EMERGENCE OF THE AMERICAS IN GLOBAL

AFFAIRS1880 - 1929

Civil War to turn of the Century From Colony to Superpower Gilded Age 1877-1893

1882 must control an isthmus canal Many domestic problems- time of rapid change (railroad,

steam, telegraph, 1st rush of globalization, increase in poverty, competition and struggle pushed by Darwinism theory)

Low concern for external threats Non-entanglement became holy writ More than ever drawn to far of places

Adventure, opportunity, and commerce Rush for empire by all countries Immigration with high birth rate pushes us to second most

populated country by 1900 U.S. number one economic growing city Greater individual liberties Killed off Native Americans Sent agriculture and industrial products across the globe

Civil War to turn of the Century Roots of American Empire found in Post-

Civil War Claims to “non-interference being strictly

observed” Foreign Recreation driven by driven

countries? Missionaries go to far off nations to

Christianize “backwards” people

Themes and Questions to think about Immigration

How did immigrants of ethnic groups change and push United States for foreign policy

Economy “Gilded Age politicians and businessmen thus set out to protect existing foreign markets and find new ones“

  “Certain of the superiority of their institutions and conscious of their rising power, they increasingly claimed that their rightful

place was at the head of the American nations. They believed they could assist their southern neighbors to be more stable and orderly. For reasons of both economics and security, they sought to roll back European influence and increase their own.” (Herring 290)

Pre- Spanish American War “What was once called the Spanish American War was the pivotal event of a pivotal decade, bringing the “large policy” to

fruition and marking the United States as a world power” (Herring 309) 

Do you agree “no war in history has accomplished so much in so short time with so little loss?” What were the two sides of the argument over the Philippines?

  Was the war something done “for” Cubans or done “to” Cubans? How has the Philippian war bring “disillusionment” to the “nation’s imperial mission?”

  Why was “isolation…no longer possible or desirable?”

  Good Intentions 1901-1913  

How did diplomatic expectations and U.S. infrastructure change with Theodore Roosevelt pushing the presidency to an “imperial state”?

In what ways did immigrants play a role in U.S. foreign policy? 

How did dollar diplomacy work itself out in Latin America?

Presidents from 1880 to 1929 Arthur 1881 – 1885 Cleveland 1885 – 1889 Harrison 1889 – 1893 Cleveland 1893 – 1897 McKinley 1897 – 1901 T. Roosevelt 1901 – 1909 Taft 1909 – 1913 Wilson 1913 - 1922

Arthur Crucial first steps in building a modern navy Construction of steam-powered steel cruisers, steel rams, and steel-

clad gunboats Curb corruption and incompetency within the Navy Naval War College was established in Newport, Rhode Island, and the

Office of Naval Intelligence was created Even in 1889, naval coaling stations were limited to Honolulu, Samoa,

and Pichilingue in Lower California Secretary of state, James G. Blaine Advocating the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen, negotiated a treaty with Nicaragua

that ceded a stretch of land to the United States for construction of the waterway

Congress refused to ratify this treaty Violated an existing treaty with Great Britain Each nation pledged not to obtain exclusive control over any canal

built through the Isthmus of Panama

Cleveland Cleveland shunned foreign entanglements and imperial ambitions Revolutions in both Hawaii and Cuba and chose not to acknowledge either Although he did send ships to Venezuela to compel the British to accept

arbitration Cleveland's interference in the Venezuelan boundary dispute was his most

controversial foreign policy decision Principal agenda was to oppose territorial expansion and entangling

alliances Samoa was another matter altogether. Because the United States had

treaty rights to establish a naval base on the island, Cleveland reacted strongly when Germany tried to install a puppet monarch

Hawaii: Cleveland tried to pressure the revolutionary government into handing power back to Queen Liliuokalani

Cleveland washed his hands of the affair in frustration He did send troops to Panama and Rio de Janeiro during his Presidency In Cuba, Cleveland wanted to remain neutral, refusing to support the

insurrection against Spanish rule and urging instead that Spain adopt reforms that would lead to gradual independence

The matter remained unresolved at the end of his second term

Harrison International affairs engaged Harrison's administration more than any president since

Lincoln. The first Pan-American conference was held in 1889 Established Samoa as an American protectorate with Germany and England as partners,

and tried to annex Hawaii following a revolution (the Senate rejected the annexation) Pressured Chile to pay reparations for harm done to American sailors in Valparaiso Harrison negotiated reciprocal trade agreements that set the pattern for American trade

policy in the years to come. He convened the first modern Pan-American Conference in October 1889 and also boldly

negotiated the establishment of a protectorate over the Samoan Islands with Germany and Great Britain

Harrison appointed the nation's leading black leader, Frederick Douglass, minister to Haiti.

Harrison supported the expansion of the Navy, begun by President Chester Arthur, into a world-class fleet of seven armored ships

He failed to secure a coaling station in Haiti Could not convince Congress to guarantee the bonds of a private company trying to build

a canal in Nicaragua, nor did he achieve the annexation of Hawaii Legacy: launched the nation on the road to empire, inspired Theodore Roosevelt's "Big

Stick" diplomacy, vigorous trade agenda, negotiating substantial reciprocal trade agreements with key American trading markets -- novel actions that set the pattern for American trade policy in the twentieth century

McKinley McKinley's Open Door policy to China mandating that trade with the Chinese be open to all western

nations equally The new century would be the first in U.S. history in which no frontier existed for them to conquer New frontiers were integral to national greatness No modern nation could be a great nation without a powerful navy, a superior merchant fleet, and

overseas colonies This idea greatly influenced political leaders

These individuals looked beyond American shores for new frontiers, world markets, and overseas colonies

Fears of overseas expansion: too costly, non-white peoples into the American nation, deviate from the traditional isolationist stance of the nation's foreign policy, an economic threat

China emerged as a major foreign policy concern Especially as Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, and Japan, among others, scrambled throughout the

1890s to establish their own "spheres of influence" in that nation. Fearful that the Europeans and Japanese might close Chinese ports to U.S. commerce, McKinley authorized Secretary of State John Hay to issue an "Open Door" note on China

All commercial nations on an equal footing in China Declared U.S. support for a non-colonized and independent China One of the most important policy statements ever issued by the U.S. State Department In June 1900, a group of Chinese nationalists who objected to foreign intrusions in their country

massacred numerous western missionaries and Chinese converts to Christianity Also laid siege to the foreign community of diplomats in Peking Without seeking congressional approval Several gunboats to assist a combined expeditionary force China was forced to pay an indemnity in excess of $300 million, $25 million of which went to the

United States

Roosevelt America should be strong and ready to defend its interests around the world Latin America consumed a fair amount of Roosevelt's time and energy during his

first term as President. Venezuela became a focus of his attention in 1902 when Germany and Britain sent ships to blockade that country's coastline. The European nations had given loans to Venezuela that the Venezuelan dictator refused

to repay Roosevelt felt aggrieved by their actions and demanded that they agree to

arbitration to resolve the dispute Dominican Republic European investors had appealed to their governments to collect money from a

debt-ridden nation Latin American nation Dominican government appealed to the United States, Roosevelt ordered an

American collector to assume control of the customs houses and collect duties to avoid possible European military action

Roosevelt formulated what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary stated that the United States would not accept European intervention in the

Americas To preempt such action and to maintain regional stability United States would intervene in any Latin American country that manifested

serious economic problems United States would serve as the "policeman" of the Western Hemisphere, a policy

which eventually created much resentment in Latin America

Taft Assert U.S. influence in foreign lands through investment and trade Did not shy away from displaying American military might to protect

U.S. business interests When revolution threatened in Honduras and Nicaragua, Taft

dispatched troops to safeguard U.S. citizens and property More committed to the expansion of U.S. foreign trade than was

Roosevelt Encourage U.S. investments in South and Central American, the

Caribbean, and the Far East U.S. military was a tool of economic diplomacy. He invited U.S. banks

to rescue debt-ridden Honduras with loans and grants, and he sent 2,700 U.S. marines to stabilize Nicaragua's conservative, pro-U.S. regime when rebels threatened to overthrow its government

Seeking commercial advantages in Central America aggravated the existing ill will that had been generated by Roosevelt's military interventions in Panama and Santa Domingo

Pan-American Conference. This conference was intent on finding ways to curtail U.S. commercial penetration, influence, and intervention

Wilson Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy was based on an altruistic yearning to impart the

benefits of constitutional democracy on other nations. To his detractors, his approach was seen as condescending and naïve

Wanted to “strike a new note in international affairs” Wanted to condemn imperialism and endorse democracy and peace According to this policy, the US would only lend a helping hand to those Latin

American nations which had a democratic government and supported the interests of the US. The idea behind this was to resort to economic pressure to influence and control the other nations. The US being a major player in the world economy, it was difficult for the other nations to maintain a stable economy of their won without the SU support. Wilson banked on this very fact and tried to force these nations into submission with his moral diplomacy

Wilson set out to raise the moral tone of American foreign policy by denouncing dollar diplomacy

To seek special economic concessions in Latin America was "unfair" and "degrading." The United States would deal with Latin American nations "upon terms of equality and honor."

Woodrow Wilson and his secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, came into office with little experience in foreign relations but with a determination to base their policy on moral principles rather than the selfish materialism that they believed had animated their predecessors' programs

He also permitted Secretary of State Wilham Jennings Bryan to negotiate conciliation treaties with 21 nations. The distinctive feature of these agreements was the provision for a "cooling-of' period of one year, during which signatories agreed, in the event of a dispute, not to engage in hostilities.

Wilson Cont… Mexico

Refused to recognize General Huerta who had seized power illegally "I will not recognize a government of butchers," he said. This was unconventional, since nations do not ordinarily

consider the means by which a foreign regime has come to power before deciding to establish diplomatic relations.

Wilson refused to recognize General Victoriano Huerta, Wilson demanded that Huerta hold free elections His stance encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico led by Venustiano Carranza German merchantman laden with munitions was expected at Veracruz, Wilson ordered the city occupied to

prevent the weapons from reaching the Huertistas Mexican officials arrested a few American sailors, which pushed Wilson to order the U.S. Navy to occupy the port

city of Veracruz This weakened Huerta's control, and he abandoned power to Carranza, whom Wilson immediately recognized as

the de facto president of Mexico Pancho Villa moved to provoke a war between the Carranza government and the United States by stopping a train

in northern Mexico and killed 16 American passengers in cold blood. Then he crossed into New Mexico and burned the town of Columbus, killing 19

Wilson, without securing permission from Carranza, sent an expedition of 7,000 U.S. soldiers commanded by General John "Black Jack" Pershing into Mexico in pursuit of Villa

Alarmed by the danger of war, Wilson reaffirmed his commitment to Mexican self-determination and agreed to discuss methods of securing the border area with the Mexican government

Early in 1917 Wilson withdrew all U.S. forces from Mexico Other nations

In 1916, Wilson practiced an old-fashioned form of imperialism by buying the Virgin Islands from their colonial master, Denmark, for $25 million

Congress promised the residents of the Philippine Islands independence Puerto Rico achieved territorial status, and its residents became U.S. citizens Responded to revolution in Haiti by sending in American marines to restore order, and he did the same in the

Dominican Republic in 1916 Because of the strategic importance of the Panama Canal, he was unwilling to tolerate "unrest" anywhere in the

Caribbean

Gunboat Diplomacy In international politics, gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives

with the aid of conspicuous displays of military power — implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare, should terms not be agreeable to the superior force.

The British diplomat and naval thinker James Cable spelled out the nature of gunboat diplomacy in a series of works published between 1971 and 1994. In these, he defined the phenomenon as "the use or threat of limited naval force, otherwise than as an act of war, in order to secure advantage or to avert loss, either in the furtherance of an international dispute or else against foreign nationals within the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state." He further broke down the concept into four key areas:

Definitive Force: the use of gunboat diplomacy to create or remove a fait accompli (a French phrase which means literally "an accomplished fact." It is commonly used to describe an action which is completed before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it. Perhaps the nearest English equivalent is a "done deal").

Purposeful Force: application of naval force to change the policy or character of the target government or group

Catalytic Force: a mechanism designed to buy a breathing space or present policy makers with an increased range of options

Expressive Force: use of navies to send a political message - interestingly this aspect of gunboat diplomacy is undervalued and almost dismissed by Cable.

Notable examples: Panama separation from Colombia Great White Fleet (1907

U.S. Expansion Not much interest in foreign affairs (very

isolationist) Some desire to compete with Europe Social Darwinism will encourage expansion-white

Americans are indeed the fittest(?) Rudyard Kipling-take up the white man’s burden-

duty to civilize and Christianize the “backward” peoples of the world

Alfred Thayer Mayan-expand the merchant fleet and the navy-create new markets and make a profit

Those against expansion-U.S. a vast country-plenty to do here--- people opposed imperialism: empire building, expanding the nations authority

Four themes of diplomacy The most obvious theme is the land and

commercial expansion that drove the nation outward between 1750 and the 1940’s.

Second theme is the steady centralization of power at home, especially in the executive branch of government after 1890. Foreign policies that Americans have desired since the nineteenth century are most effective carried out by a strong presidency.

Third, “isolationism”, maintaining a maximum amount of freedom of action

Fourth, importance of the transitional 1850 to 1914 era, a time when Americans attitudes underwent change and ushered in modern U.S. foreign policy

Evolution of Diplomacy Monroe Doctrine of 1823

Faced with threats of foreign intervention from several European powers in the western hemisphere

To combat the intervention Monroe came up with the following policy1. The W. hemisphere was closed to further European

colonization2. U.S. would not interfere with the existing conflicts of

Europeans3. The U.S. would not interfere in the internal affairs of

any Europeans4. Any attempt by the European powers to intervene in

the W. hemisphere would be regarded as “dangerous to our peace and safety.”

Turning Point: The McKinley Years (1896-1900)

Never had a newly independent nation risen so far so fast as did the United States between 1776-1900

After the triumph over Spain in 1898 brought the U.S. new holdings in the Caribbean and the western Pacific

McKinley won the 1896 election and intended to control foreign policy himself

In so doing, became the first modern chief executive, expanding the Constitution’s commander in chief powers, setting the precedent for the “imperial presidency” of the 1960’s and 1970’s

Built a political coalition so powerful that only one Democratic presidential nominee would be elected between 1896 to 1932.

Two Crises, One War McKinley took oath in March of 1897 as a revolution raged just ninety

miles from U.S. shores 1894-1895, the U.S. tariff policy had kept out Cuban sugar from

mainland markets. The island went into an economic tailspin, and a revolution against

Spanish colonialism raged Washington preferred to hold Spain fully responsible for protecting

U.S. lives and property, while pushing the Madrid government to give Cuba autonomy

Spain refused to move Cuba towards autonomy. It’s great 400 year empire had rotted away to little more than Cuba, Puerto Rico, and a few small islands

No government in Spain could surrender these last holdings and expect to remain in power

Spain dispatched 150,000 troops under General Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler.

Insurgents burned U.S. property in hope of forcing McKinley's intervention

Yellow Journalism fans the flames of war

Technological breakthroughs in making paper and setting type had made mass distribution of papers easy

William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitizer sought readers through sensational front page stories, and nothing was more sensational than the events in Cuba, unless of course it was a war with Spain

McKinley was not moved by the press and feared war would drag the U.S. back into the economic crises it was finally emerging from in 1897

McKinley, moreover, opposed war because it could lead to demands for annexing Cuba, which would raise constitutional problems Can the constitution safely stretch across water to

take in new states without tearing apart? Bringing Cuba in to the Union would also

incorporate a multiracial society at a time when whites were already having problems dealing with black Americans and millions of newly arrived immigrants

McKinley pressed Spain to grant reforms and Madrid began to do so, but McKinley criticized it as too little too late

A War Emerges Spain lost control, in late 1897, riots erupted

in Havana McKinley moved a warship, the Maine, into

Havana Harbor to protect U.S. citizens and property

Six days later, on February 15, an explosion shook the Maine, settling into the muck of the Harbor, taking more than 250 U.S. sailors with it

Yellow journalist, citizens, and congressmen would scream for war

The Second Crises Rebels in the Philippines had begun war

against Spanish rule The islands could become a key military

base from which to protect U.S. interests in Asia

McKinley and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt closely watched these islands

Roosevelt sent his Pacific fleet to attack the islands in case of war with Spain

Germany and Japan were grabbing at Asian territory which forced the Presidents hand to begini the quest for Asian Markets

McKinley carefully prepared his policy to deal with the Cuban and Asian crises at once.

After the Maine, he moved rapidly to prepare the country for war

Between March 20 and 28, the President sent a series of demands to Spain Pay reparations for the Maine, declare a truce, and

negotiate for Cuban independence through U.S. meditation

Spain did all of them, but Cuban independence, no Madrid government could do this and remain in power

April 11, sent a message to Congress asking for war on grounds that the struggle in Cuba threatened lives, U.S. property, and tranquility in the U.S.

The President did not want war He did want results that only war could

bring Protecting property in Cuba Stopping the revolution before it turned towards

U.S. Restore confidence in U.S. Business community,

giving himself a free hand to deal with the Philippines crisis

For these reasons, McKinley took the country into war in April 1898

“A Splendid Little War…” Congress included in its war resolution the Teller

Amendment which declared that the U.S. was not entering into war to conquer territory.

McKinley was not interested in annexing Cuba, but did want Hawaii Vital bases for U.S. ships heading toward the Philippines, and

when Japan sent warships to the Hawaiian islands he ordered U.S. ships to prepare for action

Could not get senate vote to annex Hawaii Dewey in the Philippines sent word that he had just taken

the Philippines, two days later McKinley got the senate and house to annex Hawaii The islands then fit within a bigger plan developing in foreign

policy By early August, Hawaii was a territory, Americans had

won their easiest contest yet and had become a power in the western Pacific

This led the U.S. to believe that Cuba could be taken by sea and built the navy for action, not the army

The main U.S fleet got ready to fight the Spanish fleet sailing across the Atlantic to Cuba

An important ship, the Oregon, arrived after a 68 day voyage around Cape Horn Made Americans understand the need for a canal

across Central America U.S. fleet quickly cut off four vessels in

Santiago Harbor, trying to flee 12 U.S. vessels destroyed the entire Spanish fleet at the cost of 1 American life Gave war a good name, easy and cost free

Roosevelt emerged as a national hero

Back to the Philippines… McKinley decided to annex the Philippines Islands

Filipinos could not run their own country Revolutionaries were divided and one radical faction

threatened property Civil War would allow our commercial rivals in the Orient to

seize the islands for themselves Protect the naval base at Manila

Sent U.S. troops before Dewey had won On the evening before the vote for annexation

Filipinos attacked U.S. soldiers The revolt against U.S. control had begun

They had originally welcomed the U.S. that defeated Spain, then turned to hostility when they found out U.S. intended to stay

War erupted and lasted for another 3 years

The United States, Cuba, and the Platt Amendment, 1901 The Platt Amendment, an amendment to a U.S. army

appropriations bill, established the terms under which the United States would end its military occupation of Cuba (which had begun in 1898 during the Spanish-American War) and “leave the government and control of the island of Cuba to its people.”

The Platt Amendment’s conditions: Prohibited the Cuban Government from entering into any

international treaty that would compromise Cuban independence or allow foreign powers to use the island for military purposes.

The United States also reserved the right to intervene in Cuban affairs in order to defend Cuban independence

Other conditions of the Amendment demanded that the Cuban Government agree to sell or lease territory for coaling and naval stations to the United States. (This clause ultimately led to the perpetual lease by the United States of Guantánamo Bay.)

Finally, the amendment required the Cuban Government to conclude a treaty with the United States that would make the Platt amendment legally binding, and the United States pressured the Cubans to incorporate the terms of the Platt Amendment in the Cuban constitution.

Theodore Roosevelt and Twentieth Century U.S. Foreign Policy

TR personally exemplified central themes of post-1890 foreign policy Willingness to use force to obtain order An emphasis on a special U.S. responsibility to guarantee

stability in Latin America Belief that Anglo Saxon (a person of European origin fitting a certain socio-

economic and/or ethnic profile.) values and successes gave Americans a right to conduct such policy

Americans wanted no more land, they wanted economic markets abroad

Believed that great leadership could use this economic power to prevent disorder and revolution American goods could create happier, more stable

societies in the Caribbean and C. America This became known as $dollar diplomacy$

TR had inherited a position whose powers had already multiplied during the post-1860 era

Believed it was his duty to do anything that the needs of the Nation demanded unless such action was forbidden by the Constitution of the laws

The more Americans supported a vigorous foreign policy, the more they were going to get a vigorous president A young Woodrow Wilson said the “office will be as big and

as influential as the man who occupies it.” TR believed that only the President could conduct foreign

policy b/c congress is too large and unwieldy He even used his power as commander in chief to dispatch

troops as he saw fit in Latin America Thus was born the 20th century “imperial Presidency”

Roosevelt colorfully demonstrated that an aggressive foreign policy created a strong President and vice versa

TR knew what he wanted to do with his new powers: U.S. controlled isthmus canal in Central America First he had to solve some other foreign issues:

A boundary dispute between Alaska and Canada Agree to have 6 impartial jurists arbitrate the dispute He appointed 3 non impartial jurists Canada appointed 2 And England 1, who promptly voted for the Americans

and handed Roosevelt the land For not the 1st or the last time, Canadian interest

were sacrificed for the sake of U.S.-British friendship Signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty

Agreement nullified the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 and gave the United States the right to create and control a canal across Central America

A French company already was building in Panama (a province of Columbia), we offered $10 million plus $250,000 annually for the six mile zone

Columbia legislature rejected it and demanded more money

TR spread the word he would not be displeased to see Panama revolt from Columbia Needing little encouragement and with help from

Washington Panamanians revolted in November 1903. U.S. warships prevented Columbia troops from landing

and two days later Roosevelt recognized the new nation Signed a treaty giving Panama $10 million plus $250,000

a year for a ten mile strip that cut the country in half U.S. also fully guaranteed Panama’s independence

TR was determined to build a canal, most Americans overwhelmingly approved his actions

Roosevelt Corollary TR understood the importance of and how it

needed to be enforced, Monroe Doctrine Danger to the doctrine came not from

European powers anymore, but frequent revolutions in the smaller Caribbean and Central American nations

In ‘02-’03 Germans, French, and British used force to collect debts from Venezuela TR could not tolerate major European intervention

In the region, but if he opposed it, the Europeans would demand that he make the Latin Americans behave properly

From this he outlined his corollary to the doctrine

President Theodore Roosevelt's assertive approach to Latin America and the Caribbean has often been characterized as the "Big Stick," and his policy came to be known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.

Although the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 was essentially passive (it asked that Europeans not increase their influence or recognize any part of the Western Hemisphere), by the 20th century a more confident United States was willing to take on the role of regional policeman.

In the early 1900s Roosevelt grew concerned that a crisis between Venezuela and its creditors could spark an invasion of that nation by European powers.

The Roosevelt Corollary of December 1904 stated that the United States would intervene as a last resort to ensure that other nations in the Western Hemisphere fulfilled their obligations to international creditors, and did not violate the rights of the United States or invite "foreign aggression to the detriment of the entire body of American nations."

As the corollary worked out in practice, the United States increasingly used military force to restore internal stability to nations in the region. Roosevelt declared that the United States might "exercise international police power in 'flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence.'"

Over the long term the corollary had little to do with relations between the Western Hemisphere and Europe, but it did serve as justification for U.S. intervention in Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama had all been brought within the American orbit within six years

Roosevelt’s corollary anticipated U.S. policy toward Latin America for the rest of the twentieth century.

Between 1898 and 1920, U.S. troops entered Latin America countries no fewer than 20 times

The corollary opened a new era in hemispheric relations

In 1911, the Monroe Doctrine was expanded even more with the Lodge Corollary Declared U.S. opposition to the sale of any strategic area

to a non-hemispheric company that might be an agent for a foreign government

The Monroe Doctrine resembled U.S. industry and Presidential powers: it grew larger all the time

Taft and Dollar Diplomacy Believed in order in Latin America and

believed enough money (dollar diplomacy) could do this

Thought more constructive foreign affairs could be achieved by using the nations rapidly growing capital resources and downplaying Roosevelt's emphasis on military force

Dollar diplomacy could create orderly societies by helping develop the unindustrialized nations and happily make a nice profit for American investors

Dollar Diplomacy, 1909-1913 From 1909 to 1913, President William Howard Taft

followed a foreign policy characterized as "dollar diplomacy." Taft shared the view that the goal of diplomacy was to create stability and order abroad that would best promote American commercial interests.  The goal of diplomacy is to improve financial opportunities, but also to use private capital to further U.S. interests overseas.

"Dollar diplomacy" was evident in extensive U.S. interventions in the Caribbean and Central America, especially in measures undertaken to safeguard American financial interests in the region.

In spite of successes, "dollar diplomacy" failed to counteract economic instability and the tide of revolution in places like Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and China.

Dollar Diplomacy in Latin America

U.S. had reached a point where it both needed Latin American markets and possessed the excess capital to develop in the hemisphere The south had the raw materials and the north the

manufacturers Railroad builder from Brooklyn built a major rail

system in Costa Rica and then developed banana plantations so that the trains would have cargo Thus began the United Fruit Company, or “the octopus” By WWI they owned the banana market, the rail system,

shipping, banking, and governments in Costa Rica and Honduras

U.S. bankers were acquiring Nicaraguan banks and railroads in return for loans that kept the government afloat

Dollar Diplomacy in Canada Taft and Wilfrid Laurier signed a U.S.-

Canadian tariff agreement Taft’s view: Deal could integrate Canada into a

vast hemispheric industrial complex controlled by the United States

Aimed at changing trade to north and south rather than between Canada and Britain

Careless U.S. politicians started talking about the annexation of Canada through this Infuriated and frightened Canadian

Conservatives killed the agreement

The Wonderful World of Woodrow Wilson

“Wilsonian” became a term to describe later policies that emphasized internationalism and moralism and that were dedicated to extending democracy

Looked back upon as the chief executive who had the largest vision of the nation’s future and who had first confronted challenges that continued to plague them

Wilson became the greatest military interventionist in U.S. history

Wilson and Mexico Francisco Madero overthrew the 34 year old

dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz U.S. interests were not pleased; under Diaz U.S.

investments were at $2billion, owned 43% of property, 10% more than Mexicans themselves owned

A number of armed groups tried to grab power and captured Madero, and Victoriano Huerta took control

Many countries recognized Huerta’s government, but Wilson refused, objecting to his use of force to gain power

President began supporting Huerta’s enemies especially Venustiano Carranza

To undermine Wilson, Huerta held a free election supported by England, which he handily won

April of 1914 Huerta arrested 7 U.S. sailors on shore leave for wondering into a forbidden area

Wilson went to Congress for military force While congress stalled, Wilson learned that a

German ship was going to unload arms for Huerta Wilson ordered ships to occupy the port and firing

broke out killing 19 Americans and 300 Mexicans Huerta was removed and Carranza assumed

power Carranza, refused to work with Wilson, so

Wilson then aided anti-Carranza forces like Pancho Villa Carranza announced Mexico’s claim to all of its subsoil

mineral rights, which threatened U.S. oil companies

Because of this, Carranza destroying Villa’s forces, and WWI, Wilson reluctantly recognized Carranza’s government in late 1915

Villa responded by terrorizing AZ and NM, killing 17 Americans, and 18 in Mexico itself Carranza reluctantly allowed U.S. troops to

track down the killers 6000 men led by John J. Pershing never captured

Villa but did clash with Carranza’s troops Because of the U.S. entrance into WWI Wilson

began to come to terms with Carranza

Wilson, C. America, & the Caribbean

Wilson declared he wanted “orderly processes” in Latin America as well as stability in the markets

Already had troops in Nicaragua because of U.S. investments under Taft; owned 51% of banks and railways U.S. now loaned a bankrupt government another million for the

rest of the banks and railways Next ordered Marines to Haiti because of internal

rebellion and sticking to the Monroe Doctrine Treaty was signed giving U.S. control over the country’s foreign

affairs, financial affairs, and the right to intervene when U.S. thought it was necessary Marines stayed for another 19 years

Disorder in Dominican Republic led to U.S. sponsored elections, but would not allow U.S. to oversee finances Wilson ordered in Marines, U.S. investors took over large sugar

and real-estate holdings

United States in WWI 1914-1918

Wilson’s goal was to remain “neutral in fact as well as in name”

Germans were exercising submarine warfare May 7, 1915 sunk the British Lusitania and killed 128

Americans U.S. anti-German opinion grew hot; marked a turning point

Wilson had to decide if banks should grant credits and loans to both sides Wilson quietly allowed loans to be floated, “our foreign

commerce is just as essential to our prosperity as our domestic commerce”

Allies would borrow 2.5 bill in the next two years This decision turned the U.S. from the world’s largest

debtor to the worlds biggest creditor, making it the worlds economic superpower of the twentieth century

War aims and stakes for victory were rising 1915 Wilson started his “preparedness campaign”

Train males for possible combat Showed countries he meant business and appease

growing anti-German sentiment Would have a strong base to mediate an end to the

conflict Military leverage against both sides at the end of the war

March of 1916 French liner the Sussex was sunk injuring several Americans drawing U.S. closer to war

Realized he would have to join the war in order to attend the peace conference to push his long range ideals Open market places, competition, and minimum of

government involvement, and a league of nations

Aimed to release government restraints so that U.S. banks could rapidly set up overseas operations Webb-Pomerene Act: freed corporations from antitrust

laws, thus allowing them to combine legally to conquer foreign markets

Edge Act: removed government restraints so that U.S. banks could rapidly set up overseas operations

Sponsored bill to enlarge navy January of 1917 Germany launched an all out

sub warfare March 1st Britain intercepted the Zimmerman telegram

to Mexico from Germany, asking them to ally for U.S. property back after the war

March 18th three U.S. ships were torpedoed to the bottom of the Atlantic

April 6th war resolution passed in congress

Wilson had learned that in such a conflict, the United States could no longer be both neutral and prosperous. Nor could it be neutral and hope to have a decisive voice in constructing the postwar peace

“If the war is too strong for you to prevent, how is it going to be weak enough for you to control and mold to your liberal purposes?” Anti war voice of Randolph Bourne

America could no longer be neutral and have the freedom to sell anywhere it pleased

Principles Wilson wanted after the war:(part of his 14 points)

1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

A. No secret treaties2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, alike in peace and in

war.3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the

establishment of equality of trade conditions among all the nationsA. Worldwide open door for trade

4. …National armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.

5. …impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, …interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

6. The evacuation of all Russian territory, a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will.

14. A general associations of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Paris Peace talks started January of 1919 mainly by the big three, Wilson, Lloyd George, and Georges Clemenceau

Wilson believed that the treaty may have issues, but a properly created league of nations could correct these over time Drew up 26 articles for his league of nations

U.S. congress accepted the treaty but did not accept the League Feared being drawn in to defend the interests of

such colonial powers as Britain and France Feared the league would mean an increase in

contacts with the poison infected areas of the world 1921 U.S. signed separate peace treaties with

Germany and Austria

Warren G. Harding Harding was voted in to office in 1921 Harding was bequeathed the

problems of containing the Soviet Union and a world threatened with revolution

“perfect nonsense” to assume that U.S. membership in the league could have prevented the horrors of the 1930’s

Canada and the “Great War”

With the eruption of war Patriotic fever within English Canada

Flocked to recruiting stations, got involved with war effort at home, determined to contribute to British Empire’s battle in Europe

French Canada felt removed from Britain’s plight Little attachment to the imperial mother country Still enraged that Ontario banned French as a

language of instruction in its schools (bill 17) 400,000 volunteered for service, fewer than 1 in

20 were French and 70% were recent immigrants from England

Canada and the “Great War”

Prime Minister Robert Borden Made two promises that he would struggle

upholding He promised Britain that Canada would uphold

a military force overseas of 500,000 men He also promised his people back home that

there would be no obligatory military service known as conscription

Dead and wounded numbers mounted and jobs became plentiful causing voluntary enlistment to drop

This forced Borden to introduce three Acts

Canada and the “Great War”

With an election coming up soon and knowing that possible conscription would lose him votes he passed 2 of the 3 acts: Military Voters Act: extended vote to overseas

soldiers, also women nurses Wartime Elections Act: women who had close male

relatives serving overseas were granted the right to vote

With victory in the 1917 election, Borden passed the Military Service Act in January of 1918. It caused 400,000 men to be liable for military service In the French city of Quebec there was outrage,

protests, and marches

Canada and the “Great War”

Only about 125,000 men were ever conscripted and only 25,000 of them were ever sent to the front

Fortunately for Borden the war ended within a few months

This issue left the people distrustful and divided over their government

Conservatives were virtually shut out of Quebec and the west for the next 50 years

Consequently, the military benefits of conscription were slight, while the political consequences were great

Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was one of the

peace treaties at the end of WWI, ending the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the start of the war.

Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918 ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty.

Versailles Treaty The main terms of the Versailles Treaty were:

(1) the surrender of all German colonies as League of Nations mandates; (2) the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France; (7) occupation and special status for the Saar under French control; (8) demilitarization and a fifteen-year occupation of the Rhineland; (9) German reparations of £6,600 million; (10) a ban on the union of Germany and Austria; (11) an acceptance of Germany's guilt in causing the war; (11) provision for the trial of the former Kaiser and other war leaders; (12) limitation of Germany's army to 100,000 men with no conscription, no tanks, no heavy artillery, no poison-gas supplies, no aircraft and no airships; (13) the limitation of the German Navy to vessels under 100,000 tons, with no submarines;

Germany signed the Versailles Treaty under protest. The USA Congress refused to ratify the treaty. Many people in France and Britain were angry that there was no trial of the Kaiser or the other war leaders.

Latin America and World War I Three major factors due to WWI in Latin America:

Growth of U.S. economic dominance in the region and the changing character of world economy

The beginnings of mass politics The spread of nationalism

The consequence of this event was that all American nations were thrown into a condition of acute financial and commercial disturbance

Harsh reminder of L.A. of their vulnerable position within this European-dominated framework

Trade with the U.S. which was growing before the war, received a tremendous boost during the conflict

Also an increased flow of capital from the U.S. this being particularly important in Chile and Peru, where the mining sectors came to be almost completely controlled by large US corporations

The greater economic role of the U.S. in South America was one aspect of her rise to the leading position within the international economy in the postwar period

The impact of the war made nationalism very much more prominent and broadened its appeal Economic and cultural nationalism that developed

during the war and in the 1920s represented the growing disenchantment with the European social model so idealized by the Latin American elite before 1914 and the turning instead to a celebration of local culture and traditions

With the “advanced” nations at each other’s throats it became difficult to sustain the idea that Europe represented a higher form of “civilization” or “progress”

The war tarnished the European image of progress and civilization “…obliging a turning toward America”

The war did, however, stimulate the formation of a more genuine economic critique of the country’s dependent economic position

War seems only to have confirmed the views of leading Chilean critics that a greater degree of economic independence was necessary

These reactions were all fueled by two great revolutions of the time, Mexican and Russian Russian demonstrated the possibilities of a proletariat

revolution and gave great encouragement to the embattled working class

Mexican, offered not only a symbol of national liberation, but also made heroes of the Indian and Mestizo masses, offering an American alternative to the discredited European model

In many respects the war marked a major economic, political, social, and cultural watershed for Latin America

Peru 1914 coup marked a long time alignment of the

military with the oligarchy, ending two decades of civilian rule

War had a roller coaster effect on the Peruvian economy Export markets were temporarily cut off provoking

recession When trade overseas was restored, the stimulating

demand on Peruvian products caused inflation Growth rates of workers in sugar, cotton, and copper

industries accompanied with anarchist ideas made the labor movement that much more militant

Mex. and Russ. rev. spread radical new doctrines here too, rediscovering Incan past