Embedded Systems

I | P a g e

Embedded Systems

To: Dr. Ihab EL-Khodary

Date: May 2015.

Medhat Saleh Hosny

(Team Leader)

20140257

Belal Mohamed Mohame 20140094

Mostafa Said Hanfy 20140266

Mina Nabil William 20140287

Karim Ashraf Mohamed 20140205

Mohamed Emad Mohamed 20140233

Embedded Systems

II | P a g e

Introduction

Computer science field grows up quickly nowadays and

because of this revolution, we have more than subtitle

when we want to talk about this field but the most

attractive subtitle for us is embedded Systems.

When we started to think about embedded Systems and

robotics we found them around us everywhere and no

one, especially the, youth know a lot about them. So, we

found this a great problem because that everyone have

to know how the world around him works, but the most

serious problem was that the available books and

materials have hard language and very hard scientific

terminologies.

So we started to think of making this report to tell

people more about embedded systems and robotics

using very simple style and words depending on our

ages which make us very close to our audience.

We found at the end of our book that embedded Systems

and robotics are very young (new) fields which are

considered as the future fields which need more

Knowledge and care to get the most effectiveness and

efficiency of it to serve the humanity and push the

progress wheel and technology revolution more

forward.

Embedded Systems

III | P a g e

Table of Content:-

Summary. ……………….………………..……………………………………………….. IV

Part 1: Embedded Systems. …………………………………..………………….…… 1

1.1 Introduction to Embedded System. ………………………………………. 1

1.2 Design Limits. ……………………………………………………………… 2

1.3 Assembly language. ……………………………………………..……….. 3

1.4 User Interface. …………………………………………………….……… 3

1.5 Embedded System in everything in our life. …………………………..... 4

Part 2: Robotics. ……………………………………..……………………...…….…... 5

2.1 Introduction to robotics. …………………………………………...……. 5

2.2 History of robots. ………………………………………………...…….... 6

2.3 General features of robots. ……………………………………...……… 6

2.4 Classification of robotic system. ……………………………...………... 7

2.5 Design basics. …………………………………………………..……....... 9

2.6 Components of Robots. …………………………………………........... 14

2.7 Software. …………………………………………………………..…… 25

2.8 Types of robots. ……………………………………………………...... 28

2.9 Robots forms. ……………………………………………………........ 33

2.10 Build your own robot. …………………………….………………….. 33

Conclusion. …………...…………………………………..…….………...………….. 36

Embedded Systems

IV | P a g e

Summary The Embedded system is very important in our life it’s included in

everything around us specially robots any Embedded system

must be programed by a programing language to make his job

the most affective programing language called assembly it’s a

very low level language which is easy for the computer to

understand it and hard for the human to understand it

And like any system Embedded system has user interface but it’s

more different than the normal user interface

In our life nowadays most of devises and machines work on

embedded system and we have to know what these devices are

and how they work

When we talk about embedded system we should talk about

robots and when we talk about robots most of people think that

the robot is the machine which look like the human and able to

fly and all of this science fiction which founded in the movies but

the truth is that all of this can be but this is not all of the robotics

When did the human started to build a robot? This question is

very important and we will find the answer when we know the

real definition of robotics and robots

The feature of the robot depends on the job which you need the

robot for and the category (class) which the robot job written

under it

To build a robot it’s the most easy thing you will find in the world

but if you followed the design basics which we will give them to

you with the components which we will tell you too how to choose

them then you will be able to build any robot

You have to know everything around you to be part of the

technology revolution

Embedded Systems

1 | P a g e

Embedded systems

1.1 Introduction to Embedded System

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical

system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control

many devices in common use today. Properties typical of embedded computers when compared

with general-purpose ones are e.g. low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources,

which make them significantly more difficult to program and to interface with. However, by building intelligence mechanisms on the top of the hardware, taking advantage

of possible existing sensors and the existence of a network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available resources at the unit and network levels as well as

provide augmented functionalities, well beyond those available. For example, intelligent techniques can be designed to manage power consumption of embedded

systems. Modern embedded systems are often based on

microcontrollers (i.e. CPUs with integrated memory or peripheral interfaces).but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also still common, especially in more complex systems.

In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general purpose to those specialized in certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application

at hand. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).

Embedded Systems

2 | P a g e

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks,

design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting

from economies of scale. Embedded systems range from portable devices such as

digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, and largely complex systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI, and

avionics. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or

enclosure.

1.2 Design Limits

Limit state design (LSD), also known as load and

resistance factor design (LRFD), refers to a design method used in structural engineering. A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant

design criteria. The condition may refer to a degree of loading or other actions on the structure, while the criteria refer to structural integrity, fitness for use, durability or

other design requirements. A structure designed by LSD is proportioned to sustain all actions likely to occur during its design life, and to remain fit for use, with an appropriate

level of reliability for each limit state. Building codes based on LSD implicitly define the appropriate levels of reliability by their prescriptions.

The method of limit state design, developed in the USSR and based on research led by Professor N.S. Streletski, was

introduced in USSR building regulations in 1955.

Embedded Systems

3 | P a g e

1.3 Assembly language

An assembly language (or assembler language) is a low-level programming language for a computer, or other

programmable device, in which there is a very strong (generally one-to-one) correspondence between the language and the architecture's machine code instructions.

Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture, in contrast to most high-level programming languages, which are generally portable across multiple architectures, but require interpreting or compiling.

Assembly language is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler; the

conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the code.

Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or operation. Typical operations require one or more operands in order to form a

complete instruction, and most assemblers can therefore take labels, symbols and expressions as operands to represent addresses and other constants, freeing the

programmer from tedious manual calculations. Macro assemblers include a macroinstruction facility so that (parameterized) assembly language text can be

represented by a name, and that name can be used to insert the expanded text into other code. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program

development, to control the assembly process, and to aid debugging.

1.4 User Interface

Effective user interface designed for embedded systems starts with recognizing the user interface as

important and then putting users at the center of the design and development process.

Embedded Systems

4 | P a g e

Embedded systems developers need to be aware of established general principles of human machine

interaction as well as the special features and constraints that characterize their particular embedded system applications.

A view that bridges hardware and software design issues in needed when it comes to the user interface.

1.5 Embedded System in everything in our life

“Embedded system in everything in our life “ if we look at this statement at the first time we

will not care but if we really think we will find it a

real important statement and a true.

If we look around we will find ourselves surrounded by

computing systems, every year millions of computing systems are built for desktop computers, billions of computing systems are built every year embedded

within larger electronic devices and still goes unnoticed.

Today embedded systems are found in everything in our life, let’s have a look. Embedded systems are hard/software systems built

into devices that are not necessarily ‘recognized’ as computerized devices but those systems do control the functionality and perceived quality of these

devices. some specific examples of embedded systems includes controllers for systems within a car, the

automatic pilot of an aircraft, the chip set and software for smart phones, tablets and smart TVs.

Already, over 98% of all computing chips are actually hidden or “embedded” in all sorts of things that don’t

even look like computers are moving away from desktop and can now found in everyday devices

Embedded Systems

5 | P a g e

2. Robotics 2.1 Introduction to robotics

Robotics is a science and branch of engineering that concerned with doing a specific tasks and functions

By programmable electrical hardware complementary with an application that order to do demanded task This tasks to help human at homes to doing a specific

task, also using at factories to facilities the problems of difficult of this industry and using at military. This tasks are done with a specific programmable

machine, this machine calls Robot. For many people they think that this machine is mechanical or metal human and only working and

behaves as people. But this thinking is wrong Robot is a machine is ordered with computer programs to doing a specific

we use robots for many purposes to help us at all, And to doing a tiny industries also difficult industries. So we use it at phone industry as this is high advanced,

also robots are used at outer space as at space there are many number of dangers can be put scientist if he do himself. Also we use robots at surgery operations,

robot can arrive to remote patient without any of dangers. Robot are used at homes as a human because it can do some house work and tasks, sing, dance and helping people Using robot at military is

very important as it can do remote tasks at wars without entering from humans. So robots is machine that do a lot of tasks to help us and robotics is science

that concerned with complementary between hardware (robots) and software to do tasks

Embedded Systems

6 | P a g e

2.2 History of robots

many people think the robotics is a modern science but factual this is ancient science. At 1495 Around Leonardo da Vinci sketched plans for a

humanoid robot. And scientists starting with working to design and name and developer their idea.

1932 The first true robot toy was produced in Japan. The ‘Lilliput’ was a wind-up toy which walked. It was made from tinplate and stood just 15cm tall.

2.3 General features of robots

All robots have a kind of construction or a shape

designed to achieve a certain task. The mechanical aspect is the creator's solution to complete the task in hand and dealing with the surrounding environment. (Form follows

the function). For example, a robot designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud, might use caterpillar tracks.

They also have electrical components which power and control them. One form of that power is electricity, which is mostly produced from a battery and flows through a wire.

Even the machines that run on gas need an electrical current to start that gas using process which is why most gas powered machines like cars have batteries in them. The

electrical aspect in robots is used for movement, sensing (measuring things like heat, energy status, etc…) and operating. For example, the robot with caterpillar tracks

would need some kind of power to move the tracker treads. All robots have some kind of computer programming code. That program is what tells the robot when or how to do

something. Programs are the MAIN component in a robot. It could have the best electrical components and mechanical

Embedded Systems

7 | P a g e

construction but if it has a poorly constructed program it will perform very poorly and may not perform at all

sometimes. There are three different types of robotic programs: remote control, artificial intelligence and hybrid. A robot with a remote control program has an existing set

of commands that it will only do if and when it gets a signal from the control source, usually a human with a remote control. It is perhaps more appropriate to see devices

controlled primarily by human commands as falling in the discipline of automation rather than robotics. Robots that use artificial intelligence to interact with their environment

by themselves without a control source, and can determine reactions to objects and problems they encounter using their existing program. Hybrid is a form of program that

incorporates both AI and RC functions.

2.4 Classification of robotic system

There are two main types of robots based on the degree of mobility:

- Fixed – robots do not move with respect to certain

components of their environment. - Mobile – robots can travel in their environment by

using several means of locomotion.

Intelligence is the ability of a natural or artificial system to adapt to the environment.

Robotic systems can be divided into:

- Robots;

- Manipulators; - Prosthetics; - Medical manipulators;

- Automated guided vehicles (AGV); - Walking and crawling machinery.

Embedded Systems

8 | P a g e

A robot is a mechanical agent, usually an electro-

mechanical machine that is guided by a computer

program or electronic circuitry.

In robotics a manipulator is a device used to

manipulate materials without direct contact. The

applications were originally for dealing

with radioactive, using robotic arms, they were used

in inaccessible places

In medicine, a prosthesis is an artificial device that

replaces a missing body part, which may be lost

through a disease or congenital conditions. Prosthetic

amputee rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a

prosthetic and an inter-disciplinary team of health

care professionals including physiatrists, surgeons,

physical therapists, and occupational therapists.

A remote manipulator, also known as a tele

factor, tele manipulator, is a device which,

through electronic, hydraulic, or mechanical linkages,

allows a hand-like mechanism to be controlled by

a human operator. The purpose of such a device is

usually to move or manipulate hazardous materials for

reasons of safety.

Automatic robots accomplish their tasks without direct intervention of a human in the control process. Based

on the degree of adaptability of these robots to the environment, we can identify three generations of automatic robots.

First generation robots are characterized by fixed control programs, they are capable to only repeat in a strict fashion operations previously programmed into

them, they cannot adapt to the environment so no external perturbations must exist. The program can be changed to some extent, but these robots are best

suited in industrial environments performing repetitive operations.

Embedded Systems

9 | P a g e

Second generation robots are adaptive, they can operate in variable or partially unknown

environments. The ability to adapt under the effect of external perturbations is enabled by using sensors that measure various parameters of the environment.

These robots execute a series of predefined operations but can also take into account changes in the environment and alter their routine in order to

accomplish their tasks. Third generations robots are intelligent, they have certain artificial intelligence abilities, their degree of

intelligence varies according to needs identified in the design phase. These robots are capable of defining their instantaneous actions taking into account

information gathered by tactile, visual or noise sensors, resolve particular issues and modify their routine accordingly.

2.5 Design basics

Robotics Design Process

1. Defining the Problem

2. Researching and Designing

3. Creating a Prototype

4. Evaluating your Robot

Defining the Problem

You need to determine what problem you are trying to solve before you attempt to design and build a robot to solve a problem. Take the time to study a number

of different situations and once you have decided what the situation is and you understand exactly what the problem is then write a design brief in a log book (this

will be your working document as you work on your robot. This log book can be a paper notebook or an electronic document.) This is a short statement which

explains the problem that is to be solved.

Embedded Systems

10 | P a g e

Researching and Designing

gathering information

identifying specific details of the design which must be satisfied

identifying possible and alternative design solutions

planning and designing an appropriate structure

which includes drawings

Having written a brief, you are now ready to gather

information which will help you to produce a

successful design. First you will need to decide what

information you require. This will be different from

project to project and will also depend on the amount

of information and knowledge you already have. A

useful step will be to ask those five questions. This will

help you plan the type of information you will need to

gather.

1. What is the practical function of the design?

(What must my robot do?)

A design's practical functions can include:

Movement How will the robot move within its environment? If it were put in a different

environment, would it still be able to move within this new space?

Manipulation How will the robot move or manipulate other objects within its

environment? Can a single robot move or

manipulate more than one kind of object?

Energy How is the robot powered? Can it have

more than one energy source?

Intelligence How does the robot "think?" What

does it mean to say that a robot "thinks?"

Sensing How will my robot "know" or figure out what's in its environment? If it were put in a

different environment, would it be able to

figure out this new environment

Embedded Systems

11 | P a g e

2. What part does appearance (shape and form, surface

texture, color, etc.) play in the design's function? What does the robot look like? Is there a reason for

it to look as it does?

Shape and form are important to a design's aesthetic qualities, ergonomics, strength, stability, rigidity, safety

Surface texture, finish and color can be appropriate to a design’s: aesthetic qualities,

mechanical, optical and thermal properties, durability, etc.

3. What materials are suitable for the design?

The properties of a material will determine its suitability for a design. For our work with

robotics we have chosen to work with Lego™. However, there are many different types of materials that can be and are used in the

construction of robots.

strength, hardness, toughness,

density

durability

And the aesthetic qualities

determined by color, surface texture, pattern, etc.

The materials cost and availability are also important factors.

4. What construction methods are appropriate to the design?

Construction techniques fall into the categories of:

Embedded Systems

12 | P a g e

cutting and shaping

Fabrication - the assembly of the

parts using screws, bolts, glues, solder, etc. molding - by the application of a force

on the material casting - using a mold to form the shape of a solidifying material

A particular material can only be worked in a limited number of ways. The method of

construction therefore will be determined by the chosen material, the availability of manufacturing facilities, the skills of the work

force and the production costs.

5. What are the likely social and environmental effects of the

design?

The manufacture, use and disposal of any

product will have both beneficial and detrimental effects upon people, wildlife and the environment. The designer therefore, has

an enormous responsibility to consider very carefully the potential effects of any new design. This will include: health and safety

factors, noise, smell, pollution, etc.

Gathering information can involve reading, listening, conducting interviews and observing.

A specification is a detailed description of the problem to be solved. It should 'spell out' exactly

what the design must achieve.

Embedded Systems

13 | P a g e

Creating a Prototype

testing the design

troubleshooting the design

You should ideally think of at least three different ways to solve the problem before you concentrate on any one in particular. Sketches and notes are required

at this stage. You can also create prototypes using Lego for this step. Once you have created a Lego prototype, take a digital picture of it. Print out the

picture and jot your notes below the picture in your log book. Once you have settled on one solution, go back over the list of specifications you have made.

Make sure that each specification is satisfied.

Now it the time to produce some working drawings.

These are the drawings that will assist you as you begin constructing the prototype of your structure. (Here again, Lego and a digital camera might be your best friend.) You may choose to do your drawings by

hand or you might want to use a draw program on the computer to assist you.

Determine a working schedule for yourself. Draw up a timetable showing how much time you expect to spend on each part of the design process. Your

planning should also ensure that you have all the necessary materials and equipment that you need to complete your project.

Evaluating your Robot

evaluate the design

evaluate the planning process

As building and programming work progresses, and the design begins to take shape, you will

automatically carry out tests on the design. You will also need to complete systems tests at various stages

Embedded Systems

14 | P a g e

of the construction. If any of the tests show that you have failure in a joint, or that part of your structure is

not meeting specifications, then you will have to make modifications in your plan.

When building and programming is complete, the entire project must be tested to see if it does the job for which it was designed. An evaluation needs to then

be written. This should be a statement outlining the strengths and weaknesses in your design. It should describe where you have succeeded and where you

have failed to achieve the aims set out in the specifications.

Here is a list of questions which will help you to prepare this statement.

How well does the design function?

Does the design look good?

Is the product safe to use?

Did I plan my work adequately?

Did I find the construction straightforward or difficult?

Were the most suitable materials used?

Did it cost more or less than expected?

How could I have improved my design?

2.6 Components of Robots

Power sources

The main sources of electrical power for robots are batteries

and photo voltaic cells. These can be used separately or

together.

- Photo Voltaic Cells

Photo Voltaic Cells or solar cells are well known for

their use as power sources for satellites,

environmentalist green energy campaigns and

pocket calculators. In robotics solar cells are used

mainly in BEAM robots. Commonly these consist of

Embedded Systems

15 | P a g e

a solar cell which charges a capacitor and a small

circuit which allows the capacitor to be charged up

to a set voltage level and then be discharged

through the motor(s) making it move.

For a larger robot solar cells can be used to charge

its batteries. Such robots have to be designed

around energy efficiency as they have little energy

to spare.

- Batteries

Batteries are an essential component of the

majority of robot designs. Many types of batteries

can be used. Batteries can be grouped by whether

or not they are rechargeable.

Batteries that are not rechargeable usually deliver

more power for their size, and are thus desirable

for certain applications. Various types of alkaline

and lithium batteries can be used. Alkaline batteries

are much cheaper and sufficient for most uses, but

lithium batteries offer better performance and a

longer shelf life.

Common rechargeable batteries include lead acid,

nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and the newer nickel metal-

hydride (Ni-MH). NiCd & Ni-MH batteries come in

common sizes such as AA, but deliver a smaller

voltage than alkaline batteries (1.2V instead of

1.5V). They also can be found in battery packs with

specialized power connectors. These are commonly

called race packs and are used in the more

expensive RC race cars. They will last for some

time if used properly. Ni-MH batteries are currently

more expensive than NiCd, but are less affected by

memory effect.

Embedded Systems

16 | P a g e

Lead acid batteries are relatively cheap and carry

quite a lot of power, although they are quite heavy

and can be damaged when they are discharged

below a certain voltage. These batteries are

commonly used as backup power supply in alarm

systems and UPS.

Sensors

Sensors are what allow a robot to gather information about its

environment. This information can be used to guide the robot's

behavior. Some sensors are relatively familiar pieces of

equipment.

Cameras allow a robot to construct a visual representation of its

environment. This allows the robot to judge attributes of the

environment that can only be determined by vision, such as

shape and color, as well as aid in determining other important

qualities, such as the size and distance of objects.

Microphones allow robots to detect sounds.

Sensors such as buttons embedded in bumpers can allow the

robot to determine when it has collided with an object or a wall.

Some robots come equipped

with thermometers and barometers to sense temperature and

pressure.

Other types of sensors are more complex, and give a robot more

interesting capabilities. Robots equipped with Light Detection

and Ranging (LIDAR) sensors use lasers to construct three

dimensional maps of their surroundings as they navigate through

the world.

Supersonic sensors are a cheaper way to accomplish a similar

goal only using high frequency sound instead of lasers.

Finally, some robots are equipped with specialized sensors such

as accelerometers and magnetometers that allow the robot to

sense its movement with respect to the Earth's gravity and

magnetic field.

Embedded Systems

17 | P a g e

Navigation

For any robot, the ability to navigate in its environment

is important. Avoiding dangerous situations such as

collisions and unsafe conditions (temperature, radiation,

exposure to weather, etc.) comes first, but if the robot

has a purpose that relates to specific places in the robot

environment, it must find those places. This article will

present an overview of the skill of navigation and try to

identify the basic blocks of a robot navigation system,

types of navigation systems, and closer look at its

related building components.

Robot navigation means the robot's ability to determine

its own position in its frame of reference and then to plan

a path towards some goal location. In order to navigate

in its environment, the robot or any other mobility device

requires representation, i.e. a map of the environment

and the ability to interpret that representation.

Navigation can be defined as the combination of the

three fundamental competences:

- Self-localization

- Path planning

- Map-building and map interpretation

Actuation Devices

Actuation devices are the components of the robot that make it

move (excluding your feet). Best known actuators are electric

motors, servos and stepper motors and also pneumatic or

hydraulic cylinders. Today there are new alternatives, some

which wouldn't be out of place in a good SF-movie. One of the

new types of actuators are Shape Memory Alloys (SMA). These

are metal alloys that shrink or enlarge depending on how warm

they are. Another new technique is the use of air-muscles.

Embedded Systems

18 | P a g e

1. Motors

There are several different types of motors.

Each motor type has several advantages as

well as disadvantages depending on a

particular robots design.

AC-Motors

There are several different types of AC-

motors, but their use is limited to high power

stationary industrial robots. They are harder to

use than DC-motors.

DC-Motors

DC-motors are very easy to use, but like

most other motors their usefulness for

robotics is very dependent on the

gearing available. DC-motors are made

much more effective if they have an

efficient gear ratio for a particular task.

If your priority is to have a fast spinning

motor and torque is of little concern a

low gearing or even no gearing may be

what you need; however, most motors

used in robots need torque over top

speed so a motor with a high gear ratio

could be more useful.

The control of a DC motor can be split

into two parts: speed and direction.

Embedded Systems

19 | P a g e

Direction

changing which direction a DC-

motor turns is very simple: simply

reverse the polarity. Both pairs of

switches ((S1A, S1B) and (S2A,

S2B))-see the picture on the right-

will always switch together. This

circuit is called an H-bridge. In a

real design the switches can be

several different components

(Relays, transistors, FETs) or the

whole circuit (without the motor)

could be an IC (integrated circuit.

use sugarcane relays

Speed

Speed is a little bit more complicated.

Many beginners would try to slow down

a motor by reducing its voltage with a

variable resistor or other ways. This

does not work well, because it will not

only reduce the motor's speed, it will

also reduce a motor's strength, while

also consuming a lot of electricity as

large amounts of heat are generated by

the resistor.

2. Shape Memory Alloys

The main use of SMA in robotics is to imitate

human muscles. One of the better known

SMAs is Nitinol wire. It contracts about 5 to

7% of its length and consumes a lot of power.

Embedded Systems

20 | P a g e

3. Air muscle

The concept of a fully autonomous, mission

capable, legged robot has for years been a

Holy Grail of roboticists. Development of such

machines has been hampered by actuators

and power technology and control schemes

that cannot hope to compete with even some

of the “simplest” systems found in the natural

world.

4. Linear Electromagnetic

Linear Electromagnetic actuators consist of a

hollow coil (solenoid) and a Ferro metal rod.

The rod is mounted loose in the coil and can

move up and down. When current flows

through the coil, the rod is pulled to the

center of the coil. If the direction of the

current is then reversed the solenoid will pull

in the Ferro metal rod. Due to Lenz's Law

which states "For a current induced in a

conductor, the current is in such a direction

that its own magnetic field opposes the

change that produced it." This means that an

EMF will flow through the solenoid of the

actuator to oppose the change in magnetic

flux thus an electromagnetic actuator can

never fully extend the full length of the rod.

Embedded Systems

21 | P a g e

5. Piezoelectric Actuators

Piezoelectric actuators are actuators that take

advantage of the piezoelectric effect found in certain

materials.

Piezoelectric Effect

Certain materials have a characteristic of

generating an electric potential when

compressed or expanded. The amount of

potential across the surface is

determined by the force of

displacement.

Because an electric potential is created

from a change in volume, a change in

temperature also has the ability of

generating an electric potential.

The piezoelectric effect also has an

inverse effect. When a voltage is applied

to a material with piezoelectric

properties, the material expands or

contracts depending on the polarity of

the voltage applied. The inverse

piezoelectric effect is the basis of

piezoelectric motors

6. Pneumatics/Hydraulics

Pneumatic and hydraulic systems are actuators

which provide linear movement. Hydraulic systems,

especially, can produce extremely high forces.

Embedded Systems

22 | P a g e

Pneumatic systems

The Pneumatic Actuator is sometimes

called a Pneumatic Ram. The basic

Pneumatic Ram consists of 3 main parts.

These 3 parts are the Cylinder, Piston

and Rod.

Dual acting cylinder extending.

The Cylinder, which is black in the

diagram, is where the process takes

place. Most of the cylinders in use for

hobby robotics are constructed of

stainless steel and depending on the

type of ram it will either feature one or

two ports for compressed air.

The Piston, marked in green, is similar

to one that you would find in a car

engine. It essentially provides a surface

for the compressed gas to act upon.

The Ram, marked in blue, is connected

to the piston and transfers the force

from the piston to the mechanism that

needs moving.

7. Miniature internal combustion engines

These are the small internal combustion

engines used in model cars and planes.

Manipulation

Locomotion

There are different types of wheeled locomotion systems.

They are listed below. Each locomotion system is unique,

has some advantages and disadvantages.

Embedded Systems

23 | P a g e

- Differential Drive

This is the most popular and widely used type of

drive for wheeled robots, because it is the simplest

and easiest to implement. There are two motors,

each having an independent motion. In the first two

diagrams shown above, both the motors are

rotated in same direction of motion and thus the

robot moves either forward or backward. In the last

two diagrams, the two motors rotate such that they

oppose each other’s motion, thus generating a

couple and creating a turning effect.

Advantages

Simple and easy to implement

Arbitrary motion can be achieved

In-place rotation (zero radius) can be

done Disadvantages

Difficult to maintain straight line due to

independent motors

- Car Type Drive

This is the type of drive most common in real world

but not in the robotic world. Here, we have a pair of

wheels which direct where the robot should move,

whereas movement is brought about by a different

set of wheels. Translatory motion is provided by the

rear wheels whereas rotational motion is provided

by the front wheels. Though both motions are

independent, but their interlinking results in greater

accuracy.

Embedded Systems

24 | P a g e

Advantages

Replicates the real world Disadvantages

Difficult path planning

Inaccurate movement

Slight inaccuracy results in huge errors

No direct directional actuators available

- Skid Steer Drive

It is a close relative of the differential drive system.

Here, all the motors of one side are tied together as

one to increase traction (e.g. tanks). Only the

center motors are connected. The remaining

motors move due to the force of the central

motors. During turning, the wheels skid/slip over

the surface. Turning can occur due to difference in

the motion of the two motors.

- Articulated Drive

Here, the body/chassis of the robot is deformed to

produce rotatory motion, whereas the translatory

motion is provided by the wheels. Two motors are

required, one for translatory motion (wheels) and

another to change pivot angle (for the linear

actuator).

- Synchronous Drive

Here, the robot can move in any direction without

changing its alignment. Two sets of motors are

required, one to drive the wheels, other to change

their direction. This is clearly shown in the diagram

above.

Embedded Systems

25 | P a g e

- Pivot Drive

This is a unique type of drive system. There is a

four wheeled chassis which gives translator motion

and a rotating platform which gives rotational

motion. Thus, it achieves accurate straight line

motion. While turning, the raised platform is

lowered such that it lifts the chassis, rotates by

desired angle, and then is raised again to keep the

chassis back on the ground. This can be achieved

using one/two motors, depending upon the

complexity and requirement.

- Dual Differential Drive

This is similar to differential drive, but uses special

gear assemblies, which increase the accuracy of

straight line motion and on-spot turning.

2.7 Software

Robot software is the coded commands that tell a mechanical

device (known as a robot) what tasks to perform and control

its actions. Robot software is used to perform tasks and

automate tasks to be performed. Programming robots is a

non-trivial task. Many software systems and frameworks have

been proposed to make programming robots easier.

Some robot software aim at developing intelligent mechanical

devices. Though common in science fiction stories, such

programs are yet to become common-place in reality and

much development is yet required in the field of artificial

intelligence before they even begin to approach the science

fiction possibilities. Pre-programmed hardware may include

feedback loops such that it can interact with its environment,

but does not display actual intelligence.

Embedded Systems

26 | P a g e

Data flow programming techniques are used by most robot

manufacturers, and is based on the concept that when the

value of a variable changes, the values of other variables

affected should also change. A programming language that

incorporates data flow principles is called a data flow

language. In addition to numeric processing, data flow

languages also incorporate functional concepts. Unlike other

programming languages which use imperative programming,

data flow programming is modeled as a sequence of

functions.

With any programming software, the state of a program at any

given time is an important consideration. The state provides

an indication of the various conditions at a particular instant. In

order to function properly, most programming languages

require a significant amount of state information. This

information is invisible to the programmer.

Another key concept – which is associated with any type of

robot programming, is the concept of run-time. When a

program is running, or executing, it is said to be in run-time.

The term run-time is also used as a short form when referring

to a run-time library, which is a library of code instructions

used by a computer language to manage a program written in

the language. The term is also used by software developers to

specify when errors in a program can occur. A runtime error is

an error that happens while the program is executing. For

example, if a robot arm was programmed to turn left, and it

turned right, then that would be a runtime error.

The software architecture of a system consists of the various

software components used to design and operate the

software. All programming method s rely on software

architecture as a method of organizing a software system

since it not only provides communication support but is also a

critical component in hardware and software interfaces.

Embedded Systems

27 | P a g e

Basic Structure

Most robot programs have a similar structure. It

consists of 4 major parts.

- Declarations and Variables

The first part in most programs is used to

include files that you need, to declare variables

that you are going to use, and to define

constants for use in your program. You should

also put a comment at the top of the file that

indicates what the program does. You will find

that lots of robot programs look alike, so having

comments is an important way to tell them

apart. In SBASIC, comments are done using the

tick mark. Everything from the start of the '

mark to the end of the line is a comment, and

will be ignored by the compiler.

- Subroutines and Functions

Writing a single long line of code can be tedious,

and can also increase your chances of coding in

a bug. It is often best to create subroutines for

handling blocks of code. If you code things up

properly, you can also reuse code quite easily.

The bulk of your software is going to exist in

subroutines and functions. Most subroutines are

very short, and consist of a well modularized bit

of code.

- Initialization

- The Main Loop

All computers systems end up with some sort of

Main Loop. On your PC, there is a routine in the

operating system called the idle loop. This idle

loop sits and waits for timers, disks, user input,

Embedded Systems

28 | P a g e

and a host of other things. Robots also have a

Main Loop. In the code sample above, you can

see it labeled as the infinite loop. It’s called that

because it never ends. It calls Sensor Read,

Behave, UpdateTurnDelay, then goes back to

Sensor Read.

If you write a program on your PC and run it, the

Main Loop (aka Idle Loop) will call your program

to let it run. Your program will often have an

'end', 'exit', or 'return' statement at the end.

This allows your program to return control to the

Idle Loop.

On your robot, there is no Idle Loop to return

control to. Therefore, you shouldn't have a

return statement in your Main: routine.

Psuedo Code

A great trick used by professional software engineers

is to start writing code by writing the comments first.

This helps you get your program layout done before

you invest too much time in getting all of the nitty-

gritty details down. In Psuedo Code, you end up doing

a layout for all of the routines, put in lots of comments

as notes to yourself about what your program is about

to do, and sometimes even add in little snippets of

code that might explain your intent better than words.

When you are done, you will have a skeleton outline

for your program.

2.8 Types of robots

A collaborative robot is a robot that can safely and

effectively interact with human workers while

performing simple industrial tasks. However, end-

effectors and other environmental conditions may

create hazards, and as such risk assessments should

Embedded Systems

29 | P a g e

be done before using any industrial motion-control

application.

The collaborative robots most widely used in

industries today are manufactured by Universal

Robots in Denmark.

Rethink Robotics—founded by Rodney Brooks,

previously with iRobot—introduced Baxter in

September 2012; as an industrial robot designed to

safely interact with neighboring human workers, and

be programmable for performing simple

tasks. Baxter’s stop if they detect a human in the way

of their robotic arms and have prominent off switches.

Intended for sale to small businesses, they are

promoted as the robotic analogue of the personal

computer. As of May 2014, 190 companies in the US

have bought Baxter’s and they are being used

commercially in the UK.

Modular robots are a new breed of robots that are

designed to increase the utilization of robots by

modularizing their architecture. The functionality and

effectiveness of a modular robot is easier to increase

compared to conventional robots. These robots are

composed of a single type of identical, several

different identical module types, or similarly shaped

modules, which vary in size. Their architectural

structure allows hyper-redundancy for modular robots,

as they can be designed with more than 8 degrees of

freedom (DOF). Creating the programming, inverse

kinematics and dynamics for modular robots is more

complex than with traditional robots. Modular robots

may be composed of L-shaped modules, cubic

modules, and U and H-shaped modules. ANAT

technology, an early modular robotic technology

patented by Robotics Design Inc., allows the creation

of modular robots from U and H shaped modules that

connect in a chain, and are used to form

Embedded Systems

30 | P a g e

heterogeneous and homogenous modular robot

systems. These “ANAT robots” can be designed with

“n” DOF as each module is a complete motorized

robotic system that folds relatively to the modules

connected before and after it in its chain, and

therefore a single module allows one degree of

freedom. The more modules that are connected to one

another, the more degrees of freedom it will have. L-

shaped modules can also be designed in a chain, and

must become increasingly smaller as the size of the

chain increases, as payloads attached to the end of

the chain place a greater strain on modules that are

further from the base. ANAT H-shaped modules do not

suffer from this problem, as their design allows a

modular robot to distribute pressure and impacts

evenly amongst other attached modules, and

therefore payload-carrying capacity does not decrease

as the length of the arm increases. Modular robots can

be manually or self-reconfigured to form a different

robot, that may perform different applications.

Because modular robots of the same architecture type

are composed of modules that compose different

modular robots, a snake-arm robot can combine with

another to form a dual or Quadra-arm robot, or can

split into several mobile robots, and mobile robots can

split into multiple smaller ones, or combine with

others into a larger or different one. This allows a

single modular robot the ability to be fully specialized

in a single task, as well as the capacity to be

specialized to perform multiple different tasks.

Modular robotic technology is currently being applied

in hybrid transportation, industrial automation, duct

cleaning and handling. Many research centers and

universities have also studied this technology, and

have developed prototypes.

Embedded Systems

31 | P a g e

In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots was

exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model

Engineers Society in London Invented by W. H.

Richards, the robot Eric's frame consisted of

an aluminum body of armor with eleven

electromagnets and one motor powered by a twelve-

volt power source. The robot could move its hands

and head and could be controlled through remote

control or voice control. Westinghouse Electric

Corporation built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard

cutout connected to various devices which users could

turn on and off. In 1939, the humanoid robot known

as Electro was debuted at the 1939 new York world's

fair Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds

(120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak

about 700 words (using a 78-rpm record player),

smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its

head and arms. The body consisted of a steel gear,

cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum

skin. In 1928, Japan's first robot, Gakutensoku, was

designed and constructed by biologist Makoto

Nishimura.

The first electronic autonomous robots with

complex behavior were created by William Grey

Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol,

England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove that

rich connections between a small numbers of Brain

cells could give rise to very complex Behavior -

essentially that the secret of how the brain worked lay

in how it was wired up. His first robots,

named Elmer and Elsie, were constructed between

1948 and 1949 and were often described

as tortoises due to their shape and slow rate of

Embedded Systems

32 | P a g e

movement. The three-wheeled tortoise robots were

capable of Photo taxis, by which they could find their

way to a recharging station when they ran low on

battery power. Walter stressed the importance of

using purely analogue electronics to simulate brain

processes at a time when his contemporaries such

as Alan Turing and john von Neumann were all turning

towards a view of mental processes in terms of digital

computation His work inspired subsequent generations

of robotics researchers such as Rodney brooks, Hans

moravec and mark Tilden. Modern incarnations of

Walter's turtles may be found in the form of beam

robotics

The first digitally operated and programmable robot

was invented by George devol in 1954 and was

ultimately called the unimate. This ultimately laid the

foundations of the modern robotics industry. Devol

sold the first Unimate to general motors in 1960, and

it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New

Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting

machine and stack them. Devol’s patent for the first

digitally operated programmable robotic arm

represents the foundation of the modern robotics

industry.

Commercial and industrial robots are now in

widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous

or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery,

weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.

Embedded Systems

33 | P a g e

2.9 Robots forms

Within the development of technology scientists and researchers have now come up with the invention of

robots, those robots help to make human life much easier especially in dangerous areas, military robots are used to take the risk job which is difficult to be

handled manually by human, those robots take the job as the assistant of soldiers. The auto industry is booming like never before, already this year over 13 million cars have rolled off

the lines in factories all over the united states, that number does not able to keep up with the demand of cars created around the world, how are manufacturers

able to keep up with the demand of car customers who want new models every few years. The answer is simple ‘Robot Automation’ automated

robotic systems can be used to perform all kinds of automotive tasks on vehicles during production. Automated robots today can be reset without having

to be reprogrammed each-time without stopping the production, which increases the productivity for manufacturers.

2.10 Build your own robot

This is some instructions and advice from us to build a

robot if you want to.

We will give you 5 basic steps to build a robot

To build a robot first you need to ask yourself an

important question which is why I build this robot we

mean for what exactly you need the robot because to

determine the objective of building a robot is the most

important thing to know the basic design of your

robot .

Then you need to put a design for This objective and

you need it to be very effective, efficient and the most

important thing is to make it creative, because you

don’t need it to be recognizable you need it to be

Embedded Systems

34 | P a g e

effective for example if you want to make a plane you

need to know about aerodynamic rules and classical

physics laws and so on, it may be strange shape but

this is not important because it make the job required.

After pervious steps you need to determine the tools

serve this design the more it was better, useful and

effective Sometimes you are forced to choose the

tools first and make a design according to the tools

provided if you know that you won’t find the tools you

need so the best choice is to make those steps

synchronous, and before all of this you need to search

about the provided tools and components and know

every tool and component well to achieve the

efficiency.

Now you prepared everything you have to be ready

for the biggest moment which we love to call it:

” put the design into action”

In this step you have your tools, components and

design (written, printed or soft copy), so you start to

build your robot according to the design, you start to

follow the design step by step and you start with the

hardware then you make the software if you need.

Then the last step which is trying your robot, you have

to try your robot many times and in the limit cases

which the robot designed to work on.

Now these are some devices will help you:

You have to know exactly what you need

You have choose your tools carefully ,you have to get

high quality tools and components

Anything can be a tool and you can make a robot from

every thing

You have to be careful while you are building your

robot if you are using dangerous tools

Embedded Systems

35 | P a g e

Examples for simple tools

Some body think that to build a robot you need

complicated tools but this is false here we will give

you an example for a simple tools.

If you need to make hydraulic arm you may use the

simplest hydraulic arms ever which is injections.

If you need a power source you may use solar parts to

get solar energy or 1.5v buttery.

If you want to make a movable robot you can use the

simple motors and wheels.

If you need to make controller you can use injections

and tubes, switches or TV remote.

Now we just want to tell you the most important thing

be creative, forever be different.

Embedded Systems

36 | P a g e

Conclusion

At the end of our report we found that most of people

need to know more about the science which push the

wheel of progress and technology forward and this

science is computer science and to be more specific

robotics and embedded systems

This science had a great jump to the future and took

the humanity to the science fiction movies ideas and

it can and sure it will give the humanity more than it

gave because it’s a circle of progress leads to more

progress

And on lower level we found that anyone can learn

embedded system and make his own robot and his

own embedded system but he need a good guide and

we need to care more about learning and teaching the

embedded systems and robotics to the youths to take

place of the humanity progress history.

Embedded Systems

37 | P a g e

Bibliography:

Websites:

http://www.brighthubengineering.com/

http://www.scientistsfortomorrow.org/

http://prime.jsc.nasa.gov/ROV/types.html

http://www.allonrobots.com/types-of-robots.html

http://www.sciencedirect.com

http://www.ieee.org

http://www.theiet.org

http://en.wikipedia.org

http://www.springer.org

http://wep.mit.edu

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com

Books:

Simply Arduino book by (Abdallah Ali Abdallah)