EMPLOYMENT BARRIERS OF REFUGEES

IN CANADA: PHYSICALLY IN CANADA BUT MENTALLY

BACK HOME

By

VEDRANA MEHYK

Capstone Course Final Essay (MAIS 700)

submitted to Dr. Raphael Foshay

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

[December, 2015]

Mehyk 2

ABSTRACT

For most refugees that were forced to flee their home countries due to wars and political

persecutions, Canada has offered them a second chance to start life anew. However, to start life

anew is easier to say than to experience it oneself. The aim of this paper is to analyze and

identify common barriers that prevent refugees from integrating into the Canadian labour market.

The study takes an integrative approach and frames the analysis by using educational,

employment, psychological, and social disciplinary insights. This is a mixed-method study that

uses both, the qualitative and quantitative approaches and it is based on secondary research

analysis using literature from academic and grey sources. As a result of doing this, the findings

show that all four disciplinary perspectives share a common viewpoint that internal/external

alienation as well as illiteracy and a lack of employable skills are major factors that negatively

affect the employment perspectives of refugees in Canada. Furthermore, the findings also infer

that all four disciplinary insights have gaps that portray refugees mainly as victims in the

Canadian labour market, ignore culture shocks as potential factors that lead to unemployment,

overgeneralize the employment ambitions of refugees and ignore the diversity among refugees.

Mehyk 3

Table of Contents

Title Page ........................................................................................................................................1 Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................2

Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................................3 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................4 Research Question and Rationale.................................................................................................4 Research Method ...........................................................................................................................5 Justification for an Interdisciplinary Approach .........................................................................6 Literature Review ..........................................................................................................................6 Disciplinary Insights Common Ground .......................................................................................9 Disciplinary Insights Gaps ..........................................................................................................11 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................14 References .....................................................................................................................................17

Mehyk 4

Introduction

Wars, political instability, and persecution are often the reasons why people decide to

leave their native countries behind and seek refuge elsewhere. The concept of a refugee dates

back to ancient Greece (F. E. A., 1944), and although lately, all news channels focus on refugees

that risk their lives to escape Syria (Calabresi, 2015), there were also other mass exoduses of

refugees in the past, such as during the World War II (Hiromi, 2014), and the ethnic conflict in

Bosnia during the early 1990s (Blitz, 2015). It is estimated that by the end of 2014, there were 60

million refugees already displaced, and the numbers throughout the world continue to grow

every day (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2015). Fortunately,

Canada’s gates for refugees have never been shut, and each year “12,000 to 16,000” refugees

settle permanently in Canada (Lu, Frenette, & Schellenberg, 2015). While experiences and

reasons for seeking refugee status in Canada may vary among individuals, every refugee must

start a new life and integrate into the new Canadian culture, such as learning the new language

and most importantly, finding work.

Research Question and Rationale

What challenges do refugees in Canada experience when they try to pursue employment

opportunities and to what extent do refugees refuse to join the Canadian workforce?

This essay will focus to uncover obstacles that prevent legal refugees in Canada to obtain

work and reach socioeconomic equilibrium. I am interested in this topic for two reasons. First, I

am an “experienced” refugee who is aware of how difficult it can be to adapt to a new culture,

but I know very little about the barriers that refugees face when looking for work. This topic will

help me expand my knowledge and gain an insight into the experiences of refugees who look for

work in Canadian metropolises. Second, the Canadian Council for Refugees report (2011)

Mehyk 5

suggests that access to employment for refugees is an area that requires further research. This

ensures that my interest in research on this particular topic will be beneficial not only to me, but

also to the entire community. And finally, this research question will likely raise more questions

for future research that could potentially help develop programs that would assess refugees and

help them orientate and set long-term goals in terms of finding employment and staying

employed in Canada.

Research Method

To conduct this research, I use a mixed-method that includes qualitative and quantitative

approach, and I use secondary sources that include the literature from academic and grey

sources. The academic sources are searched through the following databases: EBSCOHost,

Journal Storage (JSTOR), and SAGE journals. The grey sources are primarily obtained via

Statistics Canada and other Canadian government websites such as Canadian Immigration and

Citizenship and Social Research and Demonstration Corporation. In order to find common

ground between the disciplinary insights, I review and analyze the academic sources first. The

reason I chose to review the academic sources first was to identify as many variables (e.g.

education, work experience, and the English language proficiency) as possible that have direct

impact on employability of refugees in Canada. After I have identified all the variables, my next

step was to identify gaps between the disciplinary insights. In order to do so, I reviewed and

analyzed grey sources and then compared academic disciplinary insights to governmental

statistical facts.

Mehyk 6

Justification for an Interdisciplinary Approach

The question as to the challenges that refugees face when looking for work in Canada is

very complex. When looking out for work, a refugee is faced not only with one issue such as

language barrier (Hou & Beiser, 2006), but he or she faces many other barriers such as racism

and a lack of Canadian work experience (Levine-Rasky, Beaudoin, & St. Clair, 2014; Rousseau,

Ferradji, Mekki-Berrada, & Jamil, 2013; Wilson-Forsberg & Sethi, 2015). In order to gain an

insight and answer this or any other complex question, more than one disciplinary perspective is

imperative. As Repko (2012) notes, a “question is complex when it is composed of multiple

components or agents connected through nonlinear as well as linear relationships” (p. 85). In

fact, multiple disciplines look at this same problem and aim to answer this same question, but

there is actually no unified answer. Furthermore, a multidisciplinary approach, as Repko (2012)

adds “makes no attempt to integrate their insights” (p. 20). Therefore, a complex question needs

flexibility, not rigidity, and disciplinary approaches have a tendency to be less flexible (Szostak,

2012).

Literature Review

Educational Insight

Refugees that have no educational background face serious obstacles to learn the English

language and become employable, and some researchers (Creese, 2010; Hou et. al., 2006;

Tomic, 2013) mutually agree that refugees have difficulty finding work when possessing no or

verly little English skills. A study by Hou et. al. (2006) shows that the acquisition of the English

language among refugees in Canada rapidly improves within a few first years after arrival,

however, the improvement of English is closely linked to the educational background of

refugees. Formal education plays a key role in terms of predicting the “post-migration language

Mehyk 7

fluency”, and refugees that have no formal education are less likely to learn English and even

less likely to seek work (Hou et. al., 2006, p. 141). Another study by Benseman (2014)

emphasizes that while some refugees struggle with illiteracy and must study hard to learn

English, a nurturing and a trusting school environment is of crucial importance for some refugees

to successfully learn the language and integrate economically and socially into Canadian society

(Benseman, 2014). Therefore the Canadian government donates funds and has over the years

been very supporting of language programs that help refugees not only acquire necessary

language skills, but also help them prepare to join the Canadian workforce (Hou et. al., 2006).

Employment Insight

Most prospective employers often devalue the work experience of refugees, and they are

often segregated into so called “refugee jobs” (Asanin Dean & Wilson, 2009; Jackson & Bauder,

2013). A study by Jackson et. al. (2013) investigates the employment experiences of refugees in

Toronto, Ontario and concludes that most refugees aside from being discriminated based on their

gender or race, they are also segregated into temporary and part-time jobs. Aside from the fact

that these temporary and part-time jobs are extremely low paid, these types of jobs are also dead

end jobs that offer no career advancement (Jackson et. al., 2013). Many others who do not have

any employable skills or Canadian work experience are expected to volunteer even though that

does not necessarily guarantee an access to a higher paid job later (Wilson-Forsberg et. al.,

2015).

Some refugees that come to Canada are literate and speak English, but even this is not

enough because if they speak English with a strong, pronounced foreign accent then they are

often devalued and discriminated against by potential employers (Creese, 2010; Tomic, 2013).

Creese (2010) extracts from her study that African-English accent is a huge disadvantage for

Mehyk 8

African refugees in Vancouver because many employers are not enthusiastic to hire them. In

other words, refugees that have difficulties to master North American English accent have lower

chances to obtain higher positions and are often victims of marginalization and discrimination

(Creese, 2010). Therefore, it is certain that despite the fact that Canada is multicultural,

bilingualism can have a negative impact on an individual and his or her career or employment

prospective (Tomic, 2013).

Psychological Insight

Wars and persecution leave many physical and emotional scars that prevent individuals

from achieving economic success in Canada (Beiser, Puente-Duran, & Hou, 2015; Beiser,

Simich, Pandalangat, Nowakowski, & Fu, 2012;; McKeary & Newbold, 2010; Simich, 2010).

Based on a community research study in Toronto, Ontario, Wilson, Murtaza and Shakya (2010)

conclude that many refugees arrive in Canada with deep inflicted psychological wounds because

many were subject to or they have witnessed crimes against humanity in their home countries,

however, language barrier and financial difficulties only worsen their psychological well-being

after their arrival to Canada. Furthermore, Guruge and Butt (2015) emphasize that young female

refugees are more likely to suffer from mental disorders after their arrival in Canada compared to

young male refugees, and a network of people (e.g. family and school) are of crucial importance

for their well-being and an easier integration into the community and the workforce. Evidence

also shows that community support is very important because it does not only help refugees

escape isolation and lessen their mental suffering, but it can make them feel “at home” (Simich,

2010).

Mehyk 9

Social Insight

Certain political events such as the 9/11 are often the reasons why certain ethnic groups

are stereotyped and heavily discriminated against by the larger society (Jamil & Rousseau, 2012;

Levine-Rasky et. al., 2013). But, the Middle Eastern refugees experience discrimination in more

intensity compared to the Middle Eastern immigrants because the latter enjoy higher

socioeconomic status and a better integrity (Jamil et. al., 2012). Additionally, refugees from the

Middle East are trapped in “socioeconomic marginalization” that exacerbates a serious barrier

towards reaching a socioeconomic equilibrium (Jamil et. al., 2012, p. 385). Similarly, refugees

from northern parts of Africa speak French and integrate well in Quebec, but the intensity of

prejudice and discrimination based on their religion is very high (Rousseau et. al., 2013).

Therefore. it is obvious that the war on terror has put the burden of guilt on many Muslims in

Canada that at the same time segregates them from the rest of the Canadian community as well

as prevents them from full integration into the Canadian labour market (Jamil et. al, 2012). On

the contrary, there is a historic social stigma against Roma across Europe and North America and

although more than 60,000 Roma live in Canada, this ethnic group is perceived as an undesirable

group by the larger society that creates obstacles for Roma to find work and integrate (Levine-

Rasky et. al., 2014). Undesirable ethnic groups are often forced to struggle with poverty, and

their employment outlooks look not very positive and promising (Carter & Osborne, 2009;

Makwarimba, Stewart, Simich, Makube, Shizha, & Anderson, 2013; Levine-Rasky et. al., 2014).

Disciplinary Insights Common Ground

Although each of the aforementioned disciplinary perspectives provides an insight into

the challenges that refugees face when looking for work in Canada, there is also a basis of

mutual agreement among disciplines. I have identified two common ground areas,

Mehyk 10

internal/external alienation and illiteracy, that interconnect educational, employment,

psychological, and social insights and strengthen their perspectives through integration.

All four disciplinary insights to some extent acknowledge that refugees are internally and

externally alienated from other Canadians. The internal alienation refers to deep emotional scars

such as war trauma that evolve into post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Wilson, Murtaza and

Shakya, 2010). The external alienation occurs when refugees feel not welcome in the Canadian

society because of racism and intolerance (Jamil et. al., 2012). Although it may appear that

internal/external alienation are two separate concepts because the former represents internal and

the latter represents external conflicts, these two concepts are in fact very closely related.

Educational, employment, and social perspectives jointly share the idea that refugee’s

employment ambitions are seriously thwarted if there is a serious language barrier (educational

insight), poor job outlooks (employment insight), and socially negative attitudes towards

refugees (social insight). For instance, an individual who suffers from severe PTSD may not be

fully capable to learn English, but English is a prerequisite to find work and communicate with

other Canadians. In reverse, lack of employment and English skills lead towards unemployment

that could potentially exacerbate the symptoms of anxiety and PTSD (Simich, 2010, p. 71).

Therefore, it can be concluded that disciplinary insights concur that refugees are caught in a

continuous internal/external cycles that negatively affect refugees’ employment outlooks.

Aside from internal-external alienation, there is also a common assumption among

educational, employment, psychological, and social disciplinary insights that it is extremely

difficult for refugees to find work, and especially for those that are illiterate and have an

inadequate educational background. Learning a new language can be quite exhausting and

discouraging, especially for an individual who is learning a new language starting from the letter

Mehyk 11

A. But it may also take months, even years, to learn a new language, acquire adequate working

skills, and expand career networks. During those months or years, refugees are often

involuntarily volunteering or working for extremely low wages (Wilson-Forsberg et. al., 2015).

It means an individual who struggles to learn English (educational insight) is also stuck in an

unpaid and undervalued job (employment insight). But again, learning English and gaining

necessary working skills does not guarantee success in finding work, especially if a refugee

belongs to a socially stereotyped and prejudiced group (Carter et. al., 2009; Makwarimba et. al.,

2013). A socially undesirable group may often be a target of stereotypes and prejudice (social

insight) that could potentially seriously demotivate individuals (psychological insight) to seek

work. All four disciplinary insights overlap in terms of linguo-socio-economic experiences of

refugees in Canada and acknowledge that refugees are challenged to learn new language and

acquire necessary employment skills.

Disciplinary Gaps

Despite the fact that disciplines many times overlap on this particular issue about

refugees and employment, each discipline is limited in its capacity to address this “complex”

problem because of disciplinary boundaries that do not permit transgressions (Repko, 2012), and

everything that falls between those disciplinary gaps is something, as Bogenhold (2013) refers to

as “the blind spots”. These blind spots are not necessarily failures of disciplines, but they are the

cues for an interdisciplinary researcher to lead a study into a new direction. After careful analysis

of all four disciplinary insights, I have detected as well as gained an insight into three important

blind spots: a) excessive victimization of refugees in the world of employment, b) ignorance of

culture shock as a potential factor that leads to unemployment, and c) overgenralization of

employment ambitions among refugees.

Mehyk 12

First, all disciplinary insights portray refugees mainly as victims in the world of

employment despite the fact that any kind of employment, paid or unpaid, is really an

opportunity for refugees to integrate mentally and physically into Canadian society. None of the

disciplinary insights provide adequate attention to the importance of those often devalued and

unpaid jobs. In reality, volunteering may at first appear very unattractive because one must

accept full job responsibilities without getting paid, but it is often a “stepping stone to paid

work” for individuals who lack employable skills (Trembath, Balandin, Stancliffe, & Togher,

2010). Through volunteering, refugees get a chance to interact with other people, gain new skills,

and at the same time make new friendships and expand a network of potential employers in the

future. Unfortunately, there is no statistical evidence that is specifically focused on how often

refugees engage in volunteer work, but Turcotte (as published in Statistics Canada, 2015)

estimates that younger Canadian people in general (between the ages of 15 and 34) are more

likely to volunteer compared to older Canadian population (between the ages of 55 and 74).

Based on this report, it can be assumed that refugees under the age of 35 perceive volunteering

and low income jobs more positively and are probably more likely to take the opportunity to

volunteer and improve their career outlooks compared to refugees that are over the age of 55. It

is understandable that older refugees may not have career aspirations like younger generation,

but it does not mean that volunteer and low paid jobs cannot be beneficial to older refugees too.

Evidence shows that volunteering is highly beneficial to elderly because it has a positive effect

on mental disorders such as anxiety and depression (Anderson et. al., 2014). This is not to deny

that refugees face difficult times upon arrival or to overgeneralize and assume that all refugees

have identical experience in terms of employment in Canada. However, it is of crucial

importance to point out that volunteer and low paid jobs should not be underestimated because

Mehyk 13

they are an enormous opportunity for refugees to engage in the community and improve their

mental health, self-esteem, and prepare them for a better career or job opportunities in the future.

Second, all disciplinary insights disregard culture shock that demotivate many refugees,

especially men, to seek work and integrate into the Canadian society. Culture shock is very

subjective and probably one of the most common roadblocks that put refugees in a situation to be

in a constant state of alienation in relation to Canadian society. According to Allen (2014),

police-reported hate crimes have steadily risen from 2011 in Ontario, and the targets of hate

crime are usually visible minority groups such as Muslims and Asians. Such hate crimes are

potential factors that frighten refugees when seeking work and open communication with

Canadians. On the cultural side, however, Canada is a country that offers equal employment

opportunities to both men and women, but this is quite problematic for refugees that come from

strict patriarchal cultures. Men become very disappointed with their lives when they see their

wives become financially independent, and as a coping strategy, those men tend to withdraw

from Canadian life by not seeking work and socializing only with men from their home countries

(Chambers & Ganesan, 2005; Anderson, Reimer Kirkhan, Waxler-Morrison, Herbert, Murphy,

& Richardson, 2005). What makes this matter even more problematic is that refugees tend to

segregate into neighbourhoods with other refugees of the same ethnic origin, and that “social

isolation” prevents them from acquiring English and working skills (Feng & Picot, 2004). This

perfectly explains that culture shock is a reason why many refugees never join the Canadian

workforce and although they live in Canada, they are mentally and culturally back home.

And finally third, the employment ambitions of refugees are either too overgeneralized or

entirely overlooked by most disciplines. In fact, all four disciplinary insights to some extent

emphasize that unemployment among refugees is linked either to psychological or social factors.

Mehyk 14

However, this gives a false perception that all refugees have identical employment ambitions, but

at times there is a wrongful portrayal of refugees as a “drain on Canada’s economic resources”

(Jackson et. al., 2013). It is accurate that refugees are heavily dependant on welfare upon arrival

(Jackson et. al., 2013), and most need a long time to adjust to the Canadian system (Social

Research and Demonstration Corporation, 2002). But Statistics Canada (2014) reports that, “SA

[social assistance] rates are generally lowest among single individuals… and generally highest

among lone mothers and couples with more than two children” (para. 46). This aforementioned

statistical evidence that lone refugee mothers and parents with multiple children are welfare

dependent hints that child care is a potential factor that thwarts career aspirations of young

refugee women and often prevents one parent from joining the Canadian workforce. But even

welfare dependence is not something ongoing for years, as Lu et. al., (as reported in Statistics

Canada, 2015) explain that the first four years from the day of arrival are most critical when

refugees seek and are heavily dependent on welfare. Age is also an important factor that can

potentially predetermine the employment ambitions of refugees. It is mostly the older refugees

(over the age of 54) that are welfare dependant compared to younger refugees (under the age of

35) (Statistics Canada, para. 60). The employment ambitions of refugees should not be

overgeneralized or overlooked because that does not only create a false image about refugees

among Canadians, but this also ignores the diversity among refugees.

Conclusion

Canada’s doors for refugees have been open in the past and continue to be open in the

present. But those open doors do not guarantee economic integration into the Canadian labour

market. The focus of this study was to uncover common barriers and obstacles that prevent

refugees in Canada from full integration into the labour market.

Mehyk 15

After a careful integration of four (educational, employment, psychological, and social)

disciplinary insights, it became evident that refugees are caught in an internal and external cycle

of alienation from Canadian society. Psychological barriers are serious factors that often force

refugees to stay unemployed, but poor English, a lack of employable skills and continuous social

pressures, especially racism and prejudice, are equal in having a negative impact on refugees’

employment outlooks. Furthermore, the disciplinary insights share a common thought that

illiteracy and a lack of employable skills have serious impact on employment perspectives too. It

takes time to become proficient in the English language and during that time, refugees often have

no other choice but to become volunteers or they become stuck in financially stunted and

unrewarding jobs. Although all four disciplinary insights share a common understanding of the

obstacles that refugees face when looking for work; they have also left certain gaps unaddressed.

It is entirely true that refugees are forced to accept unrewarding jobs, but on the positive side

such jobs are opportunities not only to acquire necessary skills, but also expand a network of

people and open the gates to future employment opportunities. Volunteering makes a positive

impact on young people’s employment ambitions and older people’s mental well-being too.

Additionally, cultural shock is also a major factor that prevents refugees from joining the

Canadian workforce. First, high incidences of hate crimes against refugees from certain ethnic

groups scares away refugees from integration into the Canadian culture. Second, men from

patriarchal societies cannot simply accept the fact that their partners are financially independent.

Instead of adapting to the new Canadian way of life, some men fully isolate themselves socially

and that way isolate themselves from employment opportunities. And finally, while most

refugees are welfare dependent for the first few years, refugees are diverse and have different

employment ambitions. Their ambitions are mainly linked to their age and marital status when

Mehyk 16

they arrive in Canada, but again, refugees are so much diverse that it is absolutely necessary to

work with each refugee individually in order to uncover their employment ambitions.

The questions about refugees and their integration in to the Canadian labour market are

not very easy to answer, and it is even more ardous to find instant solutions. But where there is

no will, there is no success and where there is no support, there is no integration.

Mehyk 17

References

Allen, M. (2014). Police-reported hate crime in Canada, 2012. Juristat. Statistics Canada

Catalogue no. 85-002-X. Ottawa, Ontario. Statistics Canada. p. 1-30. Retrieved on

October 21, 2015 from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2014001/article/14028-

eng.pdf.

Anderson, J. M., Reimer Kirkham, S., Waxler-Morrison, N., Murphy, M., & Richardson. E.

(2005). Delivering Culturally Responsive Health Care. In N. Waxler-Morrison, J. M.

Anderson, E. Richardson, & N. A. Chambers (Eds.), Cross-cultural caring (pp.323-351).

Vancouver, BC: UBS Press.

Anderson, N. D., Kroger, E., Dawson, D. R., Binns, M. A., Caspi, E., Damianakis, T., … Cook,

S. L. (2014). The Benefits Associated With Volunteering Among Seniors: A Critical

Review and Recommendations for Future Research. Psychological Bulleting, 140(6),

1505-1533. doi: 10.1037/a0037610.

Asanin Dean, J., & Wilson, K. (2009). “Education? It is irrelevant to my job now. It makes me

very depressed…’: exploring the health impacts of under/unemployment among highly

skilled recent immigrants in Canada. Ethnicity & Health, 14(2), 185-204. doi: 10.1080/

13557850802227049.

Beiser, M., Puente-Duran, S., & Hou, F. (2015). Cultural distance and emotional problems

mong immigrant and refugee youth in Canada: Findings from the New Canadian Child

and Youth Study (NCCYS). International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49, 33-45.

doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.06.005.

Beiser, M., Simich, L., Pandalangat, N., Nowakowski, M., & Fu, T. (2011). Stresses of

Passage, Balms of Resettlement and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Sri

Mehyk 18

Lankan Tamils in Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(6), 333-340.

Retrieved on October 1, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost. com.aupac.lib.athabascau.

ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rch&AN=63480864&site=eds-live.

Benseman, J. (2014). Adult Refugee Learners with Limited Literacy: Needs and Effective

Responses. Refuge, 30(1), 93-103. Retrieved on October 20, 2015 from http://0-search.

ebscohost.com. lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=102444072&

site=eds-live.

Blitz, B. K. (2015). Bosnia revisited: a retrospective on the legacy of the conflict. Forced

Migration Review, (50), 49-51. Retrieved on October 3, 2015 from http://0-search.

ebscohost. com.aupac.lib.athabascau. ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10933376

4&site=eds-live.

Bogenhold, D. (2013). Social Network Analysis and the Sociology of Economics: Filling a

Blind Spot with the Idea of Social Embeddedness. American Journal of Economics

and Sociology, 72(2), 293-318. doi: 10.1111/ajes.12005.

Calabresi, M. (2015). A Wave of the World’s Displaced Crashes on Europe’s Shores. Time,

186(11), 15-17. Retrieved on October 5, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost.com.

lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=109380445&site=eds-live.

Canadian Council for Refugees. (2011). Refugee Integration: Key concerns and areas for

further research. pp. 1-28. Retrieved on October 12, 2015 from www.ccrweb.ca/

files/refugee-integration-research-report.pdf.

Carter, T. S., & Osborne, J. (2009). Housing and Neighbourhood Challenges of Refugee

Resettlement in Declining Inner City Neighbourhoods: A Winnipeg Case Study.

Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 7, 308-327. doi: 10.1080/15562940903150097.

Mehyk 19

Chambers, N. A., & Ganesan, S. (2005). Refugees in Canada. In N. Waxler-Morrison, J. M.

Anderson, E. Richardson, & N. A. Chambers (Eds.), Cross-cultural caring (pp.289-321).

Vancouver, BC: UBS Press.

Creese, G. (2010). Erasing English Language Competency: African Migrants in Vancouver,

Canada. Int. Migration & Integration, 11, 295-313. doi: 10.1107/s12134-010-0139-3.

F. E. A. (1944). Political Refugees in Ancient Greece. Journal of Comparative Legislation

International Law, 26(3/4), 82-83. Retrieved on October 8, 2015 from http://www.jstor.

org.stable/754830.

Feng, H., & Picot, G. (2004). Visible minority neighbourhoods in Toronto, Montreal, and

Vancouver. Canadian Social Trends, (72), 8-13. Retrieved on October 20, 2015 from

http://0-search.ebscohost.com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=

rch&AN=12559192&site=eds-live.

Guruge, S., Butt, H. (2015). A scoping review of mental health issues and concerns among

immigrant and refugee youth in Canada: Looking back, moving forward. Can J Public

Health, 106(2), e72-e78. doi: 10.17269/CJPH.106.4588.

Hiromi, C. (2014). The Role of the Protestant Church in the US Refugee Resettlement Program

during the Early Cold War Era: The Methodist Case. Exchange, 43(1), 9-28. doi:

10.1163/1572543X-12341300.

Hou, F., & Beiser, M. (2006). Learning the Language of a New Country: A Ten-year Study

of English Acquisition by South-East Asian Refugees in Canada. International

Migration, 44(1), 135-165. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00358.x.

Jackson, S., & Bauder, H. (2013). Neither Temporary, Nor Permanent: The Precarious

Employment Experiences of Refugee Claimants in Canada. Journal of Refugee Studies,

Mehyk 20

27(3), 360-381. doi: 10.1093/jrs/fet048.

Jamil, U., & Rousseau, C. (2012). Subject Positioning, Fear, and Insecurity in South Asian

Muslim Communities in the War on Terror Context. Canadian Review of Sociology,

49(4), 370-388. Retrieved on October 1, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost.

com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rch&AN=83172364&site=eds-

live.

Levine-Rasky, C., Beaudoin, J., & St. Clair, P. (2014). The exclusion of Roma claimants in

Canadian refugee policy. Patterns of Prejudice, 48(1), 67-93. doi: 10.1080/0031322X.

2013.857477.

Lu, Y., Frenette, M., & Schellenberg, G. (2015). Social Assistance Receipt Refugee Claimants

in Canada: Evidence from Linked Administrative Data Files. Social Analysis and

Modelling Division. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 11F0019M. Ottawa, Ontario.

Retrieved on October 2, 2015 from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11f0019m/

11f0019m2015369-eng.htm.

Makwarimba, E., Stewart, M., Simich, L., Makumbe, K., Shizha, E., & Anderson, S. (2013).

Sudanese and Somali Refugees in Canada: Social Support Needs and Preferences.

International Migration, 51(5), 106-119. doi: 10.1111/imig.12116.

McKeary, M., & Newbold, B. (2010). Barriers to Care: The Challenges for Canadian

Refugees and their Health Care Providers. Journal of Refugee Studies, 23(4), 523-

545. doi: 10.1093/jrs/feq038.

Repko, A. F. (2012). Interdisciplinary Research: Process and Theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage.

Rousseau, C., Ferradji, T., Mekki-Berrada, A., & Jamil, U. (2013). North African Muslim

Mehyk 21

Immigrant Families in Canada Giving Meaning to and Coping With the War on

Terror. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 11, 136-156. doi: 10. 1080/155629

48.2013.775892.

Simich, L. (2010). Refugee Mental Health and the Meaning of “Home”. Canadian Issues/

Themes Canadiens, 68-72. Retrieved on October 2, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost.

com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rch&AN=65595730&site=eds-

live.

Social Research and Demonstration Corporation. (2002). A Statistical Profile of Government-

Assisted Refugees. Social Research and Demonstration Corporation. p. 1-53. Ottawa,

Ontario. Retrieved on November 1, 2015 from http://www.srdc.org/uploads/statistical_

profile.pdf.

Szostak, R. (2012). The Interdisciplinary Research Process. In A.F. Repko, W. H. Newell, and R.

Szostak (Eds.), Case Studies in Interdisciplinary Research (pp. 3-19). Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage.

Tomic, P. (2013). The Colour of Language: Accent, Devaluation and Resistance in Latin

American Immigrant Lives in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 45(1.2), 1-21.

Retrieved on September 27, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost.com.aupac.lib.

athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p3h&AN=90114189&site=eds-

live.

Trembath, D., Balandin, S., Stancliffe, R. J., & Togher, L. (2010). Employment and

volunteering for adults with intellectual disability. Journal Of Policy And Practice In

Intellectual Disabilities, 7(4), 235-238. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-1130.2010.00271.x.

Turcotte, M. (2015). Volunteering and charitable giving in Canada. Spotlight on Canadians:

Mehyk 22

Results from the General Social Survey. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-652-

X2015001. Ottawa, Ontario. Statistics Canada. p. 1-18. Retrieved on October 14, 2015

from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-652-x/89-652-x2015001-eng.pdf.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2015). UNHCR warns of dangerous

new era in a worldwide displacement as report shows almost 60 million people forced to

flee their homes. The UN Refugee Agency Press. Retrieved on October 27, 2015 from

http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/search?page=search&docid=55813f0e6&query=

refugee%2060%20million.

Wilson, R. M., Murtaza, R., & Shakya, Y. B. (2010). Pre-Migration and Post-Migration

Determinants of Mental Health for Newly Arrived Refugees in Toronto. Canadian

Issues/ Themes Canadiens, 43-49. Retrieved on October 15, 2015 from http://0-search.

ebscohost.com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rch&AN=53896257

&site=eds-live.

Wilson-Forsberg, S., Sethi, B. (2015). The Volunteering Dogma and Canadian Work

Experience: Do Recent Immigrants Volunteer Voluntarily?. Canadian Ethnic Studies,

47(3), 91-110. Retrieved on September 28, 2015 from http://0-search.ebscohost.

com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rch&AN=109901290&site=eds-

live.