Ehisam Project

8/10/2019 Ehisam Project

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UNIVERSITY OF LAGOSFACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND

ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING

PROJECT TITLE: RECYCLING OF POLYVINYLWASTE AS BINDER IN CONCRETE.

By:Ehikhuenen S!ue" On#$e%e&!

'(')'*'*+

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF T,E RE-UIREMENTSFOR T,E AWARD OF BAC,ELOR OF SCIENCE

DEGREE IN B$/.0CIVIL 1 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING.

Su2e34i$e% By:DR EFE EWAEN I5PONMWOSA.

MARC,6 *'+7.

C,APTER ONE

INTRODUCTION


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+.+ B!/k83#un% #9 he $u%y

Concrete is the worlds second most consumed material after water, and its widespread use is

the basis for urban development. It is estimated that 25 billion tonnes of concrete are

manufactured each year. Twice as much concrete is used in construction around the world

when compared to the total of all other building materials combined. However the most

common definition of concrete which will be employed in this study! is the mi"ture of

cement hydraulic binder!, fine aggregates e.g. sand! coarse aggregates e.g. gravel! and

water hydrating agent!. The cement through hydration acts as the binder while the fine and

coarse aggregates serve to improve wor#ability and provide bul# and stability respectively.

In $igeria today, the cost in erecting a structure that would be of ma"imum strength and good

%uality is very high and the cost of purchasing construction materials is also high. However

the much desired progress has not been made due to challenges posed by continued rising

costs of conventional structural materials in both rural and urban settlements. This has led to

the %uest for readily available alternative materials waste materials! which are cheaper and

relatively easy to produce locally.

In &agos and the environ, there are many companies that generate waste products li#e steel

slag and polyvinyl waste. The issue of waste management is a problem encounter by those

companies' therefore if these wastes can be recycle by using it in construction which will

help in reducing the challenges of waste management and also reduce the ris# of pollution

underground water pollution which leads to increase in cost of treating the water!.

(and, one of the components in concrete is #nown to be %uite e"pensive due to the policy of

no dredging around &agos by the state government and also the price of cement has increase.

(o its replacement has been a ma)or target of recent research efforts. This we want to achieve

by partially replacing cement polyvinyl waste which are waste material in the roofing sheet

producing industries to reduce the cost of housing delivery.


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+.* P3#;e/ !i 1 #&;e/i4e

The aim of this research study is*

To determine the usability of polyvinyl waste as binder in concrete and the impact on

the strength characteristic of concrete.

The ob)ective is*

To determine the optimum replacement percentage of polyvinyl waste in concrete in

the view to cut down cost of structure without compromising policies or structural

integrity.

+.7 S/#2e #9 $u%y

The scope of this research study can be itemi+ed as follows*

. To determine e"perimentally the structural characteristic by replacing some

component in concrete with polyvinyl waste in the concrete mi" of *2*- for normal

concrete cubes and for each percentage replacement we are going to cast cubes for ,

-, 2 and 2/ days. 0ere the compressive strength, the slump, density, setting time,

wor#ability, rate of curing, etc.

2. 1valuation of the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the materials to be

used. 1.g. rain si+e analysis, determination of bul#3densities etc.

+.) Ju$i


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. 6rom the scope of the study itemi+ed above, this study will be limited to compressive

strength tests on the 2/th day, setting times, density

2. 6inancial constraint.

7. (hortage of waste materials.

+.? Si8ni


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binding material that fills the space between the aggregates particles and glues them together.

9ggregates are usually obtained from natural roc#s, either crushed stones or natural gravels.

Cement binds the aggregates together.

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength,

and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension often steel!. The

elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher

stress levels as matri" crac#ing develop. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal

e"pansion, and as it matures concrete shrin#s. 9ll concrete structures will crac# to some

e"tent, due to shrin#age and tension. Concrete which is sub)ected to long3duration forces is

prone to creep. Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to

specifications for the application.

The density of concrete varies, but is around 2,-:: #g4m; 5: pounds per cubic foot or -,:5:

lb4yd;!. 9s a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile

stresses < even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete

elements sub)ected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in

tension.

+.@.* Ch!3!/e3i$i/$ #9 /#n/3ee

9s a material for construction, the main function of concrete is to enable the structure to carry

its self3weight and other imposed loads. Thus the most important properties of hardened

concrete are its strength and rigidity modulus of elasticity!. Concrete is stronger in

compression than in tension. Hence, it is often used in the form of a composite section with

steel providing the tensile resistance. In the case of pre3stressed concrete, a compressive

stress distribution is induced into the section to counteract the tensile stress due to loading.

Hence, compressive strength of concrete is the most commonly specified property of

hardened concrete. However, concrete is a brittle composite and its failure mode is dependent
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_(deformation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)#Mohr.27s_circlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_(deformation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)#Mohr.27s_circle


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In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens

independently, and can bind other materials together. The word DcementD traces to the

@omans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonryresembling modern

concretethat was made from crushed roc# with burnt limeas binder. The volcanic ashand

pulveri+edbric#additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were

later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cEment and cement.

Cement used in construction is characteri+ed as hyraulic or non!hyraulic. Hydraulic

cements e.g.,8ortland cement! harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur

independently of the mi"ture=s water content' they can harden even underwater or when

constantly e"posed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous

cement powder is mi"ed with water produces hydrates that are not water3soluble. $on3

hydraulic cements e.g., lime and gypsumplaster! must be #ept dry in order to retain their

strength.

The most important use of cement is the production of mortarand concreteFthe bonding of

natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of

normal environmental effects.

+.@.@ P#==#"!n$

9 po++olan could also be defined as a siliceous or aluminosiliceous material that, in finely

divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically reacts with the calcium hydro"ide

released by the hydration of portland cement to form calcium silicate hydrate and other

cementitious compounds. 8o++olans and slags are generally catergori+ed as supplementary

cementitious materials or mineral admi"tures. The practice of using supplementary

cementitious materials in concrete mi"tures has been growing in $orth 9merica since the

G:s. There are similarities between many of these materials in that most are byproducts of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementiciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_aggregatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementiciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_aggregate


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other industrial processes' their )udicious use is desirable not only from the national

environmental and energy conservation standpoint but also for the technical benefits they

provide concrete.

$atural po++olans which are vulcanite ashes, tuffs, pumicites, shales, opalinic chest and

diatomaceous earth have lost their popularity in view of availability of artificial po++olanas.

9rtificial po++olanas can be obtained mainly from agricultural wastes or steel production

residue. @ise Hus#s, mai+e stal#s and even some plants in the grain family are po++olanic.

thers from steel and coal production are pulverised fly ash, electric arc furnace slag, blast

furnace slag, silica fume,etc.

+.@. P#"y4iny" !$e

Polyvinyl waste is a waste material derived from a polyvinyl roong sheet.

They are manufactured from high %uality polyvinyl fibre, cellulose and 8ortland cement

blended with water and coloring pigments. The roofing sheets derive their strengths from the

8olyvinyl 9lcohol 8Aa! reinforcement fibers, which significantly increase the mechanical

properties of the sheet.

+. P3e$en!i#n #9 he $u%y

This study is concisely arranged in five chapters, chapter one gives a brief introduction on the

research topic, ob)ectives and scope of the study, definition of terms. Chapter two provides

more insight into the technical terms, a historical bac#ground and a literature review of past

wor#s done on similar topics. Chapter three provides the research methodology while

chapters four and five contain the results and conclusions respectively

C,APTER TWO


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LITERATURE REVIEW

*.' P3e!&"e

In recent times men cogni+ant has been aroused very strongly about the need of protecting

the earth resources and preserving the ecological balance which is indispensable for our

e"istence. In the present day environment of industry, recycling and economic utili+ation of

solid by3products has become an absolute necessity. 0hereby, the waste can be converted to

useful product to generate wealth. The need of the hour therefore is to concentrate on

accelerated recycling, mar#eting the waste product and the reduction in dumping of solid

wastes.

This chapter presents a summary of some of the documented research into the use of

complementary materials mineral admi"ture! and supplementary cementitious material in

the production of normal concrete"

*.+ Ceen 3e2"!/een$ in /#n/3ee

9 replacement in this case can be defined as the act or process of ta#ing the place or

substituting a suitable material which can partially or fully replace the binder cement! and

still maintain acceptable strengths. The material should prove advantageous over the 8C in

some or all the following terms' cost, environmental effects, sustainability, availability, etc.

*.* P#==#"!n$ !n% /eeni#u$ !e3i!"$

9 po++olan is a siliceous or aluminosiliceous material that, in finely divided form and in the

presence of moisture, chemically reacts with the calcium hydro"ide released by the hydration

of 8ortland cement to form calcium silicate hydrate and other cementitious compounds.

8o++olans and slags are generally catergori+ed as supplementary cementitious materials or

mineral admi"tures. 6ly ash, ground granulated blast3furnace slag, silica fume, and natural


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@ice straw ash is po++olanic and satisfies the minimum re%uirements of 9(T> class $, 6 and

C po++olans and is suitable for use in 8ortland cement replacement.

>ohamed 9. 1&3(ayed and Taher >. 1&3(amni 2::N! 7J reported that rice staws are

produced in significant %uantities on global basis. 0hile they are utili+ed in some regions, in

others they are waste causing pollution and problems in disposing it. 0hen burnt, the rice

straw ash is highly po++olanic and suitable for use in lime3po++olana mi"es and 8ortland

cement replacement.

9ccording to$ai# O ?raus -J, 0ood ash is the residue generated due to combustion of

bar#, wood, and scraps from manufacturing operations pulp mills, saw mills, and wood

products manufacturing plants!, and from C0 construction and demolition wastes!. 0ood

ash is composed of both inorganic and organic compounds. Pield of wood ash decreases with

increase in combustion temperature.

Coppola et al 5J opined that wood fly ash has substantial potential for use as a po++olanic

mineral admi"ture and as an activator in cement3based materials. 0ood ash has been used in

the ma#ing of structural3grade concrete, bric#s4bloc#s4paving stones, flowable slurry, and

blended cements. 9ir entrained concrete can be achieved by using wood fly ash up to 75.

(tructural3grade concrete can be made using wood fly ash and its blends with Class C fly ash

to achieve a compressive strength of 5: >8a. or higher. (olids are removed at the primary

clarifier by sedimentation or dissolved air flotation. (uch solid residuals consist mainly of

cellulose fibres, moisture, and paperma#ing fillers #aolinitic clay, calcium carbonate, etc.!.

In a study by 1linwa 2::N! NJ on the effect of addition of sawdust ash to clay bric#s, he

found that measurement ta#en on the compressive strength, water absorption and linear

shrin#age show that the compressive strength of the bric#s decreased as (9 was increased

and ma"imum compressive strength was achieved at a firing temperature of N:: oc curing for


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day and at : (9 replacement. The low value recorded for the compressive strength

may be attributed to low content of 9&2o2and the mullite content. 0ater absorption also

increased, as the (9 was increased but values obtained were within the code specification

of indian standard I(* :. 9ddition of (9 reduced the effect of shrin#age.

ye#an and ?amiyo 2::/! [8] studied the effects of rich hus# ash @H9! on some

engineering properties of concrete bloc#s and cement and concluded that the addition of @H9

in the mi" produced sandcrete of lower density and compressive strength. However, @H9 had

fairly significant effect on the compressive strength of the concrete cube specimens,

increasing the latter by nearly at 2/ days! and at 5 @H9 content.

I#ponmwosa et al /J opined that the partial replacement of cement with (oldier ant mound

clay accelerated setting times of the concrete, increased wor#ability, decreased density and

decreasing values of compressive strengths as the percentage replacements increased.

However, he observed that the optimum fle"ural strength for the specimen beams was

obtained at 5 replacement.

*.) In%u$3i!" !$e$ !$ 3e2"!/een !e3i!"$

See" i"" $/!"e$

>orots#os#i 9. et al GJ studied the 1volution of the use of mill scale as pigment for white

concrete. The mill scale used in the study underwent physical and chemical characteri+ation.


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It was as dried at ::L C and ground ball mill model TC 2-::! for - hours, after it was

sub)ected to a temperature of :: L C for - hours with constant airflow. The ob)ective was to

stabili+e the mill scale o"ides contained in iron o"ide III 6e27!. The bodies of evidence

$B@ 25!, prepared with 7* mapping, with additions of 2, 7 and / of scale. The

results showed that the samples maintained their resistance for every percentage of used mill

scale, when compared with samples without the addition of scale, and the samples with /

addition showed slight change in tonality.

(aud 9l taibi :J studied the effect of the partial replacement of fine aggregates in concrete

with steel mill scales on the fle"ural and compressive strengths of concrete. He observed that

@eplacing -: of sand with steel mill scale gave the highest increase in compressive strength

and replacing -: of sand with steel mill scale also increased fle"ural strength. He also

observed that the drying shrin#age of the concrete was lower when using steel mill scale.

*.> See" $"!8

(teel slag is an industrial byproduct and instead of disposing it in the landfill, the use of such

product in the construction mar#et would increase efficiency and economy. The physical and

chemical characteristics of steel slag have been e"amined carefully. ue to its potentially

e"pansive properties, it re%uire special care if used in construction or other specific

applications. The possibility of utili+ing such product as a concrete aggregates with

ecological benefits has been globally studied by several researchers li#e 9nastasiou and

8apayianni, 2::N![11].

They conducted several tests with slag aggregates in concrete and found out that the 2/ day

strength was increased by 2 with replacement of natural aggregates, while there was no

increase in the setting time of concrete mi"tures. The cement3aggregate interface seemed to

be very dense without crac#s or other discontinuities. The concrete that is produced with steel


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slag aggregates is of high specific gravity compared to conventional concrete. However the

specific gravity can be increased or reduced proportionally by the combination of different

types of aggregates 9nastasiou and. 8apayianni, 2::N![11].

(lag is a waste material from a blast furnace during the production of pig iron. To process

slag so it can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete, it is %uenched

with water and ground >arceau et al 2J. 8roducing one metric ton of slag uses /N less

energy than producing one metric ton of cement. 9dditionally, producing one metric ton of

slag produces G/ less C2 emission than producing one metric ton of cement.

(alau 7J studied the effect of partial replacement of rdinary 8ortland Cement 8C! with

pulverised electric 9rc furnace 196! slag. 9 po++olana electric arc furnace slag is the by3

product of steel production using the irectly @educed Iron @I!. He concluded that up to

7: of 8C can be replaced with 196 slag without impairing the eventual strength of the

8C concrete and recommended its use where reduced heat of hydration in the early life of

concrete is essential. He further reported that the 8ulveri+ed 1lectric 9rc 6urnace slag has the

ability to react with lime in the presence of moisture at ordinary temperature to form a

po++olan.

9 study on durability of the concrete made with 1lectric 9rc 6urnace slag as an aggregate

was done by >anso and on+ale+ 2::-! -J, and the results showed that it was acceptable.

The concrete mi"es using conditioned 196 slag showed good fresh and hardened properties

and acceptable behavior against aggressive environmental conditions. It was observed that

the compressive strength was similar to that of traditional concrete. The durability was

slightly lower than conventional concrete. The concrete had good physical and mechanical

properties, but results showed that special attention should be paid to the gradation and

crushing process. The results showed that the high porosity of 196 slag aggregates affects


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concrete resistance to free+ing and thawing but improvements in the field could be possibly

obtained by adding air entraining admi"tures.

Comparison of steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate was done by >aslehuddin, et al,

2::7! 5J. They studied the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of steel slag

aggregate concrete in comparison with limestone aggregates.

Their results showed that the durability and physical properties of concrete with steel slag

aggregates was better than limestone aggregates. They suggested that the use of steel slag

aggregates in concrete was beneficial, particularly in areas where good %uality aggregates are

not available or have to be hauled from far off distances. 9brasion resistance, specific gravity,

water absorption, chemical soundness, al#alinity, concentration of chloride and sulfates were

tested and compared with lime stone aggregates. (hrin#age and e"pansion characteristics of

steel slag and sand cement mortar specimens were evaluated and length was measured at

periodic intervals. Their results showed that the compressive strength of steel slag aggregates

increased with the proportion of coarse aggregates from -55: psi 7.- >8a! with -5

coarse aggregates to NG: psi -2. >8a! with N5 coarse aggregates. The fle"ural strength

and split tensile strength also increased while the water absorption capacity was reduced.

They stated that the shrin#age of steel slag e"posed to a dry environment was similar to

limestone aggregate with no ma)or e"pansion i.e. less than :.:5 as specified by 9(T> C

77. The time of initiation of reinforcement corrosionand time of crac#ing of concrete

specimens was observed to be longer than with lime stone aggregates.

6urther study by >anso, 8olanco et al 2::N! NJ reaffirmed that by proper mi" proportions

both the mechanical strength and durability of steel slag aggregate concrete can be improved.

He conducted two tests for durability* ! 9utoclave test and 2! 9ccelerated aging test.

9utoclave test is used to detect the presence of e"pansive compounds, free lime or magnesia

in 8ortland cement, while accelerated ageing test is done based on 9(T> 3-G2. @esults


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showed that the compressive strength was improved after testing. He conducted chemical

reactivity test to observe the possible reactions between slag aggregates and other

components of concrete. 6or the free+e3thaw test, three samples were stored in moist room

for 2/ days and sub)ected to 25 free+ing and thawing cycles. They are then immersed in water

at -QC for N hours and maintained in frost storage at 3 QC for / hours. Aariations in weights

and compressive strength were recorded and results showed that 1lectric arc furnace slag

concrete showed greater strength and lower water penetration. He also stated the use of air

entraining admi"tures increased the free+e3thaw resistance and durability of slag concrete

was satisfactory.

Industrial by3products li#e steel slag re%uire a detailed study of its potential to"icity. There

are several dangerous heavy metals and salts present in the steel slag. 9 leaching test is

re%uired prior before using the 196 slag as a filling material. >anso et al, 2::N! J

conducted the leaching test for determining the possible attac# of concrete in the

environment. 9nalysis of leached water from crushed slag aggregates were used to detect the

sulphates, fluorides and total chromium present in it. The results showed that smaller si+e of

crushed slag produces higher concentration of dangerous substances in leached water. The

cloistering effect was found to be greater in larger si+es of crushed slag. He concluded that

the use of 196 slag aggregate in concrete will help to reduce its potential to"icity and the

results confirmed an important cloistering effect of cementitous matri" on the contaminants

elements.

*.? Ee/ #9 e"e4!e% e2e3!u3e$ #n /#n/3ee

Concrete is a material used in all climatic regions for all #inds of structures. ?nowledge of

thermal e"pansion is re%uired in long span bridge girders, high rise buildings sub)ected to

variation of temperatures, in calculating thermal strains in chimneys, blast furnace and


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pressure vessels, in dealing with pavements and construction )oints, in dealing with design of

concrete dams and in host of other structures where concrete will be sub)ected to higher

temperatures such as fire, subse%uent cooling, resulting in crac#s, loss of serviceability and

durability.

@oc# and aggregate possesses three thermal properties which are significant in establishing

the %uality of aggregate for concrete constructions.

They are*

i! Coefficient of e"pansion

ii! (pecific heat

iii! Thermal conductivity.

Bahar emirel n,and Rgu+han ?eles3temur /J studied the effect of elevated temperature

on the mechanical properties of concrete produced with finely ground pumice and silica

fume. This study investigated the effect of elevated temperature on the mechanical and

physical properties of concrete specimens obtained by substituting cement with finely ground

pumice 68! at proportions of 5, :, 5 and 2: by weight. To determine the effect

of silica fume (6! additive on the mechanical and physical properties of concrete containing

68(6 has been added to all series e"cept for the control specimen, which contained :

cement by weight instead. The specimens were heated in an electric furnace up to -::, N::

and /:: C and #ept at these temperatures for one hour .9fter the specimens were cooled in

the furnace, ultrasonic pulse velocity M8A!, compressive strength and weight loss values

were determined. The results demonstrated that adding the mineral admi"tures to concrete

decreased both unit weight and compressive strength. 9dditionally, elevating the temperature

above N:: C affected the compressive strength such that the weight loss of concrete was

more pronounced for concrete mi"tures containing both 68 and (6. These results were also

supported by scanning electron microscope (1>! studies.


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Hansen and 1ricsson GJ studied the effects of temperature change between room

temperature and ::oC on the behaviour of cement paste, mortar and normal concrete under

load. @esults of their investigation show that cement paste and mortar beams deflect

e"cessively when heated after application of load. Their findings also indicate that deflection

occasionally leads to failure at low stresses and after moderate heating. It was also observed

that deflection increases with higher rate of heating and the temperature at failure is lower for

cement paste than for cement mortar. &i#ewise, deflection was observed to be large and the

temperature at failure was lower for saturated beams than for dry beams. &astly, the

researchers opined that rapid rates of heating permanently reduce the modulus of elasticity of

cement mortar* an indication of internal destruction of the material structure. The study

further concluded that thermal cycling leads to e"cessive deflection and occasionally to

failure. It is, however, important to #now the behaviour of normal concrete at higher

temperature up to :::oC.

>. (. >orsy, (. H. 9lsayed and >. 9%el 2:::! 2:J.9n e"perimental investigation was

conducted to evaluate the influence of elevated temperatures on the mechanical properties,

phase composition and microstructure of silica flour concrete. The blended cement used in

this investigation consists of ordinary 8ortland cement 8C! and silica flour. The 8C were

partially replaced by :, 5, :, 5 and 2: of silica flour. The blended concrete paste was

prepared using the water3binder ratio of :.5 wt of blended cement. The fresh concrete

pastes were first cured at :: relative humidity for 2- hours and then cured in water for 2/

days. The hardened concrete was thermally treated at ::, 2::, -::, N:: and /:: oC for 2

hours. The compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, phase composition and

microstructure of silica flour concrete were compared with those of the pure ordinary

8ortland concrete. The results showed that the addition of silica flour to


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8C improves the performance of the produced blended concrete when e"posed to elevated

temperatures up to -::oC.

I#ponmwosa and (alau 2J investigated the effects of temperature variation on the

compressive strength of laterised concrete. Cube specimens were cast, cured in water at

ambient laboratory temperature and sub)ected to different temperature regimes before testing.

9 concrete mi" ratio of 2*7*N cement* laterite4sand* granite! with water4cement ratio of :.N5

was adopted for this investigation. The laterite content in the fine aggregate was varied from

: to :: at 25 interval. (pecimens cured for and 2/ days were sub)ected to unia"ial

compressive loading tests at room and elevated temperatures of 25:, 5:: and 5:oC. The

results showed that normal concrete cannot withstand appreciable load above 25:oC while

laterised concrete with 25 laterite in the fine aggregate was able to resist higher load with

increase in age and at temperature up to 5::oC. They also observed that there was no

appreciable increase in strength at higher temperatures. The pea# compressive strength value

of 7:.-- $4mm2 was recorded for the mi" with 25 laterite35 sand at 5::oC. This is an

indication that the strength of laterised concrete is generally sufficient for use at elevated

temperature not e"ceeding 5::oC.

Bishr 22J investigated the 1ffect of 1levated Temperatures on the Compressive (trength of

Concrete with cement partially replaced by silica fume. He opined that the compressive

strength of concrete with or without silica fume decreases with increasing temperature, the

pea# value in the ratio of the compressive strength at high temperature to that at ambient

temperature is observed around 7::o C. This pea# value could be attributed to the

evaporation of free water inside the concrete. He also observed that (ilica fume concrete is

more sensitive to high temperatures than blended cement concrete where the poor

performance of silica fume concrete, e"posed to elevated temperature, compared to plain


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concrete can be attributed to the effect of vapour pressure built3up inside the concrete causing

e"pansion and crac#ing because of the highly dense structure. 6inally, it was observed that

for all mi"es, the compressive strength was found to increase after four hours of e"posure to

an elevated temperature up to 7::o C. 9n obvious reduction in the compressive strength was

observed after e"posure to ::o C, increasing the temperature up to G::o C causes serious

deterioration where the decreasing ratio in the compressive strength reached to / of the

unheated strength.

&. T. 8hanl et al 2::! 27J investigated on the effects of elevated temperature e"posure on

heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance concrete. The

report describes results of $I(T=s e"perimental program that focuses on effects of elevated

temperature e"posure on residual mechanical properties of H8C.

@esidual mechanical properties were measured by heating the :2 " 2:- mm cylinders to

steady state thermal conditions at a target temperature, and loading them to failure after the

specimens had cooled to room temperature. The test specimens were made of four H8C

mi"tures with water3to3cementitious material ratio (w/cm) rangmg fiom :.22 to :.5, and

room3temperature compressive strength at testing ranges from 5 >8a to G7 >8a. Two of the

four H8C mi"tures contained silica fume. The specimens were heated to a ma"imum core

temperature of -5oC, at a heating rate of 5DC4min. 1"perimental results indicate that H8Cs

with higher origmal strength lower w/cm) and with silica fume retain more residual strength

after elevated temperature e"posure than those with lower original strength higher w/cm) and

without silica hme. The differences in modulus of elasticity are less significant. However, the

potential for e"plosive spalling increased in H8C specimens with lower w/cm and silica fume.

9n e"amination of the specimens= heating characteristics indicate that the H8C mi"tures

which e"perienced e"plosive spahng had a more restrictive process of capillary pore and

chemically bound water loss than those which did not e"perience spalling.


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25/47

materials for construction, and industrial waste product is one such category. If these

materials can be suitably utili+ed in highway construction, the pollution and disposal

problems may be partly reduced.

#ecycling is a process using materials waste! into new products to prevent waste of

potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy

usage, reduce air pollution from incineration! and water pollution from landfilling! by

reducing the need for DconventionalD waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gasemissions as

compared to plastic production.@ecycling is a #ey component of modern waste reduction and

is the third component of the D@educe,@euse, and @ecycleD waste hierarchy.

The following are waste materials that may be used in construction*

. 6ly ash3 Thermal power station

2. Blast furnace slag3 (teel industry

7. >arble dust3 >arble industry

-. lass waste3 lass industry

5. 8olyvinyl waste3 @oofing industry and so on.

r. . Ai)aya#umar et al, 2NJ study on glass powder as partial replacement of cement in

concrete production. The results describe that global warming is caused by the emission of

green house gases, such as C2, to the atmosphere. 9mong the greenhouse gases,C2

contributes about N5 of global warming. The global cement industry contributes about

of greenhouse gas emission to the earths atmosphere. In order to address environmental

effects associated with cement manufacturing, there is a need to develop alternative binders

to ma#e concrete. Conse%uently e"tensive research is ongoing into the use of cement

replacements, using many waste materials and industrial by products. 1fforts have been made

in the concrete industry to use waste glass as partial replacement of coarse or fine aggregates

and cement. In this study, finely powdered waste glasses are used as a partial replacement of

cement in concrete and compared it with conventional concrete. The wor# e"amines the

possibility of using lass powder as a partial replacement of cement for new concrete. lass
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_minimisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_minimisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy


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in the mi" produced sandcrete of lower density and compressive strength. However, @H9 had

fairly significant effect on the compressive strength of the concrete cube specimens,

increasing the latter by nearly at 2/ days! and at 5 @H9 content.

*. P#"y4iny" !$e

There is little or no literature encountered where the polyvinyl waste $igerite roofing sheet

waste! were they have been incorporated into concrete for use as structural member in

construction. Therefore, the trust of this pro)ect is to determine the e"tent or the reusability of

these materials in concrete element.

C,APTER 7

EPERIMENTAL ME,ODOLOGY

7.' P3e!&"e

The aim of this research study was to determine U@eusability of polyvinyl waste as binder in

concreteV and the response4 effect of the compressive strengths of the concrete.

To obtain these results, it was re%uired to perform a series of tests on specimen in the

laboratory. $otable amongst these were the determination of the physical properties of the

aggregates and binders to be used, wor#ability and setting time tests on the plastic mi"es

varying percentage replacements values! and compressive tests on the hardened mi"es


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Cement is a hydraulic binder and is defined as a finely ground inorganic material which,

when mi"ed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration

reactions and processes which, after hardening retains its strength and stability even under

water. The cement used was rdinary 8ortland cement angote 8ortland Cement!. This

cement satisfies international standards on cement B( 2 8ortland Cement!. This ensures

that the cement passes test for which its properties maybe determined.

7.+.) P#"y4iny" !$e

The 8olyvinyl 0aste used was obtained from a @oofing (heet Company $igerite &imited!

located at -, ba 9#ran 9venue, I#e)a in &agos >etropolis. They were milled4 pulverised to

meet grain si+e classification of rdinary 8ortland cement and ta#en to the laboratory for its

chemical composition.

7.+.> W!e3

The water used was obtained from the laboratory taps. The water was portable and did not

contain any sulphates, ferric, al#aline, oils, vegetation or salt that could affect the properties

of the materials or concrete in the fresh or hardened state 9nne" 9 of B( 7-/*G/:!.9lso

the water should be colourless, tasteless, odourless and free from decaying organic matters,

etc.

7.* A22!3!u$ ##"$ !n% eui2en

The apparatus, tools and e%uipment to be used for these tests and observations in the

laboratory are briefly outlined below*

3"2"1" Avery $eighing machine


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These have a capacity range :35:#g, which was used to measure the concrete constituent and

other materials used for the pro)ect. It consists of around measuring gauge vertically standing

and attached to the bac# a loading platform.

3"2"2" Cube mouls

These were made of cast iron with inner dimensions of 5:"5:"5:mm7 they have a sheet

metal base and they were well greased to prevent e"cessive moisture escape and facilitate for

easy de3moulding.

3"2"3" %lump moul

The slump mould is a metal hollow frustum of a cone having the following dimensions'

iameter of top X ::mm

iameter of base X 2::mm

Height of mould X 7::mm

It is used to determine the wor#ability of a mi" by measuring the slump height. It also

comprises of a tamping rod and a base plate to facilitate compaction and prevent moisture

escape respectively.

3"2"&" Concrete mixer

This is a diesel engine powered tilting drum mi"er. It has a single cylinder engine as well as a

mobile rotating drum which rotates in order to ensure proper mi"ing of constituent materials

thereby creating a homogeneous concrete mi".

3"2"'" icats apparatus

This is used to determine initial and final setting times of the fresh plastic mi".

3"2"" Compression testing machine

This is hydraulically < operated e%uipment. It consists of a measuring guage with two

indicators or pointers blac# and red!. The indicators must be set to +ero mar# before testing.


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(ieve analysis

(pecific gravity

>oisture content

Chemical analysis of 8olyvinyl waste

7.7.+.+ Sie4e !n!"y$e$83!%!i#n #9 !883e8!e$

(ieve analysis is the name given to the simple operation of dividing a sample of aggregates

into fraction, each consisting of particles of appro"imately the si+e. Before this e"periment,

the aggregates sand, granite, polyvinyl waste and steel slag! were dried sufficiently to avoid

lumps of fine particles being classified as large particle in the case of sand and to prevent

clogging of finer sieves!.

Apparatus:

. >echanical (ieve (ha#er

2. (ieve brush

7. 0eighing Balance-. Aarious (i+es of (ieve @anging 6rom 2.7Nmm 3 N5Zm

5. rying oven

N. 1vaporating pans.

roceure:

9rrange the sieves with the larger si+e 2.7Nmm! at the top and decreasing order of

sieve si+e. The receiver is placed beneath the bottom sieve.

Transfer the weighed material into the topmost sieve and place the lid on.

9gitate the nest of sieves by lateral and vertical motions accompanied by a )arring

action so as to #eep the soil moving continuously over the sieve surface for :mins if

the electric sha#er is used, the nest should be agitated for 5min!.

9fter which, each sieve is then sha#en separately over a clean tray until no more

material passes.

The material retained on each sieve is weighed and the amount recorded.

7.7.+.* S2e/i


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%peciic gravityis the ratio of the densityof a substance to the density mass of the same unit

volume! of a reference substance. Apparentspecific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a

volume of the substance to the weight of an e%ual volume of the reference substance.

The specific gravity of a soil is often used to describe the relationship between the weight of

soil and its volume. 9s soil contains different particles with different specific gravities' the

term s represents an average value for all the particles.

Apparatus

. ensity bottle

2. lass rod

7. 0ash bottle containing distilled water

-. rying ven

roceure

0eigh the dried density bottle, 0!.

btain about 25.:g of the oven dried material and transfer into density bottle. @eplace

the stopper and weigh the bottle and contents. 02!.

9dd distilled or tap water so that the soil in the bottle is )ust covered. Thoroughly stir

the mi"ture with a glass rod orr sha#e to remove air trapped in the soil.

6ill the bottle with distilled or tap water and replace the stopper. (ha#e the density and

its contents carefully to remove any remaining air.07!

1mpty the contents of the bottle, wash and fill the bottle with distilled water only.

0-!.

Gs = W2- W1W! - W1" # W$ # W2"

0here'

0 X 0eight of bottle

02X 0eight of bottle and dry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density


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07X 0eight of bottle, soil and water

0-X 0eight of bottle filled with water only.

The specific gravity is used in the laboratory to help with the calculation of the void ratios of

soil specimens, in the determination of the moisture content of a soil, and in the particle3si+e

analysis, also #nown as the sedimentation test.

7.7.+.7 M#i$u3e /#nen

Water contentor moisture contentis the %uantity of watercontained in a material. It is the

ratio of water present in the soil mass to the weight of the soil solids.

The aggregate specimen of sand was weighed and placed in the oven for 2- hours, then

weighed when removed from the oven. The decrease in weight of the specimen shows the

corresponding loss of moisture content and it is e"pressed in percentage.

7.7.+.) Chei/!" An!"y$i$ #9 P#"y4iny" !$e

The chemical analysis of polyvinyl waste was carried out at the chemistry department,

university of &agos laboratory and compared with that of ordinary 8ortland cement. This is to

determine the composition of polyvinyl waste in construction wor#s.

7.7.* SECONDARY INVESTIGATION

The secondary investigations carried out in the course of this research study include the

following*

Test on cement paste

(lump test wor#ability!

Casting of cubes

Compressive strength test

(plit Cylinder test
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water


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7.7.*.+! Te$ #n /een 2!$e

The first one aims to get the consistence of standard cement paste to calculate the initial and

final setting time of neat cement past of standard consistence! and the compressive strength.

9s the amount of water used in hydrating cement affect setting time more water, more time

needed for setting!, we needed a specific amount of water that gives us a standard paste we

could use for testing, from here the need of $ormal Consistence Cement 8aste e"isted.

Initial setting time is the time from mi"ing dry cement with water till the beginning of

interloc#ing of the gel. 6inal setting time is the time from mi"ing dry cement with water till

the end of interloc#ing of the gel.

It is very important to #now the setting times. ?nowing the initial setting time is important in

estimating free time for transporting, placing, compaction and shaping of cement paste.

A22!3!u$:

. AIC9T 9pparatus.

2. igital weighing scale, used to measure the weight of dry cement.

7. lass graduates, used to measure the volume of water.

-. Trowel.

5. >i"ing bowl.

N. (top3watch.

. 8ortland 8o++olan Cement.

/. 0ater.

P3#/e%u3e:

nce we determine the normal consistency, we can use the ta#en specification of that

paste to measure the initial and final setting times. (o we ma#e a fresh cement paste


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using the amount of water and cement of the standard consistency. The stop3watch

shall start at this step.

0e use the mm diameter needle, and penetrate the sample with this needle by

leaving it to free fall, and then we read the AIC9T ruler scale. 0e do a trial each 5

minutes until the depth of penetration is 5 mm. The elapsed time from mi"ing the

water with dry cement till this moment is called initial setting time.

0e replace the needle with another angular one 6inal setting needle!, and penetrate

the sample by it every 5 minutes till only the needle ma#es an impression on the

paste surface but the cutting edge fails to.

M(I$3 :. 04C ratio

Cement ercentage olyvinyl Waste ercentage

1.. .

-. 1.

+. 2.

*. 3.

. &.

'. '.

7.7.*.+& C#23e$$i4e $3en8h e$ #n /een 2!$e /u&e

The compressive strength test was conducted as per B( 1$ 27G:37*2::2 on two

5"5"5mm cubes using a compression testing machine with a rate of loading of 5:#$4min.

ne day prior to the test e"cept in the case of the 7 day compressive strength test!, the cubes

were removed from the polythene sheet, and immersed in a water tan# for 2- hours.

Immediately before testing, the cubes were removed from the water bath and surface dried by

using a wet cloth in the lab. This was to ensure that the cubes were tested at a saturated3

surface dry ((! condition.


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T9B&1 7. T9B&1 (H0I$ $M>B1@( 6 CMB1( 6@ 19CH 81@C1$T91 @18&9C1>1$T 6 8&PAI$P&

09(T1 I$ C1>$1T 89(T1 T1(T.

The total material %uantity re%uired are itemised below'

. ensity of concrete* 2-::?g4m7

2. Aolume of single cubeX 5"5"5X :.:::-2Gm7

7. $o of cubes re%uiredX -/

-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X *7 for binder and 7 for sharp sand!

Total volume re%uired for -/ cubes X -/ " :.:::-2GX :.:2:25m7.

0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.total ratio

0eight of Binder X 4-":.:2:25"2-::X 2.5#g

0eight of 6ine aggregates X 74-":.:2:25"2-::X 7N.-5#g

(ince the primary binder used ordinary 8ortland cement! is to be partially replaced with

polyvinyl waste' a sample calculation of the partial replacement weights of wastes materials

and cement is shown below'

%or 1&' repla(ement)

Total weight of binder re%uired X 7N.-5#g

$o of cubes re%uired for : replacement X / cubes refer to table 7.!

Total weight of binder re%d. for : replacementX 7N.-54-/! " / X N.:5#g.

Total weight of binder re%d for [ replacement X [ " total wt of binder re%d for [ replacement ::


38/47

0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for : replacementX :4::! " N.:5X :.N:5#g.

The material %uantities are summari+ed in the table below*

T9B&1 7.2* (H0I$ 01IHT( 6 BI$1@ >9T1@I9& C1>1$T O 8&PAI$P& 09(T1! 6@ 19CH

81@C1$T91 @18&9C1>1$T.

7.7.*.* C#n/3ein8/u3in8

The measurement of materials for ma#ing concrete is #nown as batching. 6or thus study,

materials were batched by weight.

S"u2 Te$

The concrete slump testis an empirical test that measures the wor#ability of fresh concrete.

It measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific batch. This test is performed to

chec# the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely related to

wor#ability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease with

which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness.

A22!3!u$

. >ould * in form of the frustum of a cone! the mould is provided with suitable foot

pieces as well as handles to facilitate placing the concrete and lifting the moulded

concrete test specimen in a vertical position.

2. Tamping rod* Nmm diameter, N::mm long and rounded at one end!

7. (teel rule-. (topwatch

5. Hand trowel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete


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N. Headpan

P3#/e%u3e:

Clean the surface of the mould and place on a smooth, hori+ontal, rigid and non3

absorbent surface. The place of test must be free of vibration.

8repare concrete mi" ratio *2*- cement* sand* granite!, Gmm ma"imum using

:.w4c ratio.

Hold the mould firmly and fill in three layers with concrete. 1ach layer, about 47 of

the height of the mould, is tamped with 25 stro#es of the rounded end tamping rod.

The stro#es are distributed uniformly over the cross3section of the mould and the

second and subse%uent layers should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom

layer is tamped throughout its depth.

9fter tamping the top layer, the mould is filled and the concrete struc# off and

finished level with a trowel.

9ny mortar, which may have lea#ed out between the mould and the base plate is

cleaned.

@ecord the slump and type.

7.7.*.7 Cu3in8

Curing is the process of #eeping concrete moist and warms enough so that the hydration of

cement can continue. In this study concrete cubes were cured by immersion in curing tan#s

for periods of , -, 2, and 2/ days! after which they were crushed to determine their

compressive strengths.

Apparatus:

. Concrete mi"er

2. 5:mm "5:mm " 5:mm 7 cube moulds

7. Tamping rod Nmm!


40/47

-. (lump cone

5. (hovel

N. (coop

. Curing tan#

/. Compression testing machine

G. Head pans

:. 0eighing machine

The following are some parameters that were employed*

a! >i" proportion4 batching ratio* *2*- Binder* 6ines* Coarse aggregates!

b! 0ater4 cement ratio* :.N5.

c! @eplacement percentages* :, 5, :, 5, 2:,Y, 5: .

d! Cube dimensions* 5:"5:"5:mm7

P3#/e%u3e:

The materials were batched by weight, weighing each component according to

prescribed %uantities contained in the mi" design.

The constituents were thoroughly mi"ed together until a uniform mi" was obtained

after which water was added according to the prescribed w4c ratio.

The plastic mi" was poured into the moulds in three layers blowing at least 25 times

with Nmm tamping rod to ensure proper compaction and elimination of air voids.

They were de3moulded after 2- hrs and subse%uently placed in a curing tan#

containing potable water.

7.7.*.7 S2i Cy"in%e3 e$:To determine the splitting tensile of concrete.

APPARATUS


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The compressive strength of the hardened concrete is dependent mainly on the type of cement

in mortar, the type of aggregate, the cement aggregate bond, the water4cement ratio in the

mi", mi" ratio i.e. *2*-! and the degree of compaction of plastic concrete.

The compressive strength of each sample was determined by divding the average load for

each set by nominal cross sectional area.

Msing the 9very crushing machine the cubes were placed on the machine and the load was

upon it after which the cubes withstands the load to a point until failure, with this the

compressive strength is determined and recorded.

7.) M!e3i!" u!niie$

C!$in8 S/he%u"e

9 total of 2 cubes were cast with 7 cubes for each replacement percentage of polyvinyl

waste.

The schedule is itemised in the table below*


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T9B&1 7.- T9B&1 (H0I$ $M>B1@( 6 CMB1( 6@ 19CH 81@C1$T91 @18&9C1>1$T 6 8&PAI$P&

09(T1 I$ C$C@1T1 CMB1 T1(T.

9ll specimens were tested at the 2/thday.



2. Aolume of single cube for concrete! X 5:"5:"5:X :.::775m7.

7. $o of cubes re%uiredX 2

-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X *2*-.Total volume re%uired for 2 cubes X 2 " :.::775X :.2-7m7.

0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.

total ratio

0eight of Binder X 4":.2-7"2-::X /7.7#g

0eight of 6ine aggregates X 24":.2-7"2-::X NN.N7#g

0eight of coarse aggregates X -4" :.2-7"2-::X777.2N#g





Total weight of binder re%uired X /7.7#g

$o of cubes re%uired for : replacement X 2 cubes refer to table 7.!

Total weight of binder re%d. for : replacementX /7.742! " 2 X 7./G#g.


0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for : replacementX :4::! " 7./GX .7G#g.



44/47


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(') D3y %en$iy:This is the relationship between the weight and volume of each cube.

The density of each dried specimen was obtained. The dry density was obtained from the

weight per unit volume after heating.

() hysical assessments: 8hysical assessments which could not be e"pressed analytically

such as physical appearance, formation of crac#s, spalling. etc. 0ere observed and recorded.


46/47

9 total of 2 cylinder were cast with 7 cubes for each replacement percentage of polyvinyl

waste.

The schedule is itemised in the table below*

T9B&1 7.- T9B&1 (H0I$ $M>B1@( 6 CP&I$1@ (>98&1( 6@ 19CH 81@C1$T91 @18&9C1>1$T

6 8&PAI$P& 09(T1 I$ C$C@1T1 CMB1 T1(T.

9ll specimens were tested at the 2/thday.



2. Aolume of single cube for concrete! 5:mm dia and 7::mm height X 7.-2 " 5:

2

" :.25" 7:: X :.::57m7.

7. $o of cubes re%uiredX 2

-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X *2*-.

Total volume re%uired for 2 cubes X 2 " :.::57X :.7/2m7.

0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.

total ratio

0eight of Binder X 4":.7/2"2-::X 7:.G#g


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0eight of 6ine aggregates X 24":.7/2"2-::X 2N.G-#g

0eight of coarse aggregates X -4" :.7/2"2-::X527./G#g





Total weight of binder re%uired X 7:.G#g

$o of cylinders re%uired for : replacement X 2 cubes refer to table 7.!

Total weight of binder re%d. for : replacementX 7:.G42! " 2 X 2./7#g.


0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for : replacementX :4::! " 2./7X 2./7#g.


T9B&1 7.-* (H0I$ 01IHT( 6 BI$1@ >9T1@I9& C1>1$T O 8&PAI$P& 09(T1! 6@ 19CH81@C1$T91 @18&9C1>1$T.

0302

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