lable at ScienceDirect

Energy 35 (2010) 2945e2952

Contents lists avai

Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/energy

Electric energy consumption in the cotton textile processing stages

S. Palamutcu*

Textile Engineering Department, Pamukkale University, Engineering Faculty, 20070 Kınıklı, Denizli, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 24 July 2009Received in revised form16 March 2010Accepted 17 March 2010Available online 24 April 2010

Keywords:Specific energy consumption (SEC)Cotton textile productionElectric energy useTurkish textile sector

* Fax: þ90 258 296 32 62.E-mail address: spalamut@pau.edu.tr

0360-5442/$ e see front matter � 2010 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.03.029

a b s t r a c t

Electric energy is one of the primary energy sources consumpted in cotton textile processing. Currentenergy cost rate is reported about 8e10% in the total production cost of an ordinary textile productmanufactured in Turkey. Significantly important share of this energy cost is electric energy. The aim ofthis paper was to investigate unit electric energy consumption of cotton textile processing stages usingreal-time measurements method. Actual and estimated Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) values forelectric energy was calculated in the cotton textile processing stages of spinning, warpingesizing,weaving, wet processing and clothing manufacturing. Actual electric energy consumption data aregathered from monthly records of the involved plant managements. Estimated electric energyconsumption data is gathered through on-site measurement. Actual and estimated electric energyconsumption data and monthly production quantities of the corresponding months are used to facilitatespecific electric energy consumption of the plants. It is found that actual electric energy consumptionamount per unit textile product is higher than the estimated electric energy consumption amount perunit textile product of each involved textile processing stages.

� 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Textile manufacturing stages are known as energy intensiveprocesses. Between years of 1971 and 2004 final energy use intextile sector has doubled from 47 Ej/yr to 90 Ej/yr in the world [1].Electric energy is one of the most commonly used energy types inthe textile and clothing plants, used to supply energy for textilemachinery, heating and cooling control systems, lighting, and officeequipments. It is estimated from the report of UNIDO [2] thatelectricity consumption rate in the total consumpted energy forindividual textile production stages are 93% for spinning, 85% forweaving, 43% for wet processing, and 65% for clothingmanufacturing. Rest of the energy that is used in the textile pro-cessing plants is supplied by other energy sources of fuel, naturalgas, and coal [3,4].

Textile industry is one of the leading industries of Turkey,including 35,000 companies and over 2 million employee. Exportincomes of the sector compose 23.5% of total export income ofTurkish economy in 2006 [5,6]. Total annual production volume ofthe sector is about $30 billion USD [7]. Stable growth of Turkishtextile and clothing sectors have remained over the last two

All rights reserved.

decades, until elimination of quotas in textile sector for China in2005 [8]. Competition in textile and clothing sector had becomemore severe eventually with the results of global economic crisisin 2008. Turkish textile manufacturers had to face the increasingcosts of textile raw materials, labor, energy, finance and otherrelated expenses.

In Table 1 share of the production cost components for yarn,woven fabric and clothing manufacturing have been summarizedfor an ordinary textile good, produced in Turkey. As it is seen fromthe table production cost components of textile products are clas-sified under four groups of raw material-auxiliaries, labor, energy,and finance-transportation.

Among all the primary production cost components of textilegoods, share of energy cost in textile sector has been reported as6e14% in 1996 [9], 8e10% in 2000 [10], and 5e10% in 2007 [10] intotal production cost. Energy consumption rate of textile sector inthe total industrial energy consumption (of first biggest 500industrial plants) of Turkey is estimated as about 7.2% [11].

The aim of this paper is to investigate unit electric energyconsumption and its efficiency in cotton textile processing stages ofspinning, warpingesizing, weaving, wet processing and clothingmanufacturing. Paper includes general knowledge about Turkishtextile sector, energymanagementprojects conducted inTurkeyandin the world, literature reviews, on-site data collection and analysisof electric energy consumption, characterizing the efficiency in

Table 1Share of production cost components for a textile good, % [10].

Cost components Yarn Woven fabric Clothing

Raw material and auxiliaries 55e65 65 55e65Labor 5e8 12e18 20Energy 5e10 5e8 5e8Finance, transportation, etc. 17e35 9e18 17e20

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e29522946

electric energy usage associated with cotton textile processingplants in Industrial Zone of Denizli in Turkey. In particular this paperwill:

(1) Characterize electric energy usage in existing textile produc-tion plants,

(2) Quantify the magnitudes of actual and estimated specificelectric energy consumption (SEC) in the defined textile pro-cessing stages,

(3) To discuss the reason of the gaps between actual and estimatedSEC for electric energy consumption in the cotton textile pro-cessing stages.

2. Energy management in Turkey

Energy management and saving policies has become subject ofinterest for textile manufacturers as it is for other industrial sectors,right after the 1970s. The world has started to revise its energybudget by utilizing higher efficiencies, and to pay attention theurgency of environmental protection. Parallel to emerging concernsabout energy and environment in the world, Turkey had alsoalerted about energy savings and management regulations.Depending on social and economic development of Turkey, totalenergy demand and also electric energy demand are grown rapidly.Reported energy demand increase rate is about 11% for every yearsince 1970s [12]. Alongside the increasing energy demand, energymanagement and energy saving actions had been enhancednationwidely since the beginning of 1980s. It is reported as result ofthe Turkish energy conservation programs that Turkish industrialsectors have an annual energy saving potential of approximately30%. Annual energy saving potential for textile and clothing sectoris reported as 8.36% [13,14] which is substantial potential con-cerning the increasing energy costs in textile processing.

Fig. 1. General production path line

Energy consumption rate of textile and clothing sector is repor-ted as 5.9% in total energy use of Turkish industrial sectors [11],(annual energy consume of textile and clothing sector is 822,305 toein the total annual energy use volume of 13,923,448 toe in Turkey).

3. Textile manufacturing processes and energy profile

Textile manufacturing process is divided into five main substages of fiber processing, spinning, weavingeknitting, wet pro-cessing and garment manufacturing. Fig. 1 shows general produc-tion path line of a typical woven textile product. The dotted boxes 1and 2 in Fig. 1 represent primary and secondary energy consumingapplications in an ordinary textile production plant. The boxeslabeled A, B, and C represent the primary energy consumingproduction lines of spinning, sizing, weaving; wet processing; andgarment manufacturing. Heatingecooling, sanitation, trans-portation, exterior and other energy consuming applications areclassified as secondary energy consuming applications [15].

Each manufacturing process has its own energy consumptioncharacteristics. Some processes are more energy intensive thanothers. Different types of energy sources are consumed in eachdifferent processing stage, some processes require more electricitywhile others requires more heat energy.

Spinning process in its various stages (mixing, opening, prepara-tion, the spinning operation itself, winding and doubling) consumeselectric energy. Amount of energy consumption in this process isvariable depending on type of spinning system, type of winding anddoubling machines, desired yarn properties and raw material char-acteristics. In case of middle count, carded, ring yarn processing, thespinning and winding processes represent about 80% of energyconsumption per kg of single yarn [16,17]. Sizing process is animportantprocessbetweenspinningandweavingprocesses.Sizingofyarns before warping mostly requires indirect steam that is heatedusing electricity, gas or oil. Weaving processes requires electricalenergy. Amount of energy consumption changes depending on fabricstructure and technical parameters of weaving machine.

Controlled climatic room condition (25 �C temperature, 65%relative humidity) in spinning and weaving rooms is anotherimportant electric energy consuming station in textile processingstages. Seasonal climatic variation is also important parameter forenergy consumption quantity of air conditioning systems.

of a woven textile product [15].

Table 2Machine park and consumed energy types of cotton textile processing plants.

Name ofproductionprocess

Productioncapacity

Machine name(number of unit)

Consumedenergy type

Cotton spinning 50,000spindle

Opening-blendingline (2)Carding machine (16)Drawing lines (2)Roving machineRing spinning machineWinding machine

Electricity

Warpingand sizing

400,000m/day

Serial warpingmachine (1)Conical warpingmachine (1)Sizing machine (1)

ElectricityElectricityElectricityþ steam

Weaving 36 loom Jacquard weavingmachines (36)Quality controlmachinery (8)

Electricity

Wet processing 30tons/day

Pre-finishing lineWashing lineDrying lineDyeing machineFinishing lineVolumizing machineOpening andrewinding machinesQuality controlmachinery

Electricityþ steamElectricityþ steamElectricityþ hot oilElectricityElectricityElectricityþ hot oilElectricityElectricity

Clothingmanufacturing

e Long side cuttingmachine (1)Long side hemmingmachine (2)Sewing machine (50)Overlock machine (23)

Electricityionan

delectric

energy

consu

mptiondataof

thewea

vingplant.

007

uction,

wov

enic)

Electric

energy

consu

mption

ofproduction

units,kW

h(e)

Electricen

ergy

consu

mption

ofnon

-productionunits,kW

h(e)

Estimated

energy

consu

mption

,kW

h(e)

Actual

energy

consu

mption

,kW

h(e)

Dev

iation

,%

Estimated

specific

electric

energy

consu

mption

,kW

h(e)/kg

(wov

enfabric)

Actual

specificelectric

energy

consu

mption

,kW

h(e)/kg

(wov

enfabric)

Qualityco

ntrol

machinery

Wea

ving

machinery

Total

consu

mption

Ligh

ting

A/C

Total

.683

144

51.152

51.296

2.50

419

.142

21.646

72.942

118.06

062

1.38

2.24

.243

198

71.130

71.328

3.33

925

.523

28.862

100.19

012

9.11

029

1.54

1.98

.970

289

104.69

910

4.98

85.00

938

.284

43.293

148.28

115

4.97

05

1.61

1.68

.975

293

107.13

510

7.42

85.00

938

.284

43.293

150.72

116

7.07

011

1.55

1.72

.783

322

116.84

611

7.16

85.42

641

.475

46.901

164.06

917

3.25

06

1.54

1.62

.014

359

130.53

813

0.89

75.84

344

.665

50.508

181.40

518

1.63

00

1.62

1.62

.121

290

105.76

010

6.05

04.59

135

.094

39.685

145.73

517

9.35

023

1.67

2.06

.457

303

109.30

710

9.61

04.59

135

.094

39.685

149.29

518

2.02

022

1.67

2.03

.814

278

100.89

010

1.16

84.17

431

.904

36.077

137.24

516

5.62

021

1.76

2.13

.847

298

108.15

510

8.45

34.17

431

.904

36.077

144.53

013

8.47

0�4

1.65

1.58

.855

329

118.96

811

9.29

74.59

135

.094

39.685

158.98

215

7.96

0�1

1.64

1.63

.582

219

78.739

78.958

2.92

222

.333

25.254

104.21

211

1.05

07

1.5

1.6

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e2952 2947

Wet processing stages of pretreatment, bleaching, dyeing, posttreatments and drying-fixation processes consume considerableamounts of heat in the form of hot water, steam and hot air.Mechanical parts of the wet processing machinery are driven usingelectric energy. Total electric energy consumption inwet processingis quite low comparing the other textile processing stages.

Clothing manufacturing stages of laying up, cutting, sewing,cleaning with air suction, ironing, and transporting processesmostly consumes electric energy. Only heatingeironing processesmay require steam or hot air.

Research about energy management, improvement of energyefficiency, and energy saving potentials are main concern of manydifferent industrial sectors including textile sector [18e33]. Therehave been many international [2,18e20,34e38] and national[1,4,7,10e14,21e23,39,40e43] projects concerning energy manage-ment and improvement of energy efficiency in different industrialsectors. Energy management methods and practices are describedusing the total quality management approach of P (plan), D (do), C(check) and A (action) cycles [2,13,14,21,35e37]. Energy saving areasin the industrial manufacturing plants is basically categorized asboilers, steam systems, heat isolation, leakage prevention of pneu-matic systems, electric motors and motion transmission systems.Implementation of accurate maintenance plans and procedures isadvised promptly for industrial manufacturing plants to preventpotential energy losses [2e4,18,36,38,40,42,43].

Table

3Em

pirical

produ

ct

Wea

vingplant-2

Mon

ths

Prod

kg(

fabr

J52

F65

M91

A96

M10

6J

112

J87

A89

S77

O87

N96

D69

4. Methodology

This section explains textile processing stages of the involvedplants, details of walkthrough electric energy analysis, data

Table 4Average production and electric energy consumption information of the textile plants.

Plant Average production quantity Electric energy consumption

Production Lighting HVAC

kWh/month % kWh/month % kWh/month %

Yarn 871.392 kg/month 2,232.249 80 44.928 2 493.480 18Warpingesizing 447.630 m/month 2.023 88 278 12 e e

Weaving 86.195 kg/month 100.553 73 4.348 3 33.233 24Wet processing 740.230 kg/month 482.661 97 13.728 3 e e

Clothing 35.217 kg/month 1.493 49 1.556 51 e e

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e29522948

collection method from the plant management, and approachesused to calculate actual and estimated electric energy SEC values.

Involved manufacturing plants in the present study are cottonspinning plant, warpingesizing plant, weaving plant, wet pro-cessing plant and clothing manufacturing plant, which are locatedin the industrial zone of Denizli, working connectively each other assub contractors. Production capacity, machinery park andconsumed energy types of the plants are given in Table 2. As it isseen main energy types used in textile processing stages are elec-tric and heat (provided using natural gas or coal burning) energies.

Before conductingwalkthrough energy inspection in the involvedcotton textile processing plants, consultation meetings were heldwith production and energy-maintenance departments at manage-rial level. After approval of project initiation by plant managements,electric energy consumption analysis project is introduced to allrelevant plant personnel in serial meetings. Purpose of the projectwas explained and their suggestions were discussed in detail.Monthly production and electric energy consumption data of theinvolved plants were gathered from the relevant managerialdepartments. Checklist tables to beusedduringon-sitemeasurementis prepared and given to the electric energy measurement teams.Electric energy measurement teams were constituted including oneelectric engineer, one mechanical engineer, one machine operatorand one member of the project team. On-site walkthrough electricenergy measurement was performed through the real-timemeasurement on the machineries using a clamp ampermeter.Measurements team were conducted daily two measurementsduring week days, totally ten measurements were recorded tocalculate average electric energy consumption of each relevantmachine. Average electric energy consumption datawas then used todetermine the real-timepowerconsumptionof themachine.Numberof electric consumingmachineryand equipments, determinedpowerconsumption, and operating hours perworking day of correspondingmachine and equipments were noted. Estimated total working dayper month was also noted in consultation with relevant departmentin the plant. Gathered electric consumption data was then used forcalculation of estimated SEC value of each plants.

2,8

3

3,2

3,4

3,6

J F M A M J J A S O N D

months

gk/

hW

k

estimated SEC, (kWh/kg) actual SEC, (kWh/kg)

Fig. 2. Comparison of actual and estimated SEC values of carded yarn spinning plant.

Actual electric energy consumption data of the plants weregathered from monthly electricity consumption records of plantmanagement. Production purposed electric energy consumptiondata, lighting and Heater-Vent-Air Conditioning (HVAC) purposedelectric energy consumption data were noted separately.

In Table 3 details of measured and collected data for theweavingplant is listed. The samemeasurements are completed for the othertextile processing plants of spinning, warpingesizing, wet pro-cessing and clothing manufacturing.

Average production quantity and electric energy consumptiondata of production plants are given in Table 4.

Production quantity, estimated and actual electricity consump-tion data of corresponding months are used to calculate estimatedand actual SEC value of electric energy for relevant textile pro-cessing stages. SEC is therefore defined as electric energyconsumption per unit mass of textile product and its unit is kWhelectric energy/kg textile product. Differences between estimatedand actual specific electric energy consumption quantities areshown graphically for each processing plants.

SEC can be expressed by the following equation:

SEC ¼ ðJ$Et=PtÞ; (1)

where J is the number of energy consuming unit associated withelectric energy consumption, Et is the average amount of electricenergy used during period t, and Pt is the quantity of productionduring period t.

Quantity of monthly textile production in terms of weight (kg)and monthly electric energy consumption in terms of kW/h areused to draw graphics exhibiting the relation between electricenergy use and production quantity. Scattered intersection pointsof energy use and production quantity data are used to attain thebest fit line and its equation. Bets fit line equation explains therelationship between electric energy use and production quantity.Equation is;

y ¼ mxþ c; (2)

where y is electric energy axis, x is production axis,m is slope of theline, and c is its intercept with y axis. Slope of the line (m) explainsthe amount of energy required to process each additional unit ofproduction, leading to the process efficiency. c indicates theminimum energy requirement to start up production. Scatter,distribution of the data points away from the best fit line, indicatesvariation in energy per unit production from one period to another.

Equation (2) is also used to calculate the proportion of energythat does not contribute to production by dividing the energy thatis unrelated to production [37]. Monthly based electric energy

Table 5Average SEC values of sizing and warping processes.

kWh/kg (warp yarn)

Estimated SEC for electric energy 0.0051Actual SEC for electric energy 0.0073

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

J F M A M J J A S O N D

months

gk/

hW

k

estimated SEC, (kWh/kg) actual SEC, (kWh/kg)

Fig. 3. Comparison of actual and estimated SEC values of weaving plant.

0

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

J F M A M J J A S O N D

months

gk/

hW

k

estimated SEC, (kWh/kg) actual SEC, (kWh/kg)

Fig. 5. Comparison of actual and estimated SEC values of clothing production plant.

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e2952 2949

consumption and production quantity data of each individualproduction stages are used to illustrate graphics of eq. (2). In thegraphs, yarn processing, woven fabric processing, wet processingand clothingmanufacturing stages are reviewed individually. Thesegraphs and equations are then used to determine the Process Effi-ciency and Energy Consumption amount not related to the quantity ofproduction.

4.1. Boundaries

Specific energy consumption value is a useful energy efficiencymeasurement instrument for industrial production plants. In caseof cotton textile production, production capacity, technology levelof the plant, and production parameters are influential parametersfor SEC value and they need to be clearly defined .Gathered resultsof this work are only applicable for cotton textile processing stagesof middle count carded cotton yarn spinning plant; weavingpreparation plant of warping and sizing processes with22e28 warp/cm middle count yarn; weaving plant processing18e22 weft/cm plain woven fabrics; padding dyeing process oflight shade colors; and clothing manufacturing plant of producingnon-complicated ordinary cotton textile products.

5. Results and discussion

Each processing stage of cotton textile production is analyzedindividually with electric energy consumption and productionquantity data. Monthly based data collection is then used to explainthe relationship between production quantity and electric energyconsumption for each cotton textile processing stages [41]. Thedifference between actual and estimated SEC values of each pro-cessing stage is evaluated on monthly basis.

Analyzed data show that the highest electric energy consumingproduction stage among cotton textile processing stages is spinningprocess where the machinery is completely electric energy driven.

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

1,2

J F M A M J J A S O N D

months

gk/

hW

k

estimated SEC, (kWh/kg) actual SEC, (kWh/kg)

Fig. 4. Comparison of actual and estimated SEC values of wet processing plant.

Specific electric energy consumption of yarn spinning plant isshown in Fig. 2. It is found that actual SEC values are varyingbetween 3.24 and 3.47 kWh/kg and estimated SEC values arevarying between 3.08 and 3.30 kWh/kg. Reason of the variation inmonthly based SEC values can be explained with the difference onthe processed rawmaterial properties, differences on the spun yarnproperties, and climatic conditions of spinning room which affectsmachine electricity consumption. Determined SEC values in electricenergy consumption of spinning plants are found relevant tocurrent literature where SEC values are reported changing in therange of 3.2e3.5 kWh/kg [15] and 0.55e7.3 kWh/kg [22].

Electric energy consumption amount of warping and sizingmachinery are quite low comparing high amount of steam and heatrequirement of the process. Actual and estimated SEC values inelectric energy for warping and sizing processes are relativelylower then the SEC values of other cotton textile processing stages.Average actual specific electric energy consumption value ofwarping and sizing plant is estimated as 0.0073 kWh/kg warp yarn.(Table 5) Actual SEC value is found about 30% higher then estimatedSEC value of warpingesizing process. Reason of high actual SECvalue can be explained with high rate of unloaded working time ofmachinery (progressed electricity consumption without produc-tion) and technical parameter differences among processed war-pingesizing orders (possible differences on the number of warpingyarn per beam and yarn density).

Weaving process is another high electric energy consumingprocessing stage. Specific electric energy consumption of weavingplant is found varying in range of 1.58e2.24 kWh/kg for actual SECand 1.38e1.76 kWh/kg for estimated SEC, Fig. 3. Actual SEC valuesare found generally higher then estimated SEC values in monthlybasis comparison. Reason of the varying SEC values year round canbe explained with potential differences on technical properties ofproduced fabric, climatic conditions of weaving room, andmachineworking conditions. Determined SEC values in electric energyconsumption for weaving process are found lower then results of

-60,00

-40,00

-20,00

0,00

20,00

40,00

60,00

80,00

J F M A M J J A S O N D

months

% ,n

oit

aiv

ed

yarn weaving wet processing clothing

Fig. 6. Deviation between estimated and actual SEC for electric energy consumption.

Ele

ctri

c en

ergy

, MW

h/m

onth

92,873 + x4547,2 = yR2 9619,0 =

0

0001

0002

0003

0004

00010080060040020

yarn production, tons/month

345,03 + x2842,1 = yR2 9129,0 =

0

03

06

09

021

051

081

0210906030

htnom/snot ,noitcudorp cirbaf nevow

Ele

ctri

c en

ergy

, MW

h/m

onth

62,31 + x4656,0 = yR2 7589,0 =

0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

00010080060040020

htnom/snot ,gnissecorp tew

8155,1 + x2524,0 = yR2 1497,0 =

0

1

2

3

4

5

6543210

clothing production, tons/month

Fig. 7. Change of electric energy consumption against monthly production quantity.

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e29522950

Visvanathan et al. [22] where it is reported changing between 5.7and 5.8 kWh/kg. Visvanathan et al. had gathered their result ina study that concerns whole Thai weaving industry including alldifferent types of weaving machinery, production conditions, anddifferent types of fabrics. In this study only cotton textile weavingprocesses, as it is defined in Tables 2 and 3 are concerned. Largedifference between results of Visvanathan et al. and this study maybe explainedwith characteristical difference between collected datasize, technology and energy efficiency levels of each local textilesector, and years that studies were carried out (1998 and 2007).

Wet processing processes are heat and steam intensive processeswhere electric energy is only consumed for mechanical drivingpurposes. Specific electric energy consumption of wet processingplant is found changing between 0.79 and 1.05 kWh/kg for actualSEC and 0.67e0.68 kWh/kg for estimated SEC, Fig. 4. Actual SECvalues are found higher then estimated SEC values in monthly basiscomparison. Reason of variable actual SEC value year round can beexplained with possible difference on processed fabric properties,production quantity, usedmachinery types, machine efficiency, andamount of reprocessed repair works. In current literature deter-mined SEC in electric energy consumption is reported changingbetween 1.5 and 3.0 kWh/kg [37], 0.28e12.6 kWh/kg [42],13.9e26.4 kWh/kg [38], 3.11 kWh/kg [43]. High variation and widerange of SEC values among cited literature can be explained withdifferences on the processed fabric properties and type and numberof wet processing machinery that are used during the processes.

Table 6Rate of energy consumption not related to the production.

m (MWh/ton) c (MWh/month) R2

Yarn processing 2.7454 378.29 0.9Weaving 1.2482 30.543 0.9Wet processing 0.6564 13.260 0.9Clothing 0.4252 1.5518 0.7

Electric energy consumption of clothing production plant isquite low depending on low electric energy required machineryutilization and intensive labor use. Specific electric energyconsumption of clothing production plant is found varyingbetween 0.065 and 0.195 kWh/kg for actual SEC and0.07e0.09 kWh/kg for estimated SEC, Fig. 5. Reason of varyingactual SEC value year round can be explained with possible differ-ence on product properties of fabric weight, produced product typeand model, production quantity, and machine efficiency.

There have been clear differences between actual and estimatedSEC values for each textile production stages. Deviation ratiobetween actual and estimated SEC values is estimated using eq. (3).

% Deviation ¼ ½ðactual SEC� estimated SECÞ=actual SEC�*100:(3)

In Fig. 6, calculated deviation ratios between actual and esti-mated SEC values are shown for spinning, weaving, wet processingand clothing manufacturing stages in monthly basis. As it is seenfrom the graphs, the lowest deviation ratio belongs to yarnproduction plant where electric energy consumption and SEC valueare the highest. The deviation ratio for weaving plant is also foundlow comparing to those of wet processing and clothing productionplants. The deviation ratio of wet processing plant found higherthen yarn and weaving plants. It may be explained with low rate ofelectric energy use comparing to those of yarn and weavingproduction. Clothing production plant has shown the highest

Average monthlyproduction, tons

Consumed energy ratio not relatedto the production quantity, %

169 871.39 13.62219 86.19 22.11857 740.230 2.67941 35.2 50.90

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e2952 2951

deviation ratio. Reason of this high level positive and negativedeviation may be explained with possible differences on productmodels and characteristics. Production quantity data used forcalculation of SEC values are based onweight (kg). Time and energyconsumed for manufacturing of different clothing products differsseverely depending onmodel. Total monthly production quantity ofa heavy terry towel sewing process may increase productionquantity in kg, where a time consuming sewing process of a lightweighted fabric results quite less amount of production in kg.Weight based production quantity is the most important reason forhigh level of deviations on the actual and estimated SEC values.Other important reason for varying SEC values is repair works thatconsume energy and time but not make any contribution toproduction quantity.

In general reasons of the variable deviations on actual andestimated SEC values of production plants can be explained withthe dissimilarity on the machine adjustments and efficiencies,technical characteristics of products, (structural yarn characteris-tics, structural fabric properties, different color and treatmentprocedures, different patterned cutting plans, different fabricweighted clothing products), labor efficiency of related shift/day/week/month, renewal or repair works of product that does notmake contribution to total production quantity, climatic conditionsof plant and seasonal weather condition changes.

Monthly based production quantity and actual electric energyconsumption data of surveyed plants are used to draw graphicsexhibiting the relation between electric energy use and productionquantity, Fig. 7. Best fit line of each charts are drawn and corre-sponding m, c, and R2 values of eq. (2) are summarized in Table 6.

As it is seen in Fig. 7 and Table 6 determined R2 values are foundclose to 1 (except clothing production). This means that the eval-uated data were in accordance and useful for prediction of electricenergy consumption for those plants in the same monthlyproduction capacity. The slope (m) values of the best fit lines arealso useful to determine efficiency of process if theoretical energyrequirements of process are known.

Calculated data, presented in the last column of Table 6 showthe rate of consumed energy that is unrelated to the productionquantity. For yarn processing plant 13.62% of total electric energyconsumption is found as unrelated amount of electric energy toamount of total electric energy used for yarn production. Rate ofelectric energy not related to production quantity is found 22.11%for weaving process; 2.67% for wet processing stages and 50.90% forclothing production stage. The highest electric energy consumptionrate unrelated to production quantity is found belong to clothingproduction plant where SEC value in electric energy is very lowcomparing to other textile production stages.

Amount of electric energy consumption ratewhich is unrelated toproduction quantity can also be defined as constant energyconsumption of the plants, which is still consumpted even ifproduction quantity is zero and it is an area worth for further inves-tigation about energy saving potentials. Constant energy is mostlyconsumpted by lighting and HVAC needs of the plant. Lighting andHVAC energy needs are independent from the production quantity;they are relevant to number of working days per month.

All data used in calculations of estimated SEC value aremeasured data. Measured electricity currency level of relevantequipment and machinery may be variable depending on thegeneral conditions of machinery, electric engines, belts, and othermotion transmitting appliances. Actual energy consumption andproduction quantity data are taken from relevant managerialdepartments of the plant. Production data used in the calculation ofactual and estimated SEC values is taken into account as weightbased textile production of relevant energy consuming timeinterval. Used production data is taken into account ignoring

possible differences in product characteristics, processing methods,types and number of machinery used in production line, presenceof repair works, and maintenance program of the plants.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

This paper has presented actual and estimated specific electricenergy consumption results based upon data collection and on-sitemeasurement in cotton textile processing plants, located in theIndustrial Zone of Denizli, Turkey. Major conclusions are as follows;

- Actual SEC values of the production plants are found as3.24e3.47 kWh/kg for yarn spinning plant (compatible withthe current literature); 0.0073 kWh/kg for warpingesizingplant; 1.58e2.24 kWh/kg for weaving plant (lower thencurrent literature); 0.79e1.05 kWh/kg for wet processing(compatible with the current literature); and0.065e0.195 kWh/kg for clothing production plant.

- Actual and estimated specific electric energy consumptionrates of each processing plant are determined and results arecompared to show any possible differences between them. It isfound that actual electric energy consumption amount per unittextile product is higher than estimated electric energyconsumption amount per unit textile product of each involvedtextile processing stages.

- The difference between actual and estimated specific electricenergy consumption values of yarn spinning, warping andsizing, weaving, wet processing and clothing manufacturingplants are found in average as 6.5%, 30.0%, 11, 24.1 %, and 29.3 %respectively, Fig. 6.Average deviation of difference for spinning plant is found

the lowest (6.5%) among average deviation of other involvedproduction processes. It can be explained with processingparameters of cotton yarn. Average deviation of difference forwarping and sizing and clothing production plants have foundquite high (around 30%). The reasons of high deviations aremainly result of wide variety range of processed product typesand properties, number of process steps involved during theproduction, electric energy use efficiency of equipments andmachinery, and amount of repair work which increases energyconsumption while not increasing production quantity.

- Electricity consumption increases with increasing productionquantity. Amount of electric energy required to process eachadditional unit of production are recognized with the slope ofthe diagrams in Fig. 7 and m values of Table 6. Electric energyrequirements for additional production is determined about2.75 MWh/ton for yarn production, 1.25 MWh/ton for wovenfabric production, 0.66 MWh/ton for wet processing, and0.43 MWh/ton for clothing manufacturing. Best fit lines of eachgraph shown in Fig. 7 can also be used for;- estimating the reduction possibility in energy relatedproduction costs,

- estimating energy saving potentials of the processing stage,not related to production quantity.

- Share of machinery load is the biggest segment in total electricconsumption of textile production plants. Lighting and HVACelectric energy consumption shares found lower in cottontextile processing plants, except clothing production plant.

- Since number of plants involved in the frame of this study islimited, results that are given in this paper may not reflect theprecisely accurate data. However, gathered results are stillconsidered valuable since an approach is outlined about actualand estimated electric energy consumption in the cotton textileprocessing plants. For a further benchmarking study, number ofplants should be increased, and selection of plants should be

S. Palamutcu / Energy 35 (2010) 2945e29522952

doneamong thoseplantshaving similarmachinerypark, producttypes, processing methods, and human resource features.

- It has experienced during the study that awareness andknowledge about energy management and saving is not yet atdesired level in plant managements, operators and otherworkers in the involved plants. Energy management principlesshould be introduced and implemented comprehensively intextile production plants in Denizli urgently and consistently.

- Close tracking of the SEC value for production processes andefficient use of electric energy is substantial concerning thecircumstance of severe global market competition in textilebusiness. Beside the competition in the global textile business,restrictions in the global energy markets and climbing envi-ronmental awareness in high markets push textile business totake immediate actions about energy saving and managementin their production processes.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank to the visited textile productionplants and Clean Energy House of Pamukkale University forproviding technical information and equipment for carrying outthis work. Special thanks are extended to anonymous referees andthe Editor-in-Chief of this journal for their valuable and construc-tive comments on the paper.

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