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Eminent Domain in Tennessee
Draft for Commission Review and Comment
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Contents
Eminent Domain in Tennessee ................................................................................................ 3
Determining Value ............................................................................................................... 3
Condemnation by Housing Authorities ................................................................................ 4
Right of First Refusal ............................................................................................................ 4
Helping Property Owners Understand Their Rights .............................................................. 5
Determining Value ................................................................................................................... 5
How Disputes Over Value are Resolved When Negotiation Fails ........................................... 6
Alternative Dispute Resolution .......................................................................................... 7
Litigation ........................................................................................................................ 11
Other Methods of Resolving Disputes Over Value ............................................................... 12
Forced Binding Arbitration (Senate Bill 1566) .................................................................. 12
Board of Property Appraisers .......................................................................................... 13
Special Master or Referee ............................................................................................... 14
Condemnation by Housing Authorities ................................................................................... 14
Right of First Refusal .............................................................................................................. 16
Helping Property Owners Understand Their Rights ................................................................ 16
Property Rights Ombudsmen .............................................................................................. 17
Landowner Notice of Rights ................................................................................................ 18
References ............................................................................................................................ 19
Persons Interviewed .............................................................................................................. 20
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................ 24
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................ 50
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................ 53
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Eminent Domain in Tennessee
In 2006, prompted by the US Supreme Court’s decision in Kelo v. City of New London,1 the Tennessee General Assembly enacted Public Chapter 863, which made significant changes to the state’s eminent domain law, including clarifying the definition of public use. These reforms greatly improved protections for property owners in Tennessee. But concerns remain about the time and expense of determining property value; the authority of housing development agencies, which are arms of the local government, to condemn property; and the ability of former property owners to repurchase condemned property that is not used by government and later sold.
To help address these specific concerns, additional legislation was introduced in the 107th General Assembly. Two bills related to eminent domain were referred to the Tennessee Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (TACIR) for study: Senate Bill 1566 (Ketron) [House Bill 1576 (Carr)] and House Bill 2877 (Gotto) [Senate Bill 2745 (Johnson)].
Determining Value
Senate Bill 1566 was referred by the Senate Finance, Ways and Means Committee. This bill would have allowed a property owner to require the local government to submit to binding arbitration in order to determine the price of property to be taken by condemnation. Local governments would not be able to object to the use of binding arbitration. The goal of the bill was to avoid the time and expense of litigation.
While binding arbitration generally reduces the time required to resolve a dispute, it has many of the disadvantages of litigation. Binding arbitration is less time consuming than litigation, mainly because the result cannot be appealed simply because the parties don’t like the result, but it is potentially as expensive because the parties still hire lawyers, appraisers, and other experts when arbitrating disputes. Decisions made through binding arbitration can be vacated, modified, or appealed only in very limited circumstances, such as when there is evidence of fraud or improper conduct by the arbitrator. It is more final than the outcome of a trial. As with litigation, binding arbitration decisions are made by someone else, rather than by the parties themselves.
One concern raised by local governments about Senate Bill 1566 was being forced into a dispute resolution process that can be appealed in only very limited circumstances. The only other state with a similar provision is Oregon, which allows a condemnee to force a condemner into binding arbitration only when the value placed on the property by the parties is $20,000 or
1 545 U.S. 469 (2005).
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less.2 Concerns about the finality of binding arbitration might be mitigated to some extent by adopting such a limit.
Tennessee offers a number of alternatives to litigation for resolving valuation disputes, including negotiation, mediation, judicial settlement conferences, non‐binding arbitration, case evaluations, mini‐trials, and summary jury trials. Several of these alternatives can serve as less expensive ways to test the parties’ positions on the issues in order to determine whether the time and expense of litigation or binding arbitration would make sense. All of them are available to parties involved in property value disputes related to condemnation. A review of methods available in other states turned up similar methods, but none with significant advantages over those already in use here.
Mediation, which is already widely used in Tennessee, should always be considered before arbitration and could be made a requirement of Senate Bill 1566 as a precondition to binding arbitration. Mediation is generally much quicker and much less costly than either litigation or arbitration. Moreover, the determination of value is left to the parties. If successful, mediation would make the overall process less costly and less time‐consuming and allow the parties to decide the price for themselves.
Condemnation by Housing Authorities
House Bill 2877 was referred by the House General Subcommittee of State and Local Government. This bill would have eliminated the power of housing agencies to condemn property and would instead require local elected bodies to institute condemnation proceedings on behalf of them. In practice, local governments already have oversight of housing authorities’ use of eminent domain through approval of the redevelopment plans that the authorities operate under.3 Under Tennessee’s redevelopment law, however, a governing body may delegate authority to approve redevelopment plans to another agency, including a housing authority, which then could both approve a redevelopment plan and use it as a basis for condemnation. To our knowledge, no local government has delegated this authority. Removing the language that allows delegation of authority to approve a redevelopment plan to housing authorities would ensure that they could not approve the plan themselves and then use it as a basis for condemnation without the oversight of the local governing body.
Right of First Refusal
TACIR staff also reviewed a related bill not referred to the Commission for study, Senate Bill 548 (McNally), House Bill 952 (Dunn). This bill would have given a right of first refusal to property owners whose property was condemned by a local government or a state agency. Currently, a right of first refusal exists only in the case of condemnations by the Tennessee
2 Oregon Revised Statute § 35.346 (6). 3 Tennessee Code Annotated § 13‐20‐203.
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Department of Transportation (TDOT).4 A right of first refusal gives the condemnee the right to repurchase condemned property if the condemner decides to sell it. The provisions of Senate Bill 548 would have required the property to be offered to the former property owner or his heirs or assigns at the price paid by the condemner. In the case of condemnations by TDOT, the property has to be offered at fair market value and the right of first refusal does not extend to the former owner’s heirs or assigns.
Many stakeholders interviewed for the report supported the idea of giving property owners a right of first refusal in all condemnation cases. Eight other states already provide a similar right. Senate Bill 548, as written, could cost condemning agencies money in an appreciating market, when fair market value exceeds the price paid. Otherwise, there would be little cost to the state and local governments, and only a modest increase in the amount of time required to sell the property, the additional time required to notify the former property owners. Making the sale at fair market value would leave the government in the same position it would be in without a right of first refusal on the part of the former owner.
Helping Property Owners Understand Their Rights
Finally, several interviewees, as well as a number of the panelists asked to speak on eminent domain issues at the September 2012 Commission meeting, said that, because condemnation is something that doesn’t happen very often, efforts should be made to better inform property owners about their rights. This could be done either by creating an office of ombudsman, similar to the Office of Open Records Counsel within the Tennessee Comptroller’s Office, to assist individuals with their condemnation questions or by having condemners include a statement of rights along with a notice of condemnation before initiating condemnation proceedings.
Determining Value
Balancing the legitimate interest of property owners in receiving a fair price and the legitimate interest of governments in acquiring the property they need to provide necessary services without spending too much of the public’s money is a difficult task. Usually, when public entities need to acquire land, they do so through voluntary sales rather than through condemnation. Most state agencies, for example, acquire nearly all of their property by negotiating voluntary sales. Even TDOT acquires most of its property by negotiating directly with property owners.5 Comparable data on land acquisitions by local governments is not
4 Tennessee Code Annotated § 12‐2‐112. 5 The department acquired 6,362 tracts of land for various purposes during FY 2007‐2011. Approximately 5,261 of those tracts (83%) were the result of completed sales, while 1,101 (17%) were the result of condemnations. Between January 2007 and September 2011, other state agencies acquired roughly 99% of the property they needed by negotiating an agreement directly with property owners. This percentage is based on information
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available, but anecdotal information indicates that condemnation is relatively rare in general. And when it occurs, the issue is generally what the purchase price should be, not the right to take.
The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the US Constitution6 and Article 1, Section 21, of the Tennessee Constitution specify that no private property shall be taken without just compensation. Courts have interpreted this requirement to mean that property owners must be paid fair market value, which is “the price that a reasonable buyer would give if he were willing to, but did not have to, purchase and that a willing seller would take if he were willing to, but did not have to, sell.”7
WhyPropertyisCondemned
Generally, property is condemned because owners either do not want to sell it or are not willing to accept the price offered. Property is sometimes condemned at the request of owners who want to sell a property within a redevelopment or urban renewal area and have a willing buyer but do not have clear title to the property. For example, the Knoxville Community Development Corporation (KCDC) estimates that only 25% of its acquisitions in the last six years were by condemnation, and 90% of those were to settle title claims.8
How Disputes Over Value are Resolved When Negotiation Fails
Negotiation is always preferred and for several important reasons: Through negotiation, parties confer with one another to set the terms of the sale. Negotiation remains an option even after the parties have filed a lawsuit, but by resolving matters outside the courtroom, the parties avoid filing fees, court costs, and other litigation expenses. Although many matters can be resolved through negotiation, sometimes the parties’ best efforts fail, and other measures must be taken.
If the governmental entity chooses to pursue the purchase despite the failure of negotiation, the parties may still be able to avoid the expense of litigation by resolving their differences through mediation or arbitration. If that fails, condemnation is the government’s only option for purchasing the property. In order to condemn property, a condemner must first file a lawsuit. At that point, the parties still have two options: litigation or some form of alternative dispute resolution, including mediation or arbitration.
provided by Tennessee’s Department of General Services. This percentage excludes property acquired for easements. 6 See Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago, 166 U.S. 226 (1897), holding that the takings clause of the Fifth Amendment applies to the states through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. 7 Nashville Housing Authority v. Cohen, 541 S.W.2d 947 (Tenn. 1976). See also Alloway v. Nashville, 13 S.W.123 (Tenn. 1889). 8 Alvin Nance, President and CEO, Knoxville Community Development Corporation, September 12, 2012.
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AlternativeDisputeResolution
A number of methods for settling disputes outside the courtroom, commonly referred to as alternative dispute resolution (ADR), are available in Tennessee. ADR is a means of settling disputes without litigation. A number of these ADR methods can be used before or after a court case has been filed. Any of these could be used to help resolve value disputes involving land acquisitions by public entities.
Mediation
Mediation is essentially a form of assisted negotiation that is less time consuming and less costly than other methods of resolving disputes. Through an informal process, a neutral third party, the mediator, helps the parties reach agreement. Control over the price remains with the parties. Decisions reached during mediation are not binding. Therefore, either party could choose to litigate the dispute despite the outcome achieved in mediation. But doing so would increase the time and cost required to resolve the dispute.
Empirical evidence suggests that mediation can help resolve disputes more quickly than arbitration or litigation. A study of 449 civil court cases administered by four major providers of ADR services showed that mediation was capable of settling 78% of cases, regardless of whether the parties had been sent to mediation by a court or had selected the process voluntarily. The study found that mediation also cost far less than arbitration, took less time, and was judged a more satisfactory process than arbitration.9
Another study of mediation in civil cases showed that most parties and lawyers saw mediation as a procedurally just process that generally involved party participation and lacked settlement coercion. Almost half of mediated cases settled, and a substantial number of additional cases made progress toward settlement. The study noted that overall, mediation did not reduce the time to disposition, but cases that settled in mediation were resolved more quickly and attorneys reported greater cost savings.10
Many experts interviewed for this study said that mediation is effective at resolving property value disputes in eminent domain cases. One attorney who also serves as a mediator estimated that roughly 80% of the eminent domain cases that he mediates are settled on the day of mediation or shortly thereafter.11 He noted that this was also true in cases where he represented a party to the mediation and someone else served as mediator. Moreover, mediation has the potential to be cheaper than arbitration or litigation if the parties are able to reach a settlement quickly.
9 Goldberg 1996. 10 Wissler 2002. 11 Doug Berry, Attorney, testimony before TACIR, September 12, 2012. According to Berry, a typical fee for an experienced mediator would be around $2,500‐$3,000 for a day's work and the necessary preparation.
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Judges also recognize the effectiveness of mediation in civil cases. It is required by local rule in most civil cases by the 3rd Judicial District of Tennessee. In the 21st Judicial District, judges require the parties to submit to mediation before a case can be set for trial. Mediation may occur after the filing of a lawsuit either at the request of one of the parties or by order of the court on its own initiative. Tennessee Supreme Court Rule 31 governs alternative dispute resolution when it occurs by court order. When that happens, mediation must be conducted by a Rule 31 mediator. A Rule 31 mediator must have completed at least 40 hours of mediation training.
JudicialSettlementConferences
Judicial settlement conferences are mediations by judicial officers pursuant to Rule 31. While trial courts are authorized to conduct judicial settlement conferences, a judge who participates in a judicial settlement conference is precluded from presiding over the trial or any other contested issues in that matter. The court, on its own initiative, may order a settlement conference, or either party may request one.
CaseEvaluations,Mini‐Trials,andSummaryJuryTrials
Case evaluations, mini‐trials, and summary jury trials are all methods by which parties can assess the strengths and weaknesses of their case under Rule 31. A case evaluation is a process in which a neutral evaluator or three‐person evaluation panel, after brief presentations by the parties summarizing their positions, identifies the central issues in dispute, as well as areas of agreement, provides the parties with an assessment of the relative strengths and weaknesses of their case, and may offer an evaluation of the case. The neutral evaluator serving in case evaluations is subject to standards of conduct set out in Rule 31. Trial courts, with the consent of the parties, are allowed to order a case evaluation.
Mini‐trials are settlement processes in which each side presents an abbreviated summary of its case to the parties or representatives of the parties who are authorized to settle the case. Mini‐trials may be ordered only with the consent of the parties. A neutral person, subject to standards of conduct in Rule 31, must preside over the proceeding. Following the presentation, the parties or their representatives seek a negotiated settlement of the dispute.
Summary jury trials are abbreviated trials with juries in which litigants present their evidence in an expedited fashion. The litigants and the jury are guided by a presiding neutral person. After an advisory verdict from the jury, the presiding neutral person may assist the litigants in a negotiated settlement of their controversy. Summary jury trials may be ordered only with the consent of the parties.
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Arbitration
Arbitration, like litigation, is a process for dispute resolution in which a neutral third party renders a decision after a hearing at which both parties have an opportunity to be heard. It is a consensual proceeding, and parties select decision makers of their own choice. Tennessee law sets out arbitration procedures that, if followed, result in an enforceable agreement.12 Parties may choose to arbitrate any disagreement or may agree in advance by contract to arbitrate. Form contracts often have binding arbitration clauses. With binding arbitration, the parties are legally obligated to comply with the arbitrator’s decision. Nonbinding arbitration is not as common.
Non‐bindingArbitration
In non‐binding arbitration, an arbitrator renders an advisory opinion that the parties can decide whether to adopt. Because the parties make the decision, there is nothing to appeal, thus it is less costly, less time consuming, and less frustrating than binding arbitration. But the primary advantage of non‐binding arbitration is that it can serve as a springboard for discussion and indicate how a knowledgeable fact finder might decide the case. As noted by Steven C. Bennett in an article for the Dispute Resolution Journal, “a party who is unhappy with a non‐binding award and chooses not to settle may litigate the dispute in court (or binding arbitration, if the parties agree). But because this is a costly decision, the disappointed party is likely to think hard about it and try to find a more businesslike solution.” Trial courts are authorized by Rule 31, with the consent of the parties, to order non‐binding arbitration. The parties may select any lawyer in good standing to act as an arbitrator, who will be subject to the standards of conduct in Rule 31.
BindingArbitration
Unlike non‐binding arbitration, the arbitrator’s decision in binding arbitration is enforceable in court. It is in many ways similar to litigation, though potentially less time consuming, largely because the arbitrator’s decision cannot be appealed except in extremely limited circumstances. One study found that employment discrimination cases in federal district court take on average two years to resolve through litigation, while a similar case can be resolved in less than nine months using arbitration.13 Another study of employment discrimination cases found that the median time from filing to judgment was 16.5 months for arbitrated claims and 25 months for litigated claims.14 Since neither of these studies discussed eminent domain cases, their findings may not be directly applicable.
One reason binding arbitration may be quicker than litigation is that the result cannot be appealed simply because the parties don’t like the result. There are limited grounds on which a
12 Tennessee Code Annotated Title 29, Chapter 5, Parts 1 and 3. 13 Maltby 1998. 14 Delikat 2004.
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court can modify or vacate an arbitrator’s decision. Tennessee’s Uniform Arbitration Act provides that a court may modify a decision only when
there was an evident miscalculation of figures or an evident mistake in the description of any person, thing, or property referred to in the award;
the arbitrators have awarded upon a matter not submitted to them and the award may be corrected without affecting the merits of the decision upon the issues submitted; or
the award is imperfect in a matter of form, not affecting the merits of the controversy.15
A court may vacate a decision only when
the award was procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue means;
there was evident partiality by an arbitrator appointed as a neutral or corruption in any of the arbitrators or misconduct prejudicing the rights of any party;
the arbitrators exceeded their powers;
the arbitrators refused to postpone the hearing upon sufficient cause being shown therefor or refused to hear evidence material to the controversy or otherwise so conducted the hearing, contrary to § 29‐5‐306, as to prejudice substantially the rights of a party; or
there was no arbitration agreement and the issue was not adversely determined in proceedings under § 29‐5‐303 and the party did not participate in the arbitration hearing without raising the objection.16
Either party can appeal a court’s decision to modify or vacate the arbitrator’s decision, adding time to the process. While binding arbitration’s limited appeals makes it quicker, the fact that the arbitrating parties give up control of the final decision can also be seen as a drawback.
Another drawback is that arbitration could potentially end up being just as expensive for the property owner as litigation. Arbitration fees vary, with the American Arbitration Association (AAA) fee schedule showing fees beginning at $975 for claims of $10,000 or less and rising from there based on the amount of the claim. The Mediation Group of Tennessee LLC charges an administrative fee of $300 for non‐complex arbitrations, with the administrative fee for complex arbitrations determined on a case‐by‐case basis. Along with the administrative fee, the arbitrator’s charge may be anywhere from $250 to $500 per hour.17 In addition to the arbitrator’s fees, there may be rental fees for the hearing rooms.
15 Tennessee Code Annotated § 29‐5‐314. 16 Tennessee Code Annotated § 29‐5‐313. 17 “Fees.” Mediation Group of Tennessee, LLC. http://themediationgrouptenn.com/pg27.cfm (accessed November 1, 2012).
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Because of the expense and complexity of arbitration, owners generally hire attorneys to represent them. Government agencies are routinely represented by attorneys, so without one, an owner would be at a disadvantage. The cost can be comparable to litigation at the trial level. One attorney said that, if the case is complicated, the attorneys are going to spend the same amount of time preparing for a binding arbitration hearing as they would for court because the arbitrator’s decision is binding.18 There are also likely to be costs associated with hiring appraisers to prepare appraisals for the hearing or hiring expert witnesses to testify.
Litigation
The two main litigation methods for condemnation are the jury of view method, which is available to any entity with the power to condemn, and the “supplementary” method, which is restricted to counties, cities, certain special districts, and the state. There are other statutory methods, but they are restricted to certain types of property acquisitions and are not widely used.
SupplementaryCondemnationMethod
The most widely used condemnation method is the supplementary method, which may be used by counties and cities, by utility, levee, and drainage districts, and by the state to acquire rights‐of‐way, land, material, easements, and rights as are necessary, suitable, or desirable for the construction, reconstruction, maintenance, repair, drainage, or protection of any street, road, freeway, or parkway.19 It requires the condemner to file a petition for condemnation in circuit court and deposit with the court the amount the condemner believes the property owner is entitled to.
If the property owner is satisfied with the amount deposited, she may accept the deposit in full settlement for the property. The court will then enter an order divesting the property owner of title and vesting it in the condemner. The condemner must give the former owner 30 days’ notice before taking possession of the property. If the property owner is dissatisfied with the deposit, she may file an exception to the amount and proceed to trial. The property owner may request payment of the amount deposited but must agree to refund the difference if the award is less. If the award is more, the condemner must pay court costs; if not, the property owner
contesting the value must pay court costs. Other costs actually incurred, including attorney, appraisal, and engineering fees, may be awarded to the owner if the condemner abandons the proceeding or if the condemner is determined not to have a right to take the property. And interest must be paid on any judgments against the condemner from the time of the deposit until the funds are withdrawn.
18 William Farmer, Attorney, testimony before TACIR, September 12, 2012. 19 Tennessee Code Annotated Title 29, Chapter 17, Part 9.
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JuryofViewCondemnationMethod
As with the supplementary method, the jury of view method of condemnation requires the condemner to file a petition in the circuit court and give the property owner 30 days’ notice before proceeding further.20 A writ of inquiry is directed to the sheriff, commanding him to summon a panel of jurors. The jury of view consists of five persons, unless the parties agree to a different number, who determine the price to be paid for the property. Doug Berry, an attorney, said that in Williamson County, when this method is used the parties agree on a panel. The court clerk keeps a list of people such as real estate agents and appraisers who are willing to serve on the jury. The jury’s decision is useful for the local government since it gives the local government’s attorney a number they can go back to their board with. The jury’s decision is usually a compromise verdict; it is usually something between the local government’s appraisal and the property owner’s appraisal. The parties can appeal if they object to the amount awarded by the jury.
Other Methods of Resolving Disputes Over Value
Concern that, despite all of these options, the process of challenging the government’s valuation is too costly and time‐consuming led to the introduction of Senate Bill 1566, which would allow property owners to force local governments to submit the value question to binding arbitration. A review of valuation methods in other states suggests two additional approaches to determining a fair price: a board of property assessors and a special master or referee.
ForcedBindingArbitration(SenateBill1566)
Senate Bill 1566, the goal of which was to avoid the time and expense of litigation, would have allowed a property owner to require the local government to submit the question of value to binding arbitration. Several issues related to the original bill were resolved before the final amendment to the bill, which completely replaced the original bill, was sent to TACIR by the Senate Finance, Ways and Means Committee:
The bill would not have applied to condemnations for utility service.
The condemner would have to notify the property owner within 60 days of taking possession of it.
The definition of property owner would include anyone with an ownership interest in it, including mortgagees and lessors.
While arbitration, in general, is already potentially quicker than litigation, the bill made further provisions to speed the process. It would have required that binding arbitration begin within 60 days of the appointment of an arbitrator when the owner chooses to use an American
20 Tennessee Code Annotated § 29‐16‐104. See also Tennessee Code Annotated § 29‐17‐104.
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Arbitration Association (AAA) arbitrator. Senate Bill 1566 would have allowed the parties to agree on the selection of a non‐AAA arbitrator or for the property owner to request a court‐appointed arbitrator not affiliated with the AAA. In these instances, the bill did not require that the arbitration begin within 60 days.
Local governments are concerned about being forced into a dispute resolution process that can be appealed in only very limited circumstances as described above. Only one state, Oregon, allows a condemnee to force a condemner into binding arbitration and only then, if the value placed on the property by the parties is $20,000 or less.21 The concern of local governments could be mitigated either by adopting a provision similar to Oregon’s or by incorporating mediation into the bill as a first step toward settlement before the right to force the local government into binding arbitration is invoked.
BoardofPropertyAppraisers
In Georgia, three property assessors are appointed to determine the value of condemned property.22 One is selected by the property owner, the second is appointed by the condemner, and the third is chosen by the first two assessors.23 The condemner pays the cost of its appraiser, and the condemnee pays the cost of his or her appraiser. The cost of the third appraiser is split equally between the parties. This board is similar to the jury of view in Tennessee as used in Williamson County, and as with the jury of view, the decision of the board of appraisers can be appealed. 24
One advantage of Georgia’s board of appraisers is that it is potentially cheaper than either mediation or arbitration. Georgia law limits compensation for the panel to $500 per day.25 Mediation and arbitration fees, by comparison, can run almost $250 to $500 per hour. In fact, as noted earlier, the minimum arbitration fee charged by the AAA is $975. A Georgia attorney stated that the board is effective for determining value if one has a good panel. She estimates an appeal rate of only 20%.26 The main disadvantage of this method of determining value is that the board’s decision may be appealed and so would not necessarily lead to a quicker or less costly resolution than binding arbitration would.
21 Oregon Revised Statute § 35.346 (6). 22 In the Georgia Code, the proceedings are referred to as Proceedings before Assessors. However, it is a panel of property assessors who determine value. These assessors must be real estate appraisers with an appraiser classification of certified general appraiser granted under Georgia law. 23 Official Code of Georgia Annotated Title 22, Chapter 2, Article 1. 24 Official Code of Georgia Annotated § 22‐2‐80. 25 Official Code of Georgia Annotated § 22‐2‐40. 26 Anne Sapp, Special Assistant Attorney General, State of Georgia, interview with Kale Driemeier, August 23, 2012.
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SpecialMasterorReferee
A special master or referee is a third party, usually an attorney, who determines the value of property in eminent domain cases. In the two states where this method is used, Alaska and Georgia, the cost of the special master or referee could potentially be less than the fees charged by mediators or arbitrators.27 Courts in both states may set compensation for the special master at a level less than mediation or arbitration. In Alaska, the parties pay the master’s compensation.28 In Georgia, compensation paid by the condemner.29 However, because the decision of the master or referee can be appealed, 30 this method is not necessarily cheaper or less time consuming than binding arbitration.
Condemnation by Housing Authorities
Housing authorities can use condemnation to acquire land for housing for low‐income families31 and for urban renewal or redevelopment projects, such as efforts to improve blighted or other areas that present a threat to the health, safety, or welfare of the community.32 In determining whether an area poses such harm, several factors may be considered, including overcrowding, sanitary facilities, or deleterious land uses.33 Housing agencies in Tennessee are arms of local governments. Their boards are appointed by elected mayors,34 who may remove them from office for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or misconduct after notice and a hearing.35 Elected officials have considerable control over housing agencies exercise of eminent domain through their authority to approve housing and redevelopment plans. No housing authority can initiate a public housing project until the governing body of each city in which the project is located has approved the project plan.36 Tennessee law also provides that an authority shall not exercise eminent domain in a redevelopment zone until the governing body of each city or town where the project is located has approved a plan establishing a boundary within which the authority has the power to acquire property.37 However, the law states that the governing body of each city “or agency designated by it” must approve a redevelopment plan.38 This language allows a governing body to delegate authority to approve a
27 See Alaska Statute § 9.55.300, and Official Code of Georgia Annotated Title 22, Chapter 2, Article 2. 28 Alaska Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 53. 29 Official Code of Georgia Annotated § 22‐2‐103. 30 Alaska Statute § 9.55.300 and Official Code of Georgia Annotated § 22‐2‐80. 31 Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐101 et seq. 32 Tennessee Code Annotated Title 13, Chapter 20, Part 2. 33 Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐201 et seq. 34 Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐408 and 13‐20‐501. The legislative bodies of the member counties appoint the commissioners to a regional housing authority’s board pursuant to TCA § 13‐20‐507. 35 Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐411 and 13‐20‐501. In the case of a regional housing authority, a commissioner may be removed by the officer or officers or their successors who appointed the commissioner pursuant to Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐507. 36 Tennessee Code Annotated § 13‐20‐104. 37 Tennessee Code Annotated § 13‐20‐203. See also Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐501 and 13‐20‐508. 38 Tennessee Code Annotated § 13‐20‐203. See also Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 13‐20‐501 and 13‐20‐508.
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redevelopment plan to a housing agency. 39 TACIR staff could not find a city that had made this delegation, but staff of the General Assembly’s Office of Legal Services agreed that it could be done.
Well‐publicized cases, such as the Joy Ford and Tower Investments condemnations in Nashville, have fostered the perception that housing authorities, as unelected bodies, are wielding great power over the property rights of owners without political accountability. In the Joy Ford case, the Metropolitan Development and Housing Agency (MDHA), which serves Nashville and Davidson County, sought to condemn Joy Ford’s property so that it could be transferred to a developer to build an office, retail, and residential complex.40 Joy Ford contested the condemnation alleging that it violated state and federal laws on taking private land for redevelopment.41 The MDHA maintained that the property was blighted and was properly designated in a redevelopment plan adopted by the metro council.42 The parties were ultimately able to settle the dispute through a land swap involving the exchange of part of Ms. Ford’s property for an adjacent parcel.43,44 In the Tower Investments case, MDHA attempted to condemn property owned by Tower for the new Nashville convention center. Tower Investments did not contest the right to take but did reject the amount of money it was offered for the property. A jury ultimately awarded Tower more than twice the amount offered by MDHA.45 MDHA has appealed the decision, and the parties are currently awaiting a decision from the Tennessee Middle District Court of Appeals.46
Citing these examples and concerns about similar cases in other parts of the state, the sponsors of House Bill 2877 and its companion, Senate Bill 2745, sought to increase political accountability in eminent domain cases by removing the condemnation authority of all housing agencies in Tennessee even when a city had adopted a redevelopment plan giving the housing agency authority to acquire property through condemnation. Under the bill, only the legislative body that established a housing, redevelopment, or urban renewal project could condemn the property identified in it. Properties that could not be acquired through negotiation by the housing authority responsible for the plan would have to be condemned parcel by parcel by the legislative body that approved the plan. Not surprisingly, local governments and housing agencies opposed this change, arguing that the plans themselves are a sufficient constraint on the housing agencies’ power to condemn. However, the power of legislative bodies to delegate authority to approve housing and redevelopment plans to the housing agencies themselves, if exercised, would nullify this constraint.
39 Katie Atkins, Attorney, Tennessee General Assembly, email to Dianna Y. L. Miller, September 10, 2012. 40 Sisk 2008a. 41 Sisk 2008b. 42 Sisk 2008c. 43 Sisk 2009. 44 Nashville Business Journal 2008. 45 Allyn 2011. 46 Rau 2012. TACIR staff also contacted MDHA in October 2012 to verify the status of the case.
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Right of First Refusal
The right of first refusal gives the condemnee the right to repurchase condemned property if the condemner decides to sell it. This is not a new or unusual concept. Eight other states have granted the right of first refusal to former property owners in condemnation cases, and property owners in Tennessee already have it in the case of condemnations by TDOT.47 Under current law, there is no right of first refusal when property is condemned by local governments or state agencies other than TDOT.
Senate Bill 548 would have given a right of first refusal to property owners whose property was condemned by a local government or any state agency. The bill would have required that the property be offered to the former property owners or their heirs or assigns at the price paid by the condemner.
Seven other states have right of first refusal statutes: Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Kentucky, Oregon, Texas, and Utah. In all but Connecticut, the right of first refusal applies to condemnations by both state and local governments.48 In Connecticut, the right applies only to local government condemnations.49 The right of first refusal in Louisiana is in its constitution.50 These states are split over the price that should be paid by the condemnee. Connecticut and Louisiana require that the property be offered at fair market value. Alabama, Florida, Kentucky, Oregon, Texas, and Utah all require that the former property owners be offered the property at the price paid by the condemner.
Helping Property Owners Understand Their Rights
Interviewees and panelists testifying before the Commission suggested that measures be taken to educate property owners about their rights with respect to eminent domain. Very few individuals will ever experience the condemnation of their property and would not likely understand eminent domain law. Few would be aware of the remedies available to them. Having access to information early in the condemnation process would help property owners better understand their rights and what they will go through. Providing this information should facilitate a more efficient resolution of disputes. Several states provide information and guidance to property owners through an ombudsman office or written notice.
47 Tennessee Code Annotated § 12‐2‐112. 48 Code of Alabama § 18‐iB‐2(b), Fla. Stat. § 73.013, KRS § 416.670, ORS § 35.390, Tex. Prop. Code § 21.101, and Utah Code Ann. § 78B‐6‐521. 49 Conn. Gen. Stat. § 8‐127a. In Connecticut, the provisions apply only to local condemnations that are for redevelopment projects. 50 Louisiana Constitution Art. 1 § 4.
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Property Rights Ombudsmen
In Utah, property owners can contact the Office of Property Rights Ombudsman for assistance. Created in 1997, the office helps property owners, citizens, and government officials understand and protect their rights by answering their questions, discussing the law, and advising them of the options that are available to resolve eminent domain disputes.51 The office started with only one attorney, but there are currently three attorneys and one administrator on staff. This office has successfully helped reduce eminent domain litigation. One Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) official was quoted as saying that the percentage of its negotiations to acquire property that result in litigation dropped by more than 75% because of the ombudsman office’s assistance.52 According to ombudsman staff, UDOT currently has the lowest condemnation litigation rate of any state department of transportation in the nation.53
Missouri has a similar office, the Office of the Ombudsman for Property Rights. Established in 2007, the ombudsman provides guidance to individuals seeking information regarding the condemnation process.54 It also documents the use of eminent domain within the state and any issues associated with its use. Currently, staff consists of only the ombudsman; there are no additional employees.
Tennessee has an Office of Open Records Counsel within the Comptroller’s Office that could serve as a model for an ombudsman office to assist property owners with eminent domain matters. The Office of Open Records Counsel serves as the contact for concerns related to accessing local government public records.55 The responsibilities of the office include answering questions and providing information to public officials and the public about public records, collecting data on open meetings law inquiries and problems, providing educational outreach, issuing informal advisory opinions on open records issues, and informally mediating and assisting with the resolution of issues concerning records. An attorney and an administrative assistant staff the office. According to information provided by the Comptroller’s staff, approximately $250,000 would be needed to start a similar office for eminent domain purposes.56 This would cover basic office space, salaries, and related costs.
51 For additional information about the Utah Office of Property Rights Ombudsman functions, see http://propertyrights.utah.gov/. 52 Call 2007. 53 Brent Bateman, Lead Attorney, Utah Office of Property Rights Ombudsman, interview with Kale Driemeier, August 16, 2012. 54 For additional information about the Missouri Office of the Ombudsman for Property Rights, see http://www.eminentdomain.mo.gov/index.htm. 55 Tennessee Code Annotated §§ 10‐7‐501 et seq. 56 Ann Butterworth, Assistant to the Comptroller for Public Finance, e‐mail message to Dianna Y. Miller, September 9, 2012.
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The Tennessee Attorney General’s Office does not specifically assist or advocate on behalf of property owners in eminent domain disputes; however, its staff does respond to eminent domain questions that these individuals pose.57 Attorneys also negotiate directly with property owners in state eminent domain cases.
Landowner Notice of Rights
In order to ensure that property owners are better informed about the eminent domain process, a document could be sent, along with the notice of condemnation, explaining the law in a manner that property owners will easily understand. Three states already require that written notice be sent to property owners apprising them of their rights before condemnation.
Missouri law requires condemners to send notice to property owners at least 60 days before filing a condemnation petition.58 The notice must include a statement outlining the property owner’s rights. These include the right to seek legal counsel at the owner's expense, make a counter‐offer and engage in further negotiations, obtain his or her own property appraisal, seek assistance from the office of the ombudsman for property rights, and have just compensation determined by a jury.
Similarly, in Texas, a condemner must provide a landowner’s bill of rights statement to the property owner before initiating condemnation proceedings.59 The statement describes the condemnation process, the condemner’s obligations to the property owner, and the owner’s options during a condemnation, including the right to object to and appeal an amount of damages awarded. See appendix C for a copy of the Texas notice.
In addition, under Georgia law, condemning entities must send property owners a written, pre‐condemnation notice informing them that the entity is interested in acquiring their property through eminent domain.60 This notice must be sent at least 15 days before any meeting in which the condemner considers or votes to exercise eminent domain and must be accompanied by a statement of the landowner’s rights, including an explanation of the right to receive notice, damages, a hearing, and the right to appeal a decision.
57 Larry Teague, Deputy Attorney General, e‐mail message to Kale Driemeier, September 25, 2012. 58 Missouri Annotated Statutes § 523.250. 59 Texas Property Code § 21.0112. 60 Official Code of Georgia § 22‐1‐10.
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References
Allyn, Bobby. 2011. “Developer’s dreams may hinge on making up with Nashville officials.” Tennessean, October 23.
Bennett, Steven C. 2006. “Non‐binding arbitration: an introduction.” Dispute Resolution Journal. 61(2): 22‐27.
Burger, Warren E. 1984. “The State of Justice.” American Bar Association Journal. 62‐66.
Call, Craig M. 2007. “How Utah Resolves Eminent Domain Disputes and Protects Private Property Rights (in Six Easy Steps).” (paper presented at the CLE International Eminent Domain Institute Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, April 2007), http://propertyrights.utah.gov/booklet_how‐ut‐resolves‐emdom‐disputes.pdf.
Delikat, Michael, and Morris M. Kleiner. 2004. “An Empirical Study of Dispute ResolutionMechanisms: Where do Plaintiffs Better Vindicate Their Rights?” Dispute Resolution Journal. 58(4): 56‐58.
Goldberg, Stephen B., et al. 1996. “The Effectiveness of Mediation: An Independent Analysisof Cases Handled by Four Major Service Providers.” Negotiation Journal. 12(3): 259‐269.
Maltby, Lewis L. 1998. “Private Justice: Employment Arbitration and Civil Rights.” Columbia Human Rights Law Review. 30: 29‐64.
Nashville Business Journal. 2008. “Music Row property owner settles with developer in eminent domain case” Nashville Business Journal. October 1.
Rau, Nate. 2012. “MDHA to appeal ruling in eminent domain case.” Tennessean. January 14.
Sisk, Chas. 2008a. “Metro acts to seize music row property.” Tennessean. June 21.
———. 2008b. “Metro’s use of eminent domain challenged.” Tennessean. July 21.
———. 2008c. “Music row owner fights eminent domain.” Tennessean. July 22.
———. 2009. “Bill calls for local votes on eminent domain.” Tennessean. March 5.
Wissler, Roselle. 2002. “Court‐Connected Mediation in General Civil Cases: What We Know from Empirical Research.” Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution. 17(3): 641‐703.
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Persons Interviewed Jane Alvis, Lobbyist Metropolitan‐Nashville Government
Katie Atkins, Attorney TN General Assembly, Office of Legal Services
Brent Bateman, Lead Attorney Utah Office of Property Rights Ombudsman
Donna Baumgartner, Executive Director TN Association of Housing and Redevelopment Authorities
Douglas Berry, Attorney/Rule 31 Listed Mediator Hubbard, Berry & Harris, PLLC
Laura Bohling, Clerk Rutherford County Circuit Court
G. Sumner Bouldin, Jr., Attorney Bouldin & Bouldin
J.A. Bucy, Lobbyist (former Director of Governmental Affairs, TN Association of Realtors)
Scott Bullock, Senior Attorney Institute for Justice
Ann Butterworth, Assistant to the Comptroller for Public Finance TN Comptroller of the Treasury
Joseph Cain, Director of Urban Development Metropolitan Development and Housing Agency (MDHA)
Anne Carr, Lobbyist Tennessee Association of Housing and Redevelopment Authorities
Joe Carr, State Representative Rutherford County
Phyllis Childs, Senior Counsel Office of the Attorney General, Real Property and Transportation Division
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Jamie Clariday, Attorney Tennessee General Assembly, Office of Legal Services
Fred Congdon, Executive Director Association of County Mayors
David Connor, Executive Director TN County Commissioners Association
Jim Cope, County Attorney Rutherford County
William “Bill” Farmer, Attorney Jones Hawkins & Farmer, PLC
James “Jim” Fisher, Attorney Law Office of James W. Fisher
Jim Gotto, Retired Davidson County (former State Representative and Metropolitan Council Member)
Norman Hall, Real Estate Appraiser Norman Hall and Associates and the Appraisal Institute
John R. Hamilton, Attorney Hamilton, Laughlin, Barker, Johnson & Watson Kansas
Jeff Hoge, Right‐of‐Way Director Tennessee Department of Transportation
Paul de Holczer, Attorney Moses & Brackett South Carolina
Roger Horner, City Attorney City of Brentwood
Dennis Huffer, Legal Counsel Greater Nashville Regional Council
Chad Jenkins, Deputy Director Tennessee Municipal League
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Bill Ketron, State Senator Rutherford County
Sharon Lee, Justice TN Supreme Court
Claudia Lewis, Programs Manager, Rule 31 Mediation Program TN Administrative Office of the Courts
Betsy McCright, Executive Director Chattanooga Housing Authority
Randy McNally, State Senator/Commissioner, TACIR Anderson and Loudon counties
Alvin Nance, Executive Director/CEO Knoxville's Community Development Corporation
Jordana Nelson, General Counsel/ VP Development Knoxville's Community Development Corporation
S. Pierre Paret, VP for Government Relations American Arbitration Association
Nathan Ridley, Lobbyist/Attorney Bradley Arant Boult Cummings (BABC)
Rhedona Rose, Executive Vice‐President TN Farm Bureau Federation
Mark Rudisill, Retired Chattanooga Housing Authority (former Manager of Development)
Phil Ryan, Executive Director Metropolitan Development and Housing Agency (MDHA)
Anne Sapp, Special Assistant Attorney General Georgia
Donald L. Scholes, General Counsel TN Association of Utility Districts (TAUD)
D. Tracy Shaw, Attorney/Rule 31 Listed Mediator Howell & Fisher, PLLC
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D. Bruce Shine, Attorney/Chair Law Office of D. Bruce Shine/TN Alternative Dispute Resolution Commission
Gary R. Standifer, Appraiser/ Consultant (MAI, CCIM) Standifer & Associates, Inc.
Larry Teague, Deputy Office of the Attorney General Real Property and Transportation Division
Clark Tidwell, Attorney Lassiter Tidwell & Davis
Christian Torgrimson, Attorney Pursley, Lowery, Meeks, LLP, Georgia
Hawthorne Welcher, Manager Aiken Housing Authority
Delores Williams, Assistant Deputy Clerk Rutherford County Circuit Court
Rick Womick, State Representative Rutherford County
Appendix A
TACIR 24
TACIR 25
TACIR 26
TACIR 27
TACIR 28
TACIR 29
TACIR 30
TACIR 31
TACIR 32
TACIR 33
TACIR 34
TACIR 35
TACIR 36
TACIR 37
TACIR 38
TACIR 39
TACIR 40
TACIR 41
TACIR 42
TACIR 43
TACIR 44
TACIR 45
TACIR 46
TACIR 47
TACIR 48
TACIR 49
Entities with the power to condemn in Tennessee Airport authorities (T.C.A. §§ 42-3-108–42-3-109; 42-3-204) Beech River Watershed Development Authority (T.C.A. § 64-1-102) Bridge companies (T.C.A. § 54-13-208) Carrol County Watershed Authority (T.C.A. § 64-1-805) Coast and geodetic surveys (T.C.A. § 29-17-501) Counties—Airports (T.C.A. § 42-5-103) Counties—Electric plants (T.C.A. § 7-52-105) Counties—Controlled access highways (T.C.A. § 54-16-104) Counties—Industrial parks (T.C.A. § 13-16-203) Counties—Levees (T.C.A. § 69-5-105) Counties—Public transportation systems (T.C.A. § 7-56-106) Counties—Public works projects (T.C.A. § 9-21-107) Counties—Railroad systems (T.C.A. § 7-56-207) Counties—Recreational land (T.C.A. § 11-24-102) Counties—Roads (T.C.A. §§ 29-17-801 et seq.; 54-10-205) Counties—Schools (T.C.A. §§ 49-6-2001 et seq.) Counties—Solid waste sites (T.C.A. § 68-211-919) Counties—for the West Tennessee River Basin Authority (T.C.A. § 64-1-1103(14)) Drainage and levee districts (T.C.A. §§ 29-17-801 et seq.; 69-6-201 et seq.) Electric power districts (T.C.A. §§ 7-83-303; 7-83-305) Hospitals (T.C.A. § 29-16-126) (T.C.A. in certain counties) Housing authorities (T.C.A. §§ 13-20-104; 13-20-108–13-20-109; 13-20-212; 29-17-401 et seq.) Light, power, and heat companies (T.C.A. § 65-22-101) Metropolitan governments—Energy production facilities (T.C.A. § 7-54-103) Metropolitan governments—Port authorities (T.C.A. § 7-5-108) Metropolitan hospital authorities (T.C.A. § 7-57-305) Mill Creek Flood Control Authority (T.C.A. § 64-3-104) Municipalities—Airports (T.C.A. § 42-5-103) Municipalities—City Manager - Commission (T.C.A. § 6-19-101) Municipalities—Controlled access highways (T.C.A. § 54-16-104) Municipalities—Drainage ditches
Appendix B
TACIR 50
(T.C.A. § 7-35-101) Municipalities—Electric plants (T.C.A. § 7-52-105) Municipalities—Gas systems (T.C.A. § 7-39-303) Municipalities—Industrial parks (T.C.A. § 13-16-203) Municipalities—Mayor - Aldermanic (T.C.A. § 6-2-201) Municipalities—Modified City Manager (T.C.A. § 6-33-101) Municipalities—Parks (T.C.A. §§ 7-31-107 et seq.) Municipalities—Public transportation systems (T.C.A. § 7-56-106) Municipalities—Public works projects (T.C.A. § 9-21-107) Municipalities—Railroad systems (T.C.A. § 7-56-207) Municipalities—Recreational systems (T.C.A. § 11-24-102) Municipalities—Schools (T.C.A. §§ 49-6-2001 et seq.) Municipalities—Sewers (T.C.A. § 7-35-101) Municipalities—Slum clearance (T.C.A. §§ 13-21-204; 13-21-206) (T.C.A. in certain counties) Municipalities—Solid waste sites (T.C.A. § 68-211-919) Municipalities—Streets (T.C.A. §§ 7-31-107 et seq.) Municipalities—Utilities (T.C.A. § 7-34-101) Municipalities—Water systems (T.C.A. § 7-35-101) Municipalities—For the West Tennessee River Basin Authority (T.C.A. § 64-1-1103(14)) North Central Tennessee Railroad Authority (T.C.A. § 64-2-507) Pipeline companies (T.C.A. § 65-28-101) Private roads (T.C.A. § 54-14-101 et seq.) Railroads (T.C.A. §§ 65-6-109; 65-6-123) Railroads—Branch lines (T.C.A. § 65-6-126 et seq.) Railroads—Interurban railroads (T.C.A. § 65-16-119) Road improvement districts (T.C.A. § 54-12-152) Solid waste authorities (T.C.A. § 68-211-908) State Department of Environment and Conservation (T.C.A. §§ 11-1-105; 11-3-105; 11-14-110; 59-8-215) State Department of Transportation (T.C.A. §§ 29-17-801 et seq.; 54-5-104; 54-5-208; 54-16-104) State military affairs (T.C.A. §§ 58-1-501 et seq.)
TACIR 51
State water and sewer facilities (T.C.A. § 12-1-109) Telegraph companies (T.C.A. § 65-21-204) Telephone companies (T.C.A. § 65-21-204) Telephone cooperatives (T.C.A. §§ 65-29-104; 65-29-125) Tri-County Railroad Authority (T.C.A. § 64-2-307) University of Tennessee (T.C.A. § 29-17-301) Utility districts (T.C.A. § 7-82-305) Water companies (T.C.A. §§ 65-27-101 et seq.) Water and wastewater authorities (T.C.A. § 68-221-610)
TACIR 52
Appendix C
TACIR 53
TACIR 54
TACIR 55
TACIR 56
TACIR 57
