EmPower: Course 2012 Childhood, Gender and Culture Lecturer: Dr. Elisabeth Stern

emPower: Course 2012

Childhood, Gender and Culture

Lecturer: Dr. Elisabeth Stern

emPower: Course 2012/Dr. Elisabeth Stern

Socialization and Enculturation

Developed personality: individually specific

Learned culture: group or category specific (education, language, norms, values, rituals, religion, time, space, political system)

Basic human nature: universal (longing for love and care, hunger, aggression, joy, grief, survival instinct, death)

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Enculturation… (1)

… is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture by which he or she is surrounded,

and acquires values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in that culture. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)

As part of this process, the influences which limit, direct, or shape the individual (whether deliberately or not) include parents, other adults, and peers.

If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture.

First use of the term Enculturation: 1948

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Enculturation is… (2)

… the process whereby an established culture teaches an individual by repetition its accepted norms and values, so that the individual can become an accepted member of the society and find their suitable role.

Most importantly, it establishes a context of boundaries and correctness that dictates what is and what is not permissible within that society's framework.

It is the process of learning that takes the person and teaches him or her the ways of life of their people or country. It is a life-long process, affecting not only the child, but the adult too.

Enculturation is learned through communication in the form of speech, words, and gestures.

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Enculturation…. (3)

Enculturation can be conscious or unconscious. There are 3 ways a person learns a culture (gets

enculturated). Direct teaching of a culture, done mostly by the parents,

when a child is told to do something because it is right and to not do something because it is bad/wrong.

The second conscious way a person learns a culture is to watch others around him/her and to emulate/imitate/copy their behavior.

Enculturation also happens unconsciously, through events and behaviors that prevail in their culture.

All three kinds of enculturation/socialization happen simultaneously and all the time.

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Enculturation/Socialization

The process of enculturation is related to socialization.

In some academic fields, socialization refers to the deliberate shaping of the individual, in others, the word may be used to cover both deliberate and informal enculturation.

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Socialization defined simply

The adoption of the behavioral pattern of the surrounding culture.

The socialization of the children to the norm of their culture.

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Socialization is..

…the process whereby the child learns to get along with and to behave similarly to other people in the group, largely through group pressure and imitation of others. (McGraw Hill Dictionary)

…. a continuing process whereby an individual learns the norms, values, behaviors and social skills appropriate to his/her social position.(Business Dictionary)

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Enculturation and socialization runs deep

Culture is taught to children from the day they are born

Is the child a boy or a girl? It matters in almost every culture!

What about social class? Oppressor or oppressed? Does the family sleep in one room or even in one bed – or in a mansion?

To speak one‘s mind or to save the other‘s face?

Etc.


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Factors shaping Personality Development

Genetic factors Species-specific maturing process Individual-genetic factors

Socio-cultural factors Culture group Extended environment (nation, urban or rural environment,

social strata, occupational group of parents etc, minority/majority)

Psycho-dynamic factors Conscious personal choices (life objectives, motivations) Unconscious dynamic processes


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The Developmental Stages of Identity Building by Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson, 1902 – 1994, (Erik Homburger) German-Danish-American developmental psychologist and child psychoanalyst

Best known for his book „Childhood and Society“, 1950, and for coining the phrase „identity crisis“.


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Erikson believed that every human being goes through a certain number of stages to reach his or her full development, 8 stages from birth to death.

According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lives is crucial to providing growth, a source of self awareness and identity.


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Psychosocial Stage 1

1st year of life: Trust versus MistrustBeause an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child‘s caregivers.If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.


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1–3 y.: Autonomy versus Shame and DoubtChild needs to learn to explore the world. Bad if the caregivers are too smothering or neglectful. Child learns to control his/her body functions which gives him/her a sense of personal control and leads to a sense of independence.Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not, are left with feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt.


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Preschool, 3-6 y: Initiative versus GuiltDoes the child have the ability to do things on his/her own? (e.g. dressing, directing play.) If „guilty“ about making his/her own choices, the child fails to acquire a sense of accomplishment and initiative. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt and lack of initiative.


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6-11y: Industry versus InferiorityChildren who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children compare self-worth to others in a classroom environment and they can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children.


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12y – ca. 20y : Identity versus Role ConfusionQuestioning of Self: Who am I, How do I fit in? Where am I going in life?During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will remain insecure and confused about themselves and the future. («Identity Crisis»)


Stage 5, cont.

Adolescence has been characterized by Erikson as the period in the human life cycle during which the individual MUST establish a sense of identity and avoid the dangers of role diffusion and identity confusion.

Identity achievement implies that the individual assesses strengths and weaknesses and determines how he or she wants to deal with them.

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Stage 5, cont.

The adolescent must find an answer to the identity questions «Where did I come from?» «Who am I?» «What do I want to become?» «How do I fit in?»

Identity is not readily given the individual by society nor does it appear as a maturational phenomenon as do secondary sex characteristics.

The search for identity involves the establishment of a meaningful self-concept in which past, present, and future are brought together to form a unified whole.

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Stage 5, cont.

The task is more difficult where the anchorage of family and community tradition has been lost.

In a period of rapid social change, the older generation is no longer able to provide adequate role models for the younger generation in the process of searching for a personal identity.

Thus, the importance of the peer group in helping the individual to answer the identity question «who am I?» becomes pivotal.

The answer to this question depends on social feedback from others who provide the adolescent with their perception and their evaluation of him or her. Identity is based on psychosocial reciprocity!

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Stage 5, cont.

The adolescent often goes through a period of a great need for peer group recognition and peer group involvement.

Conforming to the expectations of peers helps adolescents find out how certain roles fit them.

The peer group, the clique, the gang, provide both a role model and very personal social feedback.

Eventually, adolescents must free themselves from this dependency on peers, free themselves from the preoccupation with the opinion of others in order to find themselves, that is, to attain a mature identity.

Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort.

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Psychosocial Stage 6 Early Adulthood – ca. 40 y.: Intimacy versus Isolation Who do I want to be with or date? Will I settle down? Erikson believes it is vital that people develop close,

committed relationships with other people. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in

previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity is important to develop intimate relationships.

Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.


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Early 40 – mid 60: Generativity versus Stagnation We continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and

family. We measure our accomplishments or failures. Am I satisfied

or not? Those who are successful during this phase will feel that

they are contributing to the world and to the next generation by being active in their home and community.

Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.


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From mid 60 to old age: Integrity versus Despair Reflecting back on life. If life has been wasted = regrets, feeling of

bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments

will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking

back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.


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Developmental tasks: according to Robert I. Havighurst

Middle childhood (6 – 12 years) Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing

organism Learning to get along with age mates Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role Developing appropriate skills in reading, writing and

mathematics Developing concepts necessary for everyday living Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values Achieving personal independence Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions


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Developmental tasks: according to Robert I. Havighurst Adolescence (12 – 18 years) Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of

both sexes. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role. Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other

adults. Preparing for professional life Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide

to behaviour, developing an ideology Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.


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Puberty and adolescence

Time between childhood and adulthood marked by the onset and achievement of sexual maturity, often accompanied by profound psychological crisis. Puberty starts with the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. growing of facial hair, deepening of the voice) Girls start puberty between 8 and 14 years of age, boys between 10 and 16 years. Rapid growth spurts - particularly of arms, legs, hands, and feet, and evolving gender-specific body shapes (wider hips and the build-up of fat tissues in some body parts in girls, broad shoulders and muscle development in boys) - transform child-specific body proportions which contributes to wide-spread feelings of insecurity among adolescents.


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Puberty….

The mental and emotional maturing process triggered off by adolescence takes much longer than the physical development. Increased sexual urges, heightened self-awareness, and gradual integration into adult society require major adjustments, giving rise to numerous conflicts.

Disengagement and detachment from father and mother is inevitable and necessary and often accompanied by protest against adults in general. (= in Western view!)

DISCUSSION: True for you? To which degree is this true in your culture?


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What does growing up mean for young people? (1)

Detaching oneself from primary contact persons, rebellion Desire to be different, pleasure to play to the gallery Desire to do everything better, arrogance Extending of personal environment Playing hazardous, seeking a „kick“ Looking for adventure, taking many risks Experimenting with new roles and behaviours

Discussion: To which degree is this true or not true in your culture?


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What does growing up mean for young people? (2)

Dreaming, idealising Glorifying the present Learning how to handle conflict Losing control of one‘s feelings High importance of subculture and peer group Feeling of being useless, inferiority complex Tendency to depression and withdrawal

Discussion


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Initiation

[Latin, „initiation„, implying a beginning] Traditional ceremony practiced in most indigenous

societies. Initiation rites are performed at the onset of puberty of boys

(male initiation rites), some societies perform initiation rites for girls at the time of their first menstrual period (female initiation rites); initiation rites are an important part of transition rites.

Complex ceremonies symbolise death and rebirth and are often accompanied by giving the initiated a new name.

Initiation rites are a mode of entrance into an age group, secret society or order.

Discussion: Initiation rites in your culture? For what? Meaning?


Summary

Although the specific quality of a person’s identity differs from culture to culture, the accomplishment of the developmental task acc. to Erikson has common elements in all cultures.

In order to acquire a strong and healthy ego-identity, the child must receive consistent and meangingful recognition for his or her achievements and accomplishments.

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emPower: Course 2012

Identity Building


Identity Defined

Identity means the reflective self-conception or self-image that we each derive from our cultural, ethnic, and gender socialization processes.

It is acquired via our interaction with others . Cultural Identity is the identity of a group or culture

or of an individual as far as one is influenced by one’s belonging to a group or culture.

Culture is an important factor in shaping identity. (Source: Ting-Toomey 1999)


Personal Identity Personal identity includes any unique attributes

that people associate with their individual self in comparison to those others.

Individuals develop distinctive personal identities due to

their unique life histories, experiences, and personal traits

and via their observations of role models around them

and their own drives and reinventions.


Two groups of Identities

Ting-Toomey differentiates two groups of identities Primary and Situational identity.

Primary identities: within the in-group the importance of cultural identity is played down while maximising the importance of the personal identity.

Situational identity: one’s cultural identity gains importance in interaction with the out-group


What distinguishes one person from another is what identity or identities they emphasise or make salient at a certain time.

We have professional identities, national/ethnic identity, cultural identity, and personal identity.

The cultural identity might be more prominent when interacting with members of an out-group than with in-group peers.


E.Net Identity

In the current era, cultural identity does not necessarily mean an individual’s interaction within a certain group, but a social network of people imitating and following the social norms presented by the media (E.net Individuals!)


Multicultural Identity

Conceptions of individual and group identity are challenged because of the high mobility of people worldwide.

These identity challenges will increase as different cultures continue to come into contact through overseas job placements, immigration, study abroad, and bicultural marriages.

We are asked to develop and achieve a clear understanding of our personal and cultural identity as an important step en route to understanding other cultures.


A word of Caution

Some critics argue that the preservation of cultural identity, being based upon difference, is a divisive force in society

(see Amin Maalouf «In the Name of Identity: Violence and the Need to Belong», 2000, or see the biography by Ellen Sirleaf Johnson, the first female President of Liberia/Africa, «This Child will be Great, 2009)


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EmPower: Course 2012 Childhood, Gender and Culture Lecturer: Dr. Elisabeth Stern