff, bd., role clarity for staff, bd.,
volunteersvolunteers diversity of input on big diversity of input on big
decisionsdecisions fiscal planning & responsibilityfiscal planning & responsibility reputation of org. w/ funders, reputation of org. w/ funders,
some neighborhood residentssome neighborhood residents Gravitation toward individual Gravitation toward individual
services & away from services & away from grassroots community changegrassroots community change
United NeighborsUnited Neighbors Opportunities for individual Opportunities for individual
learning and empowerment learning and empowerment related to neighborhood / related to neighborhood / community level changecommunity level change
Top-down decision making in Top-down decision making in regards to actions/strategies regards to actions/strategies limits:limits: Potential to organize more Potential to organize more
residentsresidents Civic learning in residentsCivic learning in residents Potential Collective efficacyPotential Collective efficacy
Actions/Strategies tend to Actions/Strategies tend to focus on ameliorative focus on ameliorative community changecommunity change More inclusive participation More inclusive participation
and organizing could help and organizing could help generate more collective generate more collective power; transformative power; transformative changechange
Benefits and Challenges of Rapid Benefits and Challenges of Rapid GrowthGrowth
Radcliff Community Org.: ““What happened to us is we were a little What happened to us is we were a little
sleepy community organization up to about sleepy community organization up to about four years ago, and we went from a probably four years ago, and we went from a probably $50,000 budget to a $1.5 million budget $50,000 budget to a $1.5 million budget and…I mean we were all just doing and…I mean we were all just doing everything we could… [but] we didn’t do the everything we could… [but] we didn’t do the things we needed to do to grow effectively. things we needed to do to grow effectively. We just service people, which is probably We just service people, which is probably one of my worst traits… I didn’t back up to one of my worst traits… I didn’t back up to make sure everybody was on board…so I make sure everybody was on board…so I mean it was a great learning tool for me and mean it was a great learning tool for me and it was a great learning tool for my board and it was a great learning tool for my board and it was a great mending and direction setting it was a great mending and direction setting period for this organization. So it was a period for this organization. So it was a good thing.” good thing.” Executive DirectorExecutive Director
Lessons, Limitations, Future Lessons, Limitations, Future DirectionsDirections
Analysis of organizational decision-making Analysis of organizational decision-making provides insights into learning, power, and org. provides insights into learning, power, and org. developmentdevelopment
Org. learning largely ignored in nonprofit and Org. learning largely ignored in nonprofit and voluntary organizations but may be key to survival voluntary organizations but may be key to survival in funding environmentin funding environment
Great diversity of organizations (size, Great diversity of organizations (size, type/mission, budget, structure, culture, role of type/mission, budget, structure, culture, role of volunteers) requires mixed methods:volunteers) requires mixed methods: Large samples of orgs to capture diversity Large samples of orgs to capture diversity
(quantitatively)(quantitatively) In-depth case study analysis to capture subtle In-depth case study analysis to capture subtle
differences in culture/climate, leader style, differences in culture/climate, leader style, observed (as opposed to "official") practicesobserved (as opposed to "official") practices
New New SSPPEECCs s Action-Research ProjectAction-Research Project
Organizational Change Work GroupOrganizational Change Work GroupCenter for Community StudiesCenter for Community Studies
Vanderbilt UniversityVanderbilt University2005 SCRA Biennial Conference, Urbana2005 SCRA Biennial Conference, Urbana
Vanderbilt New SPECs Team (currently):Vanderbilt New SPECs Team (currently):Kimberly Bess, Leslie Collins, Patricia Conway, Scot Evans, Kimberly Bess, Leslie Collins, Patricia Conway, Scot Evans,
Diana McCown, Bob Newbrough, Doug Perkins, Isaac Diana McCown, Bob Newbrough, Doug Perkins, Isaac Prilleltensky (P.I.), Courte Voorhees + other student Prilleltensky (P.I.), Courte Voorhees + other student
volunteersvolunteers[for more info: [for more info: [email protected] [email protected]
http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/hod/ http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/hod/
NewSPECs is an action-research project, NewSPECs is an action-research project, in consultation & collaboration with in consultation & collaboration with
human service organizations & the local human service organizations & the local branch of a national funding agency, branch of a national funding agency,
whose aim is to create a new intervention whose aim is to create a new intervention paradigm that focuses…paradigm that focuses…
Less on:Less on: DeficitsDeficits Reactive Reactive
interventionintervention Expert decisionsExpert decisions Changing Changing
IndividualsIndividuals
And More on:And More on: SStrengthstrengths PPrimary rimary
PreventionPrevention EEmpowermentmpowerment CChanging hanging
CommunityCommunity ConditionsConditions
Principles of New SPECsPrinciples of New SPECs Ownership by workers and community membersOwnership by workers and community members Participation of workers and community membersParticipation of workers and community members Home grown solutionsHome grown solutions Practice and reflectionPractice and reflection Learning and taking risks togetherLearning and taking risks together
Goals of New SPECsGoals of New SPECs Develop policies & practices in line with SPECDevelop policies & practices in line with SPEC Institutionalize SPEC in the life of the organization & Institutionalize SPEC in the life of the organization &
communitycommunity Create new practical knowledge for the org. & research teamCreate new practical knowledge for the org. & research team
Challenges in New SPECsChallenges in New SPECs Process-outcomes tensions:Process-outcomes tensions:
Some uncomfortable w/ so much focus on process; want outcomesSome uncomfortable w/ so much focus on process; want outcomes Others jump to action for outcomes w/out a good processOthers jump to action for outcomes w/out a good process
Marriage, not “rug sale” [institutionalize SPEC in life of the Marriage, not “rug sale” [institutionalize SPEC in life of the orgs]orgs]
Ownership for sustainability; avoid “colonizing” client orgs.Ownership for sustainability; avoid “colonizing” client orgs. ““Power before program”Power before program”
OpportunitiesOpportunities Create in partnership a new model for health & human servicesCreate in partnership a new model for health & human services Help people who are currently suffering because the conditions Help people who are currently suffering because the conditions
are too overwhelming for them to overcome on their ownare too overwhelming for them to overcome on their own Educate health and human service providers across the city, Educate health and human service providers across the city,
U.S., and internationally on the benefits of a SPEC approachU.S., and internationally on the benefits of a SPEC approach
Our own team structure: part Our own team structure: part circle (circle (decision-making, decision-making,
reflection),reflection), part pyramid (tasks) part pyramid (tasks)Principal Investigator (Faculty)
Research Consultant/ Co-PI (Faculty)
Process Consultant (Emeritus Faculty)
Org. Consultant/Research Associates (PhD students)
Research Coordinator (M.Ed. student)
Research Assistants (M.Ed. students)
Research Interns (B.A. students)
Org. Intern (Med. student)
MethodsMethods
Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods SurveySurvey Focus groupsFocus groups InterviewsInterviews
Key staff membersKey staff members Snowball sampleSnowball sample
Observational field notesObservational field notes Archival DataArchival Data
Organizational records and documentsOrganizational records and documents
Our own team processes:Our own team processes: In add. to frequent mtgs. w/ partner In add. to frequent mtgs. w/ partner
orgs., meet as a team at least 2X weekly:orgs., meet as a team at least 2X weekly: Once for businessOnce for business Once for reflection & mutual supportOnce for reflection & mutual support
Also held overnight retreat for reflection Also held overnight retreat for reflection & team bldg.& team bldg.
Exploring “critical friend” role w/in team, Exploring “critical friend” role w/in team, which is also our hoped-for role w/ org. which is also our hoped-for role w/ org. partners as they take and shape the partners as they take and shape the changes for themselveschanges for themselves
Inter-team Relationships Inter-team Relationships (Meso-system)(Meso-system)
The The main issuemain issue is whether the main effect of the is whether the main effect of the Project in the community is the Project in the community is the colonization of colonization of the neighborhoodsthe neighborhoods. Status differential . Status differential conferred on the Project Team members. Takes conferred on the Project Team members. Takes the form of:the form of: More educationMore education Better spokenBetter spoken More social skillsMore social skills Has a plan based on theory, experience and ideologyHas a plan based on theory, experience and ideology Has resourcesHas resources Takes initiatives Takes initiatives Controls the agendaControls the agenda
This may be much more difficult than planned. This may be much more difficult than planned.
With-in Project Team (Micro-With-in Project Team (Micro-system) Issuessystem) Issues
The The main issuemain issue is whether the is whether the power is power is distributed internally distributed internally so that the team is so that the team is prepared and functions to carry out the Project prepared and functions to carry out the Project ((status, age/experience, degree/program, gender, status, age/experience, degree/program, gender, methodology/interests differencesmethodology/interests differences influenceinfluence roles, roles, opportunities, intervention approaches, & team opportunities, intervention approaches, & team processprocess).).
The The team cultureteam culture is one of is one of equality and open equality and open communicationcommunication, yet the press of business pulls , yet the press of business pulls time away from adequate communication and time away from adequate communication and learning. Have a consultant (JRN) to represent learning. Have a consultant (JRN) to represent these issues and a structure/procedure is evolving. these issues and a structure/procedure is evolving.
Key team power management Key team power management questions:questions:
How do we harness power in the team?How do we harness power in the team? Management style, lot’s of staff participation & Management style, lot’s of staff participation &
responsibilityresponsibility Who has the power and how do they use it?Who has the power and how do they use it?
Project Staff to T-Team, indirectly as much as possibleProject Staff to T-Team, indirectly as much as possible Internal to T-Team. There is a status differential conferred Internal to T-Team. There is a status differential conferred
by (experience, personality, location)by (experience, personality, location) When is it used and how does it become salient?When is it used and how does it become salient?
Implicit structure operates whenever there is a social Implicit structure operates whenever there is a social interaction. It can be observed in the speaking-up interaction. It can be observed in the speaking-up patterns in the meetings.patterns in the meetings.
Explicitly, directive power occurs when there is pressure Explicitly, directive power occurs when there is pressure to get something done.to get something done.
Organizational Survey Organizational Survey DemographicsDemographics
Organization Frequency Valid Percent Gender Valid Percent
n=125 n=123John Snow Foundation 32 26% Female 79%
MLK Center 28 22% Male 21%
Nazareth Center 20 16%
Healthy City 25 20%
Island Center 20 16%
Role in Organization Frequency Valid Percent Education Level Frequency Valid Percent
n=122 n=121Direct service
staff 31 25%GED or High
school 21 17%
Support staff 32 26%Associate Degree 11 9%
Manager of support staff 6 5%
Bachelors Degree 51 42%
Operations manager 4 3% Master's Degree 33 27%
Manager of direct service program 25 21% Doctorate 3 3%
Upper management 24 20% Other 2 2%
Average Age = 62 yrs (n=125)Average Years of Org Employment = 7.5 (n=125, SD=4.96, Range=19.75)
SPEC Work & Support MeasuresSPEC Work & Support Measures EmpowermentEmpowerment
1a. Regardless of why this may be the case; to what extent does your work 1a. Regardless of why this may be the case; to what extent does your work give co-workers voice and choice in decision-making processes at the give co-workers voice and choice in decision-making processes at the organization? organization?
1b. I feel I have enough opportunities in my job to give co-workers voice and 1b. I feel I have enough opportunities in my job to give co-workers voice and choice. choice.
1c. I feel I have adequate time to give co-workers voice and choice. 1c. I feel I have adequate time to give co-workers voice and choice. 1d. I feel I have adequate preparation and skills to give co-workers voice and 1d. I feel I have adequate preparation and skills to give co-workers voice and
choice. choice. 1e. I have adequate organizational support to give co-workers voice and 1e. I have adequate organizational support to give co-workers voice and
choice. choice. [1f-i: same items asked re empowering clients and community members][1f-i: same items asked re empowering clients and community members]
Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions What percentage of work time do you engage in changing community What percentage of work time do you engage in changing community
conditions such as pollution, access to health care, lack of transportation, conditions such as pollution, access to health care, lack of transportation, affordable day care, living wage, and others? affordable day care, living wage, and others?
1a. I feel I have enough opportunities in my job to work on changing the 1a. I feel I have enough opportunities in my job to work on changing the conditions that affect our clients and communities conditions that affect our clients and communities
1b. I feel I have adequate time to engage in work to change community 1b. I feel I have adequate time to engage in work to change community conditions conditions
1c. I feel I have adequate preparation and skills to engage in community 1c. I feel I have adequate preparation and skills to engage in community change activities change activities
1d. I have adequate organizational support to engage in community change 1d. I have adequate organizational support to engage in community change activities activities
Modified Dimensions of Learning Modified Dimensions of Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ)
ScalesScales The following questions that were asked on a 6 pt. Likert Scale. They have The following questions that were asked on a 6 pt. Likert Scale. They have
been scaled together to create new variables.been scaled together to create new variables. Organizational CohesivenessOrganizational Cohesiveness
My organization builds alignment of visions across different levels and work My organization builds alignment of visions across different levels and work groups.groups.
My organization encourages people to think from a community perspective.My organization encourages people to think from a community perspective. My organization considers the impact of decisions on employee morale.My organization considers the impact of decisions on employee morale. My organization works together with the outside community to meet mutual My organization works together with the outside community to meet mutual
needs.needs. My organization encourages people to get answers from across the My organization encourages people to get answers from across the
organization when solving problems.organization when solving problems. In my organization, leaders ensure that the organization's actions are In my organization, leaders ensure that the organization's actions are
consistent with its values.consistent with its values. Organizational Skills Organizational Skills
In my organization, leaders generally support requests for learning In my organization, leaders generally support requests for learning opportunities and training.opportunities and training.
In my organization, investment in workers¹ skills and professional In my organization, investment in workers¹ skills and professional development is greater than last year.development is greater than last year.
In my organization, the number of individuals learning new skills is greater In my organization, the number of individuals learning new skills is greater than last year.than last year.
Modified Dimensions of Learning Modified Dimensions of Learning Organizations Questionnaire (DLOQ) Organizations Questionnaire (DLOQ)
ScalesScales Organizational ClimateOrganizational Climate
In my organization, teams/groups treat members as equals, regardless of In my organization, teams/groups treat members as equals, regardless of rank, culture, or other differences.rank, culture, or other differences.
In my organization, teams/groups revise their thinking as a result of group In my organization, teams/groups revise their thinking as a result of group discussions or information collected.discussions or information collected.
My organization gives people control over the resources they need to My organization gives people control over the resources they need to accomplish their work.accomplish their work.
My organization considers the impact of decisions on employee morale.My organization considers the impact of decisions on employee morale. In my organization, leaders mentor and coach those they lead.In my organization, leaders mentor and coach those they lead. In my organization, leaders ensure that the organization's actions are In my organization, leaders ensure that the organization's actions are
consistent with its values.consistent with its values. Organizational Disempowerment Organizational Disempowerment
While performing job duties, organizational members are not encouraged to While performing job duties, organizational members are not encouraged to use independent problem-solving skills.use independent problem-solving skills.
I have to follow rules in my organization that conflict with my best I have to follow rules in my organization that conflict with my best professional judgment.professional judgment.
I can take little action within my organization unless my superior approves it.I can take little action within my organization unless my superior approves it. I have "freedom within limits" in my organization; I know what is expected of I have "freedom within limits" in my organization; I know what is expected of
me but I also have freedom to be creative.me but I also have freedom to be creative.
Modified Dimensions of a Learning Modified Dimensions of a Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ)
ScalesScales
Organizational Learning from Action & PracticeOrganizational Learning from Action & Practice In my organization, people openly discuss mistakes in order to learn In my organization, people openly discuss mistakes in order to learn
from them.from them. In my organization, people view problems in their work as an In my organization, people view problems in their work as an
opportunity to learn.opportunity to learn. In my organization, people give open and honest feedback to each In my organization, people give open and honest feedback to each
other.other. In my organization, whenever people state their view, they also ask In my organization, whenever people state their view, they also ask
what others think.what others think. Change in Organizational Learning from last year Change in Organizational Learning from last year
In my organization, leaders mentor and coach those they lead.In my organization, leaders mentor and coach those they lead. In my organization, programs and services are better than last year.In my organization, programs and services are better than last year. In my organization, workers seem more motivated than last year. In my organization, workers seem more motivated than last year. In my organization, organizational members follow the mission better In my organization, organizational members follow the mission better
than last year.than last year. In my organization, our responsiveness to community problems is In my organization, our responsiveness to community problems is
greater than last year.greater than last year. In my organization, client satisfaction is greater than last year.In my organization, client satisfaction is greater than last year.
Frequencies - Empowerment and Frequencies - Empowerment and Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions
Empowerment N Mean SD 1=not at all 2=very little 3=somewhat 4=moderate 5=considerable 6=a great dealco-workers voice/choice 122 3.68 1.37 8 17 33 20 36 8
1=strongly disagree 2=disagree
3=somewhat disagree
4=somewhat agree 5=agree
6=strongly agree
opportunities 121 4.18 1.24 6 7 14 38 44 12time 121 3.99 1.14 4 11 17 44 40 5prepration/skills 121 4.37 1.10 2 8 11 33 56 11org support 121 3.98 1.21
N Mean SD 1=not at all 2=very little 3=somewhat 4=moderate 5=considerable 6=a great deal
clients & comm member voice/choice 117 3.78 1.35 6 14 32 25 28 12
1=strongly disagree 2=disagree
3=somewhat disagree
4=somewhat agree 5=agree
6=strongly agree
opportunties 114 4.00 1.18 3 11 18 43 29 10time 112 3.89 1.22 4 11 25 32 33 7prepration/skills 112 4.18 1.19 6 5 12 37 44 8org support 98 4.00 1.24 3 7 5 23 30 10
Changing Community Conditions N Mean SD 1=20% or less 2=21%-40% 3=41%-60% 4=61%-80% 5=81%-100%
% of CCC individual 107 2.12 1.67 62 13 9 8 141=strongly disagree 2=disagree
3=somewhat disagree
4=somewhat agree 5=agree
6=strongly agree
opportunity 117 4.00 1.27 3 16 16 37 33 12time 117 4.00 1.36 6 16 10 38 34 13preparation/skills 117 4.36 1.28 5 8 7 37 40 20org support 117 4.19 1.20 2 12 13 39 37 14
Correlations - EmpowermentCorrelations - Empowerment
co-workers
voice/choice opportunities timeprepration and skills
org support
clients & comm
member voice/choice opportunties time
prepration and skills
org support
co-workers voice/choice 1.000 0.605 0.442 0.376 0.596 0.300 0.231 0.284 0.317 0.297opportunities 0.605 1.000 0.748 0.564 0.717 0.224 0.395 0.223 0.377 0.436time 0.442 0.748 1.000 0.601 0.652 0.141 0.295 0.307 0.389 0.404prepration and skills 0.376 0.564 0.601 1.000 0.586 0.135 0.188 0.227 0.508 0.348org support 0.596 0.717 0.652 0.586 1.000 0.198 0.397 0.416 0.366 0.492
clients & comm member voice/choice 0.300 0.224 0.141 0.135 0.198 1.000 0.380 0.347 0.306 0.372opportunties 0.231 0.395 0.295 0.188 0.397 0.380 1.000 0.638 0.499 0.662time 0.284 0.223 0.307 0.227 0.416 0.347 0.638 1.000 0.664 0.709prepration and skills 0.317 0.377 0.389 0.508 0.366 0.306 0.499 0.664 1.000 0.727org support 0.297 0.436 0.404 0.348 0.492 0.372 0.662 0.709 0.727 1.000
Role in organization 0.257 0.201 0.038 0.176 0.068 0.207 0.075 0.047 0.223 0.091Years of employment -0.069 -0.059 -0.103 0.070 -0.040 0.042 0.107 -0.184 -0.069 -0.213Education level 0.285 0.229 0.118 0.284 0.186 0.047 0.027 -0.049 0.189 0.066Org cohesiveness 0.536 0.400 0.403 0.171 0.536 0.141 0.278 0.366 0.275 0.279Org climate 0.627 0.523 0.502 0.257 0.633 0.167 0.278 0.357 0.318 0.350Org disempowerment -0.467 -0.356 -0.190 -0.105 -0.354 -0.196 -0.149 -0.074 -0.158 -0.133Org learning from action & practice 0.410 0.378 0.385 0.178 0.486 0.157 0.319 0.370 0.191 0.367
Organizational skills 0.445 0.432 0.477 0.168 0.513 0.230 0.315 0.400 0.397 0.329Change in org learning 0.489 0.454 0.481 0.188 0.565 0.198 0.314 0.386 0.251 0.313Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Empowerment-Correlations Values = Pearson Correlation
Regressions – EmpowermentRegressions – EmpowermentIndependent
Variables
Standardized Coefficients
BetaSignificance
Level
Opportunities (co-worker) 0.60 0.00
Time (co-worker) 0.44 0.00
Preparation/ skills (co-worker) 0.38 0.00
Adequate org support (co-worker) 0.60 0.00
Client & Community Member
Empowerment 0.27 0.01
Opportunities (client & communtiy member) 0.12 0.22
Time (client & community member) 0.28 0.00
prepration/skills (client & community member) 0.32 0.00
Adequate org support (client & community
member) 0.30 0.00
Role in organization 0.17 0.07
Education level 0.23 0.01
Org cohesiveness -0.12 0.49
Org climate 0.61 0.00
Org disempowerment -0.20 0.03
Org learning from action & practice -0.07 0.54
Org skills 0.09 0.40
Change in org learning 0.02 0.91
Dependent Variable: Co-worker Empowerment
Independent Variables
Standardized Coefficients
BetaSignificance
Level
Co-worker empowerment 0.30 0.00
Opportunities (co-worker) 0.22 0.02
Adequate org support (co-worker) 0.20 0.03
Opportunities (client & communtiy member) 0.21 0.13
Time (client & community member) 0.32 0.09
Prepration/skills (client & community member) -0.24 0.27
Adequate org support client & community 0.20 0.29
Role in organization 0.21 0.03
Org disempowerment -0.21 0.06
Org skills 0.24 0.07
Change in org learning 0.12 0.46
Dependent Variable: Client & Community Member Empowerment
Problems with Problems with empowerment:empowerment:
Is empowerment too vague, overused, or misused Is empowerment too vague, overused, or misused to provide a meaningful & useful basis for research to provide a meaningful & useful basis for research & intervention?& intervention?
Beware political use & cooptation of Beware political use & cooptation of "empowerment" (for whom? for what? community "empowerment" (for whom? for what? community control can be oppressive: NIMBYism, Berger & control can be oppressive: NIMBYism, Berger & Neuhaus: religious or ethnic minorities in Salt Lake Neuhaus: religious or ethnic minorities in Salt Lake can simply move to New York or San Francisco; can simply move to New York or San Francisco; Empower America; see Perkins, 1995)Empower America; see Perkins, 1995)
Review dilemmas for creating empowering settings:Review dilemmas for creating empowering settings: Hierarchical vs. egalitarian organizational structuresHierarchical vs. egalitarian organizational structures "Challenges of success": Who is empowered?"Challenges of success": Who is empowered? Can empowerment be initiated from the top down?Can empowerment be initiated from the top down?
Discussion Questions:Discussion Questions: What do you think of the following arguments by Riger What do you think of the following arguments by Riger
(1993)?(1993)? 1. An empowerment orientation raises expectations for 1. An empowerment orientation raises expectations for
real power which are unrealistic & rarely achieved.real power which are unrealistic & rarely achieved. 2. Empowerment's emphasis on autonomy only increases 2. Empowerment's emphasis on autonomy only increases
competition within & among groups & thus overshadows competition within & among groups & thus overshadows more cooperative or communitarian approaches that more cooperative or communitarian approaches that women's or other groups might take.women's or other groups might take.
Additional questions:Additional questions: a. Do you agree that most of psychology (even CP?) is a. Do you agree that most of psychology (even CP?) is
excessively individualistic?excessively individualistic? b. Do you agree with Riger that even (especially?) b. Do you agree with Riger that even (especially?)
empowerment theory & research are individualistic, anti-empowerment theory & research are individualistic, anti-communal, or anti-feminist?communal, or anti-feminist?
c. Is there a contradiction in Rappaport’s claim that c. Is there a contradiction in Rappaport’s claim that empowerment can be enhancement of collective as well as empowerment can be enhancement of collective as well as individual control? (IE, to the extent that one is enhanced, individual control? (IE, to the extent that one is enhanced, does the other tend to be diminished?) does the other tend to be diminished?)
General Discussion General Discussion Questions:Questions:
1. Have you participated in any organizations or 1. Have you participated in any organizations or institutions that were empowering? What made them institutions that were empowering? What made them so?so?
2. Has your experience as a U. student been empowering 2. Has your experience as a U. student been empowering or disempowering? What about the rest of your personal, or disempowering? What about the rest of your personal, family, & community history? (narrative as family, & community history? (narrative as empowerment: Rappaport, 1995)empowerment: Rappaport, 1995)
3. Over the past two decades, community psychology’s 3. Over the past two decades, community psychology’s two leading intervention paradigms have been: two leading intervention paradigms have been: preventionprevention & & empowermentempowerment. Which of these two (or . Which of these two (or what other) is the best paradigm for the field? Why?what other) is the best paradigm for the field? Why?
4. Do religious organizations tend to be empowering or 4. Do religious organizations tend to be empowering or disempowering?disempowering?
5. Collective ritual, in general, plays an important role in 5. Collective ritual, in general, plays an important role in community solidarity & cultural identity. What role, if community solidarity & cultural identity. What role, if any, does it play in empowerment?any, does it play in empowerment?
