E L E C T R I C A L D E S I G N L I B R A R Y

Electrical System Reliability –Inside and Out

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ABSTRACT ............................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

7X24 OPERATIONS ................................................................................. 2

DETERMINING THE NEEDS OF YOUR FACILITY ..................................... 3

DEVELOPING A CORPORATE COMMITMENT TO RELIABILITY ............... 5

MAINTAINING RELIABILITY ......................................................................6

PREDICTIVE TESTING AND INSPECTION .................................................9

RELIABILITY ISSUES TODAY AND BEYOND ........................................... 13

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION - SUPPLEMENTING POWER SUPPLY ......... 14

Electrical Design Library (EDL) publications are prepared for architects,consulting engineers, and qualified electrical contractors, as well asowners, developers, investors, and their electrical construction specifyingpersonnel. Issued periodically by the National Electrical ContractorsAssociation (NECA), the publications provide factual explanations of theincreasing variety of sophisticated electrical systems and the economicsof their installation by professional electrical contractors. They aredistributed by the Association’s chapters, located in all sections of theUnited States.

NECA acknowledges the research, writing, and production of this publicationby EMR of Arlington, Virginia. In addition, the following sources used in thepreparation of this document are gratefully acknowledged: National Aeronau-tics and Space Administration; Construction Industry Institute; Building Oper-ating Management; and facilitiesnet.com.

No endorsement of specific manufacturers’ products or installationmethods by NECA is intended and none should be inferred. Likewise,NECA makes no claim to complete coverage of all possible suppliers,opinions, or methods and none should be inferred. Readers areencouraged and cautioned to conduct thorough research before makingdecisions or specifying products.

©Copyright 1999 by National Electrical Contractors Association. All rightsreserved. Published by National Electrical Contractors Association,3 Bethesda Metro Center, Bethesda, Maryland 20814.

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Contents

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OI

Abstract Introduction

n an age in whichbuildings andinformation must to

be available at all times anddowntime can cost a companymillions of dollars a minute, the focuson how to guarantee continuousfacility uptime and power supply hasnever been sharper. At stake fromfacility failure are productivity,employee morale, and corporatecredibility – all critical factors fewcompanies can afford to take achance on.

Today’s building systems andequipment are increasingly sensitiveand interrelated, making a commit-ment to reliability, from senior deci-sion-makers to operation andmaintenance staff, more importantthan ever. End-to-end reliability

means that each and every compo-nent in a building, or even touching abuilding, must be monitored andmaintained. A complementary pro-gram of predictive testing and in-spection will identify problems inreliability before failure.

Even with a comprehensive reli-ability program incorporating the lat-est monitoring and testingtechnologies, your facility may stillsuffer from power outages caused byan ever increasing demand for powerthat is taxing utilities and causingblackouts and power disturbances.It is important to identify yourfacility’s power needs and incorpo-rate system backup, redundancy, orpower generation alternatives to pro-tect your business from downtime.

n August 12, 1999,2,300 Common-wealth Edison

customers in Chicago lost electricalpower after three of four transformersat a substation went off line. Whileone had failed a few weeks earlier,the other two failed suddenly andunexpectedly, prompting the utility toinitiate a controlled outage indowntown Chicago to lighten the loadon the local grid and avert a rippleeffect of blown transformersthroughout the city.

As a result, business in the down-town financial district that hot sum-mer day was brought to a standstillat 1:45 p.m., with tens of thousandsof office workers evacuated fromdarkened downtown skyscrapers.Powerless victims included banks,police headquarters, high-rise hotels,DePaul University, and the nation’slargest futures market, the ChicagoBoard of Trade.

The utility’s chairman offered noexcuses, stating that the incident(the most severe in a long line of out-ages over the summer) was not theresult of “bad luck or coincidence....We must meet a higher level of per-formance,” and the utility stepped upplans to overhaul its aging infrastruc-ture.

Bringing building systems andequipment to a “higher level of per-formance” before a critical problemdevelops is an approach many facil-ity managers and owners should also

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7x24 Operations

Otake. Like a utility grid, a building’ssystems are connected to increaseefficiency, but their interrelation canalso make the entire building morevulnerable when a problem arises inone system or piece of equipment.

One of the best approaches to in-creasing the reliability of yourbuilding’s systems and equipment isto develop and employ a predictivetesting and inspection (PT&I) ele-ment as part of your building’s main-tenance program. Testing andinspection can catch potential prob-lems in system reliability before theybecome problems.

In addition to taking steps in yourmaintenance program to ensure thereliability of your building, it is alsoimportant to develop a strategy todeal with electric power reliability fail-ures that occur outside your facility.With demand for power in the U.S.breaking records for the third timethis summer, utilities are increasinglyresorting to rolling blackouts andplanned outages to keep their entiresystems from crashing. Typically,large industrial and commercial cus-tomers are targeted for these black-outs, and its important to beprepared with alternative power sup-plies and system redundancy.

ne of the fastestgrowing trends infacilities operation

and maintenance is the 7x24 facility.The Information Age has all buteliminated time zones and nationalboundaries, making it essential forcompanies in banking, investment,insurance, communications,manufacturing, and a host of otherindustries to conduct business sevendays a week, 24 hours a day (7x24).A 7x24 facility is a mission-criticalfacility in which the goal is zerodowntime – a building always openfor business.

In a 7x24 facility, every point offailure in the building is backed up,from chillers and power generators toindividual circuit breakers. Everyelectrical and mechanical component– from switchgear and panelboardsto air handlers – is designed so thatthe isolation of any subsystem willnot interrupt building operation. Allequipment and systems are de-signed for optimal reliability andmaintainability. Some of the keyelements of 7x24 design and opera-tion include:

n Redundancy – Incorporating du-plicate critical systems into thebuilding. 7x24 buildings are oftendesigned with reasonable redun-

dancy in mind, meaning the mostcrucial systems in the building areidentified and given top priority inthe company’s available facilitiesbudget so those systems havebackup units that can operate incrisis situations.

n End-to-end reliability – Backingup all areas of systems (e.g.,backup generators and UPS sys-tems), and reviewing and main-taining everything that touches thefacility on a regular basis.

n Concurrent maintenance –Building a system that can betaken offline for maintenance dur-ing normal business hours withoutdisrupting the facility’s operations.Each piece of equipment, sub-system, and system must be con-figured to be taken off-line,serviced, and restored to opera-tion without risk of interruption.

n Commissioning – Testing all ele-ments of a building (from compo-nents to installed systems) toensure everything works properly,and training O&M staff and techni-cians to thoroughly maintainequipment and systems. Thebuilding’s systems must be fac-tory- and site-tested for individualperformance and integration.

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Another vital element to a suc-cessful 7x24 facility is projecting fu-ture requirements – for everythingfrom computer processing to net-working and telecommunications tofurniture and space planning – andmaking these projected requirementspart of all design and constructionplans for the facility.

hile the 7x24operations approachis becoming more

popular, many businesses do notneed such a radical approach toimproving the reliability of theirequipment, systems, power sources,and overall facility. The first factor toconsider is the financialconsequences of downtime. All

companies lose money whenmission-critical equipment fails, butin the event of a power outage, aninvestment firm offering onlinetrading stands to lose millions moreper minute than a small companythat doesn’t offer e-commerce. Theonline investment firm shouldseriously consider 7x24 operations,while the small company might justprovide its employees with surgeprotectors for their workstations.

What are the most frequentcauses of power failures in the facil-ity another vital consideration. Haveoverloaded power lines during thesummer months caused your utilityto schedule rolling blackouts?Backup power sources may be theanswer. Does your system experi-ence recurring power quality prob-lems (e.g., voltage swells, voltagesags, ripples, over- or undervolt-ages, harmonics, etc.)? Then UPSand power conditioning approachesmay suffice. Are the power failuresfrom secondary power quality prob-lems generated by other in-houseequipment? Then a comprehensivereliability centered maintenance pro-gram that includes predictive testingand inspection may be necessary.

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Determining theNeeds of yourFacility

7x24 Operations – How to Eliminate Downtime

Adhering to these stringent uptime requirements for a 7x24 facilitycan all but eliminate downtime in your facility:

· Fifth Sigma/99.999% uptime reliability (315 seconds, or a little morethan five minutes, of outage per year).

· All maintenance is performed with facility online and processingunderway.

· No facility shutdowns are allowed under any circumstances.· All systems are provided with redundant enterprise-level MEP sys-

tem movers and primary/secondary distribution.

· All raised floor equipment is dual cord set or dual fed.· UPS bypass power goes to another UPS source.

· The facility is on a dedicated utility feeder.

· Maintenance is performed on redundant, enterprise-level MDP sys-tems and units only during periods of lower processing load. Noother major maintenance or testing should occur at this time.

· Maintenance is performed on redundant distribution systems onlywhen there is no work being performed on any other portion of theattendant system.

· Only one unit or system component receives maintenance at anygiven time.

Source: Building Operating Management, February 1998 .

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In general, the following processshould be used not only to determinethe reliability requirements of yourfacility, but to address power qualityand reliability issues as well:

n Develop a Power Strategy – Evalu-ate the power requirements ofyour facility. Develop an electricload profile that summarizes elec-trical energy consumption and de-mand over 24 hours, powerquality, and electric power reliabil-ity requirements. Isolate mission-critical electrical loads whenanalyzing your power procurementoptions; these loads should beevaluated in terms of reliability,not potential cost savings.

n Perform a Risk Analysis on Mis-sion-critical Equipment – Recordeach power quality event, fault,and disturbance, both internal andexternal. Predictive testing andinspection is often the most thor-ough method for locating powerand equipment failures. Rankeach event, fault, or disturbanceaccording to its impact on mis-sion-critical performance, and de-cide the allowable tolerance level.Keep in mind that a risk assess-ment looks at the frequency orpossibility that an event or faultwill occur and its subsequent ef-fect on operations.

n Negotiate with Utilities and OtherPower Providers – Use the infor-mation gathered in the facilityelectric load profile to negotiate

with electricity providers. Negoti-ating with utilities and other elec-tricity providers is a goodbusiness move irrespective of the

Standby Power Keeps the Data Flowing for Acxiom

Located on a sprawling campus in Conway, Arkansas, Acxiom Corpo-ration specializes in storing, streamlining and upgrading proprietary datafor insurance companies and credit agencies. The company’s specialtyis data warehousing, including real-time data processing and other in-formation storage services, so it’s critical that Acxiom is on-line 24hours a day, seven days a week.

Because Conway serves as a small distribution center for ArkansasPower & Light, Acxiom is very susceptible to power bumps, makingreliable emergency power for its computer facilities essential. Thoughthe surges or sags last no more than one or two seconds, they wouldcrash the company’s computers without reliable standby power.

That power is supplied by seven standby generator sets strategicallyplaced throughout the campus. Acxiom specified its first equipment,three Caterpillar 3512 gensets, rated at 1,000 kW each, about six yearsago. The units were paralleled off one soft-load transfer switch to handlethe company’s emergency power needs. Two Cat 3516 gensets; rated at1,750 kW, three years ago, followed by two more Cat 3512s, each1,000 kW, two years later. Each of our four newest gensets is a stand-alone system with its own automatic transfer switch (ATS).

Computers are Acxiom’s lifeline, and the gensets protect the envi-ronment in which the computers operate, especially the critical airconditioning. Acxiom’s computers are connected to a system of trickle-charge UPS batteries. The batteries are always on-line; if there’s a dipin power as brief as three milliseconds, the switch to UPS is seamless.

As new clients are added and data processing needs grow, Acxiomadds standby gensets to accept the increased load, ensuring that thecompany will always be “online” for its clients.

Source: Powerline/Riggs Power Systems

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status of electric utility deregula-tion in your state. Negotiate notonly for better rates and morestable pricing over time, but alsofor better power quality. Considerdistributed or self-generation op-tions to counteract planned black-outs.

n Explore Ways to Cut Energy Useand Reduce Demand – Implementenergy efficiency measures innon-critical areas such as officesand restrooms. To provide flexibil-ity for shifting loads, consider de-signing separate cooling schemesfor critical and non-critical areas.Consider using thermal capacitystorage, fuel cells, or other distrib-uted generation technologies toreduce demand during periods ofpeak usage. Electricity demandcan also be reduced using alter-nate fuels (e.g., steam or naturalgas).

After the power source reliabilityhas been addressed, your facility isready for a reliability centered main-tenance program that incorporatespredictive testing and inspection toaddress reliability problems that aregenerated internally and not the re-sult of blackouts or poor power qual-ity from your power provider.

Developing aCorporateCommitment toReliability

T hough the amount ofthought andconsideration that

goes into the design, procurement,testing, and maintenance of areliable facility may seem daunting,these tasks often pale in comparisonto selling senior reliability program.All of the system redundancy andbackup, as well as monitoring andtesting, that goes into a highlyreliable facility means a higherfacilities O&M budget. Qualifiedcontractors in sensitive facilityequipment and electronics may notbe the least expensive. It isimportant to stress to corporatedecision-makers the importance ofvalue over cost when it comes tofacility reliability and uptime.

Before a company undertakes areliability program, management andfacilities staff alike must determinethe facility’s life expectancy and re-quired reliability. Consider the follow-ing questions:

n What is the impact of system fail-ures on mission-critical equipmentand overall facility operations?How severe are the financial con-sequences?

n What are the most frequentcauses of power failures in the fa-cility (e.g., weather, overloadedpower lines, etc.)?

n Does the system suffer from recur-ring power quality problems (e.g.,voltage swells, voltage sags,ripples, over- or undervoltages,harmonics, etc.)?

n Are the power failures from sec-ondary power quality problemsgenerated by other in-houseequipment?

The answers to these questionswill help guide corporate decisionmakers in determining how much reli-ability is required, how much busi-ness is being affected by currentproblems in reliability, and how muchrisk the business can afford to take.

The Construction Industry Insti-tute, Design for Maintainability Re-search Team has developed six vitalsteps to take to developing a suc-cessful plan for facility and systemsreliability and maintainability:

Step 1 - Obtain CorporateCommitmentThe catalyst for implementing main-tainability is an overall, corporatecommitment to develop and follow aformal process to institutionalizemaintainability throughout the organi-zation. Justifying a comprehensivecommitment to reliability to seniormanagement requires research, infor-mation gathering and a thorough un-derstanding of how the mission-critical components of a facility inter-act with the business.

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Step 2 - Establish a CorporateLevel ProgramThis is a straightforward process in-volving a commitment of both humanand financial resources to achieve aconsistent process of implementa-tion using standard proceduresthroughout the organization. Facilitiesmanagement must be considered asseriously as sales, accounting, andother functions of the company.

Step 3 - Obtain Reliability andMaintainability CapabilitiesThis step moves from the central orcorporate level of the business to amore local or project level, becomingdirectly tied into the project deliveryprocess. Reaching this milestonemeans that the project is enabled tosupport and implement design formaintainability. It also means anevaluation of in-house O&M staff andtechnicians is necessary – identifytraining and staffing requirements.

Step 4 – Develop a ProgramImplementation PlanThis step occurs when the resourcesare committed and the process isenabled. A cross-functional projectteam with resident reliability exper-tise should be formed. This projectteam identifies the reliability needsof the facility and the business, de-velops the maintenance strategy, de-velops project maintainabilityobjectives, and considers appropri-

ate technologies to integrate into theproject design.

Step 5 - Implement Reliability andMaintainabilityThis step occurs when all the ele-ments are in place to fully implementmaintainability. Within this step arethe best practices that actuallyimplement maintainability on allphases of the project – design, pro-curement, construction, start-up, andreview. Technologies and ap-proaches to maintain reliability areapplied to the design, consideredduring procurement, recognized dur-ing construction, taught duringowner/staff training, and evaluated atproject conclusion.

Step 6 - Update the CorporateLevel ProgramThe critical element that distin-guishes the ideal process is estab-lishing the feedback mechanism asa driver for continuously improvingthe reliability process. This is thelast step in implementing the corpo-rate level maintainability program,and should include integrating thegoals of the reliability program intothe company’s long-term plan.

eliability centeredmaintenance (RCM)is a continuous

process to find the optimum mix ofreactive, preventive, predictive, andproactive maintenance practices thatwill achieve the required reliability atthe lowest cost. The maintenancestrategies, each of which has its ownstrengths, are integrated to optimizefacility and equipment reliability.

RCM’s goals are to determine foreach system and equipment the fail-ure modes and their consequences,and to identify the most cost-effec-tive and applicable maintenancetechnique to reduce the risk and con-sequences of failure. Specific RCMobjectives are:

· To truly understand the safety andreliability levels of the equipment.

· To restore the equipment to theselevels when deterioration occurs.

· To correct those items in which re-liability is inadequate.

· To achieve these goals at a mini-mum total cost, including mainte-nance costs, support costs, andthe costs of operational failures.

The goal of RCM is to enhanceequipment reliability, primarily bygetting maintenance experience andequipment condition data to facilityplanners, designers, maintenancemanagers, craftsmen, and manufac-turers. This information, which is es-sential to improving equipment

MaintainingReliability

R

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specifications, will continually in-crease reliability and decrease theoccurrence of equipment failures, re-sulting in greater availability for mis-sion support and lower maintenancecosts.

The start-up costs needed to ac-quire the technological tools, train-ing, and equipment conditionbaselines for a new RCM programusually results in a short-term in-crease in maintenance costs. Thisshort-lived spike drops quickly asthe cost of reactive maintenance de-creases, as failures are prevented,and as preventive maintenancetasks are replaced by conditionmonitoring.

An RCM program achieves maxi-mum use from equipment and sys-tems that is based on condition on isnot reliant on scheduled maintenancetasks. This condition-based ap-proach to maintenance lengthens fa-cility and equipment life.

Reliability and the Facility LifeCycleTo achieve maximum effectiveness,reliability must be integrated into thelife cycle at an early stage, andshould be a consideration throughoutthe life cycle (planning, design, con-struction, and operation and mainte-nance).

Decisions made early in the facil-ity life cycle have a significant affecton a facility’s reliability and costs.The decision to commit to an RCM

program, including PT&I and condi-tion monitoring is best made duringthe planning phase. When RCM de-cisions are made later in the lifecycle, it becomes more difficult toachieve the maximum possible ben-efit from the RCM program.

Even though maintenance is arelatively small portion of the overalllife-cycle cost (typically three to fivepercent of a facility’s operating cost),a reliability program is still capableof introducing significant savingsduring the maintenance and opera-tions phase of the facility’s life. Sav-ings of 30% to 50% in the annualmaintenance budget are often ob-tained through the introduction of abalanced RCM program.

RCM AnalysisFor RCM to be effective, mainte-nance decisions are made based onmaintenance requirements, backedby sensible technical and economicrationale. The successful practice ofRCM requires a careful analysis ofthe following questions:

· What does the system or equip-ment do?

· What functional failures are likelyto occur?

· What are the likely consequencesof these functional failures?

· What can be done to preventthese functional failures?

Functional failures occur when asystem or subsystem fails to meetits functional requirements. However,a system or subsystem that is oper-ating in a degraded state but doesnot have a substantial impact onsystem components has not experi-enced a functional failure.

It is critical to look at all of the sig-nificant operational functions of anitem so that functional failure for thatitem can be properly defined. A casein point is aircraft brakes. The brakesnot only stop the plane, but they alsoprovide braking for maneuvering,modulated stopping, and anti-skidcapability. Therefore, the preventionof potential failures averts functionalfailures. The purpose of PT&I is tofind and quantify degradations thatindicate the presence of potentialfailures.

In this context, reliability is de-fined as the likelihood that an itemwill perform without failure during agiven operating period, under speci-fied operating conditions. Everyequipment item has a characteristicthat is called margin to failure. Theuse of equipment causes stress,which can result in failure when thestress exceeds the resistance to fail-ure. Reliability can be increased (i.e.,failures can be prevented) by:

· Decreasing the amount of stressapplied to the item.

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What Defines a Reliability Centered Maintenance Program?

· Orientation on Function – the approach seeks to preserve system or equipment function, not just operabilityfor operability’s sake. Redundancy of function through multiple equipment improves functional reliability,but increases life cycle cost.

· Focus on Systems – RCM is more concerned with maintaining system function than component function.

· Central Focus on Reliability – the approach treats failure statistics in an actuarial manner. The relationshipbetween operating age and the failures experienced is important. RCM is not overly concerned with simplefailure rate; it seeks to know the conditional probability of failure at specific ages (the probability that failurewill occur in each given operating age bracket).

· Acknowledgment of Design Limitations – the objective is to maintain the inherent reliability of the equip-ment design, recognizing that changes in inherent reliability are the province of design rather than mainte-nance. Maintenance can, at best, only achieve and maintain the level of reliability for equipment that isprovided by design. However, RCM recognizes that maintenance feedback can improve on the originaldesign. RCM recognizes that a difference often exists between the perceived design life and the intrinsic oractual design life.

· Driven by Safety and Economics – safety must be ensured at any cost; cost-effectiveness is the criterion.· Definition of Failure as Any Unsatisfactory Condition – therefore, failure may be either a loss of function

(operation ceases) or a loss of acceptable quality (operation continues).

· A Logic Tree Screens Maintenance Tasks – this provides a consistent approach to the maintenance of allkinds of equipment (see Figure 1 on page 10).

· Tasks Must Be Effective – the tasks must be technically sound and cost effective.

· Tasks Must Be Applicable – the tasks must reduce the number of failures or ameliorate secondary damageresulting from failure and be cost effective.

· Acknowledgment of Three Types of Maintenance Tasks and Run-to-Failure – these tasks are time-directed(preventive), condition-directed (predictive), and failure-finding (proactive). Time-directed tasks are sched-uled when appropriate. Condition-directed tasks are performed when conditions indicate they are needed.Failure-finding tasks detect hidden functions which have failed without giving evidence of pending failure.In RCM, run-to-failure is a conscious decision.

· Emphasis on the Living System – RCM gathers data from the results achieved and feeds this data back toimprove design and future maintenance. This feedback is an important part of the proactive maintenanceelement of the RCM program.

Source: NASA Reliability-Centered Maintenance Guidebook

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PredictiveTesting andInspection

P· Increasing or restoring the item’sresistance to failure.

· Decreasing the rate of degrada-tion of the item’s resistance to ormargin to failure.

How much stress that occurs de-pends on use and may be highlyvariable. It may increase, decrease,or remain constant with use or time.A review of the failures of a largenumber of reasonably identicalsimple items would reveal that themajority was approximately the sameage at failure (subject to statisticalvariation) and that these failures oc-curred for the same reason. There-fore, by finding a way to measure asimple item’s resistance to failure, itis possible to select an approach toprevent, and thus improve reliability.

redictive testing andinspection (PT&I) isthe use of advanced

technology to evaluate equipmentcondition, with the goal being topredict and fix problems before theyoccur. PT&I data collected provides abaseline of system and equipmentperformance, and is used to plan andschedule preventive maintenance orrepairs before equipment failureoccurs (all of which increasesreliability). In the commercial buildingindustry, PT&I is sometimes calledcondition monitoring, or predictivemaintenance. Condition-basedmaintenance is the work done as aresult of PT&I data analysis.

As the predictive maintenancefield continues to grow, new andmore economical technologies are

being developed. The technologiesidentified below are not the only test-ing technologies available. However,they are reasonable and cost-effec-tive approaches for most facilitiesand collateral equipment. Some aredirectly related to a facility’s electri-cal distribution system and powerquality; all are important to a reliablefacility and systems performance.

Full Disclosure Power Monitor-ing – A recent breakthrough in PT&Itechnology is the use of full disclo-sure power monitors that use digitalsignal processing and high-speedsampling to capture data on powerdisturbances, harmonics, flicker, andconsumption. Full disclosure powermonitors analyze even the smallestevent, exposing degradation in theelectrical distribution system of a fa-cility (and thus predicting systemfailure).

Infrared Thermography (IRT) -IRT is a non-contact, line-of-sight,thermal measurement and imagingtest that identifies temperature differ-ences. It is ideal for finding hot/coldspots in energized electrical equip-ment, large surface areas such asroofs and building walls, and otherareas where “stand off” temperaturemeasurement is necessary.

IRT inspections are either qualita-tive or quantitative. The quantitativeinspection offers an accurate mea-

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surement of the temperature of theitem of interest. The qualitative in-spection identifies relative differ-ences, hot/cold spots, anddeviations from normal or expectedtemperature ranges, producinghighly accurate temperature differ-ences between similar components.

IRT can be used to locate im-proper installation conditions in elec-trical systems such as transformers,motor control centers, switchgear,switchyards, or power lines. In me-chanical systems, IRT can determineblocked flow conditions in heat ex-changes, condensers, transformercooling radiators, and pipes.

Insulation Power Factor Test –Insulation power factor, sometimescalled dissipation factor, is the mea-sure of the power loss through an in-sulation system to ground. It is adimensionless ratio that is ex-pressed as a percent of the resistivecurrent flowing through the insulationto the total current flowing. To mea-sure this value, a known voltage isapplied to the insulation and the re-sulting current and current/voltagephase relationship is measured. Theresults are measured in milliwattslost. This non-destructive test will notdeteriorate or damage insulation andis considered one of the best electri-cal PT&I tests.

Motor Circuit Analysis – Motorcircuit analysis is an off-line motortechnology that monitors the condi-tion of the complete motor circuit.

The test device measures the basicelectrical characteristics, phase re-sistance, phase inductance, resis-tance to ground, and capacitance toground, that comprise all motor cir-

cuits. The test equipment is portableand computer-based, which allowsfor automated test performance anddata collection.

Figure 1, RCM Logic Tree

Is establishing redundancycost- and priority-justified?

Acceptrisk

Install redundantunit(s)

Define PM taskand schedule

NO YES

YES

NO NO YES

NO YES

NO YES

NO YES

NO YES

Define PT&I taskand schedule

Will failure of the facility or equiptmentitem have a direct and adverse effecton safety or critical mission operations?

Is the itemexpendable?

Can redesign solve the problempermanently and cost effectively?

Is there a PT&I technology (e.g. vibration testing orthermography) that will monitor condition and givesufficient warning (alert/alarm) of an impendingfailure?

Redesign

Is PT&I cost andpriority-justified?

Is there an effective Preventive Mainte-nance task that will minimize functionalfailures?

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Motor Current Signature Analy-sis – Developed by Oak Ridge Na-tional Laboratory, this techniquetests a variety of motor-driven com-ponents in general industrial applica-tions. The approach makes use ofthe fact that an electrical motor is areliable transducer of mechanicallyinduced loads. It uses these loads tomodulate the motor line current sig-nal flowing through the motor statorwindings. (Roger Carr, P/PM Technol-ogy, Volume 8, Issue 3, June 1995,p. 50).

Electrical Signal Analysis – Elec-trical signal analysis is an on-line di-agnostic technology that evaluatesthe condition of a motor circuit. Datacollected includes voltage and cur-rent balance, power quality, imped-ance balance, and current sequencedata.

Vibration Monitoring – This tech-nique involves measuring machinerymovement, or vibration, to identifyongoing conditions through the useof an accelerometer. It also examinesthe vibration spectrum to identifyand trend frequencies of interest.Some frequencies correlate to ma-chine design, regardless of equip-ment condition. For example, ahealthy fan or rotary compressor mayhave a frequency that is equal to themachine speed times the number offan blades. Monitoring this frequencyand noting changes in the amplitudeindicate whether there is a degradingcondition.

Other frequencies, such as thoseassociated with rolling element bear-ings, may be a sign of bearing dam-age. Electric motor problems, suchas broken rotor bars or stator eccen-tricity, are commonly seen in vibra-tion signatures associated withelectrical line frequency. Vibrationanalysis is very helpful in identifyingfaulty bearings and verifying properalignment and balance of new equip-ment.

Airborne Ultrasonic Test – Anultrasonic noise detector, a fairly in-expensive tool, can be used to findliquid and gas (pressure andvacuum) leaks. When a fluid or gasmoves from a high-pressure regionto a low-pressure region, ultrasonicnoise is emitted. The detector trans-lates the ultrasonic noise to the au-dible range. An ultrasonic noisedetector is also useful in locatingarcing, tracking, and corona in elec-trical systems. The detector is usedin conjunction with an IRT inspection.

Dissolved Gas Analysis – A 50ccsample of oil from an oil-filled trans-former is examined for dissolvedgases using gas chromatography.This test is very effective at uncover-ing the problems associated with anoil-filled transformer before the prob-lem becomes terminal.

Lubricating Oil Test – An oilanalysis verifies that the specifiedlubricants are being used and thatthe system is free of construction

contamination. In an operating sys-tem, lubricating oil analysis is per-formed to determine the machinemechanical wear condition, to deter-mine the lubricant condition, and todetermine if the lubricant has be-come contaminated.

Insulating Oil Test – Similar to alubricating oil analysis, testing is per-formed to verify that the specified oilis used. The tests include KarlFischer (water in oil), acidity level(neutralization number), interfacialtension, and electrical dielectric.

Battery Impedance Test – Allbatteries have a storage capacitythat is dependent on the terminalvoltage and internal impedance. Abattery impedance test set injects anAC signal between the terminals ofthe battery. The resulting voltage ismeasured and the impedance is thencalculated. Two comparisons aremade: first, the impedance is com-pared with the last reading for thatbattery, and second, the reading iscompared with other batteries in thesame bank. Each battery should bewithin 10 percent of the others and 5percent of its last reading. A readingoutside of these values indicates acell problem or capacity loss.

Insulation Resistance Test – Aninsulation resistance test is a non-destructive DC test used to deter-mine insulation resistance to ground.A DC voltage is applied to the equip-ment being tested and a small cur-

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rent flow results. The test set, whichthen calculates the resistance, is areliable gauge for the presence ofcontamination or degradation.

Flux Analysis – The flux analysistechnique involves measuring andanalyzing the magnetic leakage fluxfield around a motor. Designed to de-tect faults in rotor bars, stator turn-to-turn shorts, and phase-to-phasefaults, this technique is similar tothat of motor current signature analy-sis.

Ultrasonic Mapping – Used tohelp identify wet insulation in roofs,an ultrasonic signal is sent throughthe roof surface and reflections aremeasured. A strong reflection indi-cates the potential of wet insulation.Most ultrasonic mapping detectorsare small units with wheels, and acomplete inspection requires walkingthe unit across the entire surface ofthe roof.

Go/No-Go TestsPT&I testing typically provides datasuitable for long-term monitoring andtrends analysis. Listed below areequally helpful tests that do not pro-vide data that can be used for trend-ing; in these tests, either theequipment passes the test or it doesnot.

High Potential Test – Hi-Pot test-ing is a DC high voltage test that isused to show excessive leakage cur-rent in in-service equipment and toverify that insulation systems in newequipment can withstand designedvoltage levels. As a result, it servesas an effective acceptance test fornew and repaired electrical transmis-sion and distribution equipment. Forexample, in repaired equipment, ifleakage current continues to increaseat a constant test voltage this indi-cates that the repair is not up to theproper standard and will probablyfail soon. In new equipment, if theequipment does not withstand theappropriate test voltage it indicatesthe insulation system or constructionmethod is inadequate for long termservice reliability. Since DC Hi-Pottesting is a potentially destructivetest, it typically is not used in a PT&Iprogram.

Turns Ratio Test (TTR) – Mainlyused as an acceptance test, TTRmeasures the turns-ratio of a trans-former, including identifying short-circuited turns, incorrect tapsettings, mislabeled terminals, andfailure in tap changers. To run aturns-ratio test, a voltage is sent tothe primary, and the induced voltageon the secondary is measured. Theratio is then calculated and com-pared with the nameplate data. Aturns-ratio measurement can showthat a fault exists, but it cannot de-

termine the reason or location of thefault. TTR also can be used as atroubleshooting tool when other elec-trical tests turn up possible problem.

Partial Discharge Analysis (PD)– This is an on-line technology thatmonitors the condition of insulation inmachines and cables above4,000VAC. A partial discharge is anincomplete, or partial, electrical dis-charge that occurs between an elec-trical item’s own insulation, betweenan electrical item’s own insulationand other insulation, or between insu-lation and a conductor. These dis-charges create a high-frequencysignal that PD monitoring systemsdetect.

Breaker Timing Test – This me-chanical test shows the speed andposition of breaker contacts before,during, and after operation. Two gen-eral types of timers are used: digitalcontact timers and digital contactand breaker travel analyzers.

A digital contact timer is usedonly for timing contacts where notravel time is required. A digital con-tact and breaker analyzer measurescontact velocity, travel, overtravel,bounce back, and acceleration to as-sess the condition of the breaker op-erating mechanism. A voltage isapplied to the breaker contacts, anda motion transducer is attached tothe operating mechanism. Thebreaker is then closed and opened,

PAGE 13

S

Reliability IssuesToday andBeyond

and the test set measures thetimeframe of voltage changes andplots the voltage changes over themotion waveform produced by themotion transducer. The numbers areprinted out from the test set, and thechart is stored in memory for down-loading to a computer.

Flow/Pressure Test – Many facil-ity systems are closed loop-typesystems and any pressure orvacuum leaks are not allowable. Toverify that the system was designedand installed properly, actual flowrates of liquids or gases are mea-sured and compared with the designcriteria. Additionally, leak tests areperformed to confirm system integ-rity.

everal factors willhave an increasinglyimportant impact on

the reliability and maintainability of afacility and its electric power supplyas we head into the new millenium.These factors include the continuingrollout of electric utility deregulation,anticipating tomorrow’s businesstechnologies, and training O&M staffand technicians to serviceincreasingly complex and criticalsystems.

The deregulation of power genera-tion presents many opportunities forbusinesses. However, in addition tousing deregulation to negotiate forbetter rates and stabilized powercosts, facility managers must alsokeep in mind their service require-

ments. For any business reliant onfacility uptime, the cost of electricityis not as important as its quality andreliability. When considering propos-als from the range of utility provid-ers, energy service companies,power marketers, etc., make reliableservice your first priority.

As computer processors becomesmaller and faster (a trend that willundoubtedly continue), they becomemore sensitive to power fluctuations.Small voltage changes can causemajor problems, even system-widecrashes. Consider installing UPSsystems to guard against powersags and surges, and utilizing self-generation in the form of fuel cells orbackup generators to guarantee con-tinuous power (see Distributed Gen-eration – Supplementing Your PowerSupply on page 14. Newer computerequipment can be equipped withdual power paths – one path mightbe from the utility source, while thesecond may be connected to an al-ternate utility line or a backup powersystem.

Planning for future requirements infacility construction and design isalso important. Your facility shouldbe able to accommodate technolo-gies that do not yet exist, and powerrequirements you cannot yet imag-ine. As much as possible, keep wir-ing, piping, conduits, and raisedflooring expandable and flexible.Space, piping, conduits, etc. for me-chanical systems, such as chillers

PAGE 14

DistributedGeneration -SupplementingPower Supply

Fand air handlers, should also be con-sidered for their expandability tohandle increasing loads.

Finally, as more companies realizethe importance of facility and systemreliability, finding facilities mainte-nance staff qualified and knowledge-able in all of the complex aspects ofreliability is a challenge. NECA con-tractors are at an advantage be-cause they can offer many of thespecialized services (listed below)that ensure reliability in electricalsystems, power supply, and theoverall facility and its equipment.Also, consider partnering with otherqualified contractors to provide a fullpackage of services in the reliabilityarena.

· Reliability problems troubleshoot-ing

· Power-sourcing strategies· Economic evaluation/financing· Mechanical and electrical engi-

neering (particularly an emphasisin data center design)

· Building commissioning· Construction· Reliability-centered maintenance

(RCM)· Predictive testing and inspection

(PT&I)· Self-generation alternatives· Back-up power alternatives· Power monitoring

acility managersinterested insupplementing theirsupply of power

should investigate opportunities indistributed generation and self-generation. Distributed generation isthe integrated or stand-alone use ofmodular generation resources, usedby utilities and third-party providersin applications that benefit theelectric system, specific customers,or both. Self-generation is the use ofthe same generation resources, onlyby the facility that plans to use thepower. With both distributed and self-generation, excess power supplyproduced can be sold back to theutility.

Distributed and self-generation en-compass a broad range of technolo-gies and load requirements (typicallyfrom 25kW to 25MW). Formerly usedfor large industrial systems andmedical facilities, the latest distrib-uted generation systems are smallerand more economical to install anduse. Typical return on investmentranges from 15 to 25 percent.

Many facilities that require 7x24operations use some form of on-sitegeneration to provide redundancy intheir power supply. For instance, re-dundancy is built into Internet Ser-vice Provider America Online’s powerdistribution system at its data centernear Washington, D.C. The centercan operate fully from either of twoseparate 34.5 kV utility services. In

addition, six 1,600 kW engine-gen-erators are on hand for emergencybackup power, with space availablefor two more. The system even in-cludes three individual UPS systemsto back up the engine-generatorsand provide power conditioning. Theredundancy is vital considering theimportance to AOL of availability toits customers, on demand, at anytime.

Following is a brief discussion ofthe most types of generation tech-nologies commonly used by facilitiestoday.

Microturbine GeneratorsMicroturbine generators are heat en-gines that use high-temperature,high pressure gas as the workingfluid. Part of the heat supplied by thegas is converted directly into the me-chanical work of rotation. In mostcases, the hot gases for operating agas turbine are obtained by the com-bustion of a fuel in air, which is whygas turbines are often referred to ascombustion turbines.

Because they are compact, light-weight, and easy to operate,microturbine generators have foundmany applications, notably the gen-eration of electricity and steam(many industrial processes requiresteam in addition to electricity). Thenatural gas used to power themicroturbine generator can be one-third to one-seventh the cost of util-ity-provided electricity.

PAGE 15

The new class of microturbinesconsist of a compressor, combustor,turbine, and generator. They are typi-cally less than 300 kw (400 hp) in to-tal power output and use lownitrogen oxide (NOX) emission thatare well within the limits of the moststringent regulations, both currentand proposed. They have few mov-ing parts, require little maintenanceand no liquid cooling. They also arequiet, compact, and in some caseslightweight.

Photovoltaic SystemsPhotovoltaic (PV) systems convertsolar energy into electricity and arecommonly known as solar cells. PVsystems provide power for anythingfrom small calculators and wristwatches to complex systems provid-ing electricity for pumping water,powering communications equipmentand even lighting homes and runningappliances. The system works whena PV cell converts sunlight, which ismade of photons, or particles of so-lar energy, into electricity.

One solar cells typically producesbetween 1 and 2 watts. Cells areconnected together to form largerunits called modules, and modulesare be connected to form even largerunits called arrays, which can be in-terconnected for more power.

PV-generated power offers advan-tages over diesel generators, pri-mary (one-time use) batteries, andeven conventional utility power.

Highly reliable, with low constructionand operating costs, PV systems arehighly customizable and mobile, andthey are clean and silent. PV sys-tems can be connected to a battery,and the battery to a load. Duringdaylight hours, the PV modulescharge the battery and the batterysupplies power to the load wheneverneeded. A charge controller protectsthem from overcharging or draining.

Fuel CellsFuel cells provide a way of generat-ing electricity without combustionand without air or water pollution.Like batteries, they convert chemicalenergy in a fuel, such as methane ormethanol, directly into electricity.Also like batteries, they have posi-tive and negative electrodes and anelectrolyte. Fuel cells, however canoperate continuously as long as fueland air are supplied, unlike a battery,which can provide power for a limitedtime before requiring recharging orreplacement. To generate a usefulamount of current, fuel cells arestacked in multilayers.

Fuel cells are efficient, with over40 percent of the energy in the fuelconverted directly into electricity.When used in distributed generationapplications, over 80 percent of theenergy in the fuel is available as use-ful heat and electricity. Fuel cells canproduce greater value from the natu-ral gas consumed than any othertype of power generation system.

In comparison to traditional com-bustion methods of generating elec-tricity, fuel cells offer severaladvantages. Since no combustion isinvolved, a fuel cell operating on hy-drogen and oxygen produces noNOX or carbon dioxide (CO2) emis-sions. Other fuels, such as naturalgas and methanol produce emis-sions well below all current environ-mental standards.

Fuel cells contain no moving partsand are, therefore, low in noise andvibration. Similar to PV systems, fuelcell systems are modular andscaleable. A typical fuel cell consistsof four major components: a fuel pro-cessor, fuel cell stack, power condi-tioning system, and energy recoverysystem. The fuel processor convertsa hydrocarbon fuel into hydrogengas. The fuel cell stack combinesthe hydrogen with oxygen to produceDC power. The power conditioningsystem converts the DC power intoAC or DC power with the proper volt-age and frequency. The energy re-covery system uses the excess heatenergy for distributed generationfunctions.

Fuel cells are an emerging tech-nology, and while they are gainingfast in commercial viability, theyshould be considered a supplemen-tal power source option only wheneconomically feasible.

PAGE 16

Please send me the EDL(s) that I have checked above. A check in the amount of $ ___________________________________for _____________________________ copies is enclosed.

Name ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Address ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

City __________________________________________________ State _______________________Zip _______________________

Please mail this EDL order form and your check (made payable to NECA) to:National Electrical Contractors Association, 3 Bethesda Metro Center, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814–5372.

EDL ORDER FORMThe following monographs are $3.00 each for NECA members, $5.00 for utilities,

and $10.00 for others. Prices for bulk quantities will be quoted upon request.

Date Title Index No.o 4/92 Effective Lighting Controls for Modern Buildings 302575o 8/92 Electro-Technologies for Intelligent Buildings 302576o 12/92 Design to Improve Power Quality 302577o 4/93 Benefits of Adjustable Speed Drives 302578o 8/93 Electro-Technologies for Waste Management 302579o 12/93 Getting Ahead in Network Communications 302580o 6/94 Distributed Intelligence Control Networks 302581o 9/94 Fiber Optic Cable Paves The Information Highway 302582o 12/94 The Electronic Butler 302583o 6/95 Electrotechnologies for Wastewater Management 302584o 9/95 Performance Contracting—An Innovative Financing Option 302585o 12/95 Reliability Centered Maintenance—A Cost-Effective Solution for Facilities Maintenance 302586o 4/96 Demand-Side Management Transformation 302587o 8/96 Heat Pump Technology 302588o 12/96 Building Commissioning 302589o 4/97 Intelligent Building Control Networks 302590o 8/97 Advances in Electrotechnologies 302591o 12/97 Utility Deregulation and the Facility Manager 302592o 4/98 Power Quality 302593o 8/98 Advanced Meter Reading Technologies 302594o 12/98 Distributed Power Generation Technologies 302595o 4/99 Task-Driven Lighting 302596o 8/99 Energy Savings Performance Contracting—A New Frontier 302597o 12/99 Electrical System Reliability—Inside and Out 302598o ____ Complete set of EDL publications (3025SER) available for $35 for NECA members or $70 for nonmembers.

PAGE 17

The National Electrical ContractorsAssociation, Inc., was founded in1901. It represents the electrical con-tracting industry and is organizedinto independent, local chaptersthroughout the United States, Austra-lia, Canada, Mexico and New Zealand.The headquarters office is located at 3 Bethesda Metro Center, Suite 1100,Bethesda, MD 20814–5372. Fieldservice regional offices are located inCovington, LA, Schaumburg, IL,Syracuse, NY, and Oakland, CA. Forhelp in locating a qualified electricalcontractor in your area or for more in-formation concerning this publica-tion, contact the NECA ChapterOffice nearest you.

NECA ChapterLocations

Index No. 302598Marketing8K/12/99

ALABAMA : Mobile (334/479-9534)ALASKA: Anchorage (907/561-1958)ARIZONA: Phoenix (602/263-0111), Tucson(520/323-1622)ARKANSAS: Little Rock (501/758-2224)CALIFORNIA: Santa Maria (805/348-1200),Martinez (925/372-3222), Fresno (559/230-0990), Bakersfield (661/325-5937), LosAngeles (213/487-7313), Salinas (805/348-1200), Oakland (925/737-0460), Orange(714/634-8777), Petaluma (707/765-1050),San Diego (619/298-1183), San Francisco(415/703-8333), Stockton (209/478-8105),Redwood City (650/364-8100), San Jose(408/288-6100), San Bernardino (909/824-7050), Sacramento (916/376-8980)COLORADO: Denver (303/937-3900),Colorado Springs (719/636-3901)

CONNECTICUT: Milford (203/287-1444)DELAWARE: Philadelphia, PA (215/732-1444)DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA: Annandale, VA(703/658-4383)FLORIDA: Orlando (407/426-9050), Tampa(813/253-0887), Jacksonville (904/633-9448), Miami (305/828-9918)GEORGIA: Atlanta (770/454-6400), Augusta(706/262-6322), Savannah (912/355-1252), Atlanta[Southeastern Line Constructors] (770/969-9209)HAWAII: Contact NECA Marketing Servicesin Bethesda, MD (301/215-4525)IDAHO: Boise (208/322-4744)ILLINOIS: Peoria (309/673-6900), Chicago(708/531-0022), Joliet (815/729-2288),Springfield (217/787-9500), NortheasternIllinois (630/876-5360), Rockford (815/874-8400), Quad Cities (319/322-5371)INDIANA: Indianapolis (317/846-5680),Michigan City (219/872-3151), Evansville(812/422-3259)IOWA: Des Moines (515/278-2341)KANSAS: 316/265-7067KENTUCKY: Louisville (502/893-2713)LOUISIANA: Baton Rouge (225/752-7970),Shreveport (318/458-6674), Monroe (318/387-4411), New Orleans (504/733-9370),Lake Charles (318/436-0886)MAINE: Boston, MA (617/969-2521MARYLAND: Baltimore (410/727-1645)MASSACHUSETTS: Boston (617/969-2521), Worcester (508/752-6422), Spring-field (413/785-1337)MICHIGAN: Lansing (517/372-3080), De-troit (248/355-3500)MINNESOTA: Minneapolis (612/591-1800),St. Paul (651/224-3377), Duluth (218/722-8115)MISSISSIPPI: Jackson (601/373-1623)MISSOURI: Kansas City (816/753-7444),Kansas City [Southwestern Line Construc-tors] (816/891-8570), Kansas City [MissouriValley Line Constructors] (816/891-9066),St. Louis (314/644-3030)MONTANA: Helena (406/442-8330)NEBRASKA: Omaha (402/397-5105)NEVADA: Las Vegas (702/876-7860)NEW HAMPSHIRE: Boston, MA (617/969-2521NEW JERSEY: Mountainside (908/654-5770), Mt. Laurel (856/722-6777)NEW MEXICO: Albuquerque (505/883-6677)NEW YORK: Albany (518/785-5876), FingerLakes NY (315/451-4278), Hudson Valley(914/928-3575), Long Island (631/462-0490),

New York City (212/481-0534), Binghamton(607/723-8824), Western NY State (716/810-1664), Northern New York (215/742-1060)NORTH CAROLINA: Richmond, VA (804/672-2234)NORTH DAKOTA: Fargo (701/293-1300)OHIO: Vandalia [American Line Builders](937/898-5824), Columbus (614/481-8558),Cincinnati (513/791-8777), Cleveland (216/398-8440), Akron (330/384-1242), Young-stown (330/726-5525), Toledo (419/666-6040), Dayton (937/299-0384)OKLAHOMA: Tulsa (918/749-9449),Oklahoma City (405/848-8621)OREGON: Eugene (541/686-8035)Portland (503/233-5787)PENNSYLVANIA: Philadelphia (215/732-1444), Philadelphia [Northeastern Line Con-structors] (610/489-1272), Pittsburgh (412/432-1155)RHODE ISLAND: Providence (401/785-2990)SOUTH CAROLINA: Richmond, VA (804/672-2234)SOUTH DAKOTA: Fargo, ND (701/293-1300)TENNESSEE: Chattanooga (423/894-4357),Memphis (901/366-9010), Nashville (615/383-7051)TEXAS: El Paso (915/778-4295), Arlington(817/633-3332), Amarillo (806/373-0281),Wichita Falls (940/691-1164), San Antonio(210/226-6331), Houston (713/977-2522)UTAH: Salt Lake City (801/486-6900),Sandy [Western Line Constructors] (801/943-2081)VERMONT: Springfield, MA (413/785-1337)VIRGINIA: Richmond (804/672-2234)WASHINGTON: Everett (425/258-2644),Spokane (509/328-9670), Seattle (206/284-2150), Tacoma (253/584-4095)WEST VIRGINIA: Charleston (304/346-1331)WISCONSIN: Milwaukee (414/778-0305),Madison (608/221-4650)WYOMING: Casper (307/234-8142)

INTERNATIONAL CHAPTERS:AUSTRALIA: New South Wales (02-9744-1099), Queensland (7-3252-7488), Victoria(61-3-9645-5533), NECA National [Australia]Office (61-3-9645-5566), South Australia(61-8-8272-2966)CANADA: Toronto, Ontario (416-391-3226)MEXICO: Mexico, D.F. (525/611-5414)Guadalajara (523/671-0976), Monterrey (528/338-8323)NEW ZEALAND: Ecanz (64-4-385-9657)

DOWNTIME CAN BRING AN ENTIRE BUSINESS DISTRICT TO A STANDSTILL ANDCOST COMPANIES MILLIONS OF DOLLARS AMINUTE. THE RISK OF ENORMOUS LOSSESPUTS FACILITY MANAGERS AND OWNERSON THE LINE — EVERY DAY.

Today’s building systems and equipment are increasingly sensitive and interrelated, and more and more operations are run on a 7 x 24 schedule. That makes a commitment to reliability absolutely critical.

Rely on NECA electrical contractors and you can bring building systems and equip-ment to a higher level of performance —before a critical problem develops. With aNECA contractor on the job, you areassuring yourself and your tenants ofelectrical installations that are thevery definition of quality. NECAcontractors adhere to theNational Electrical Installation

Standards™, which call for a level of qualityover and above the minimum safety require-ments of the National Electrical Code.

Don’t let downtime put you out of thegame. Call 1-800-888-NECA or visit the Website to find a NECA contractor best qualifiedfor your particular project.

Ask for your free copy of ElectricalSystem Reliability — Inside and Out, aguide to evaluating the needs of your facility,predictive testing and maintaining reliabilitytoday and beyond.

Downtime putsyou out of the game. NECA contractors

keep you on top of it.

Make a powerful connection.www.necaconnection.com

This message paid for by the National Electrical Contractors Association.