Effective Advising of Diverse Students in Community Colleges

This article was downloaded by: [DUT Library]On: 07 October 2014, At: 11:15Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK

Community College Journal ofResearch and PracticePublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucjc20

Effective Advising of DiverseStudents in CommunityCollegesGraciela L. Orozco a , Alvin N. Alvarez a & TerryGutkin aa Department of Counseling , San Francisco StateUniversity , San Francisco, California, USAPublished online: 14 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Graciela L. Orozco , Alvin N. Alvarez & Terry Gutkin (2010)Effective Advising of Diverse Students in Community Colleges, Community CollegeJournal of Research and Practice, 34:9, 717-737, DOI: 10.1080/10668920701831571

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10668920701831571

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all theinformation (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and viewsexpressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of theContent should not be relied upon and should be independently verified withprimary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for anylosses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of theContent.

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucjc20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/10668920701831571

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10668920701831571

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone isexpressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found athttp://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

EFFECTIVE ADVISING OF DIVERSE STUDENTS INCOMMUNITY COLLEGES

Graciela L. OrozcoAlvin N. AlvarezTerry Gutkin

Department of Counseling, San Francisco State University, San Francisco,California, USA

In-depth interviews with 363 students across nine campuses capturethe experiences of Latino, African American, Asian, Native American,White and Immigrant students in the California community collegesystem. Four themes emerged with respect to advising and counseling:(a) Differences in the Use of Counseling and Advising; (b) The Impor-tance of the Counseling Relationship; (c) Knowing the System; and(d) Cultural Understanding and Racism.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, of the 6.3million students enrolled in community colleges nationwide, approxi-mately 40% are students of color (Horn & Nevill, 2006). Indeed,Horn and Nevill (2006) found that community college students, incomparison to four-year college students, are more likely to beAfrican American, Latino American, Native American and PacificIslander. Regionally, this racial diversity is further accentuated as

Funding for this project provided to California Tomorrow, 360 22nd Street, Suite 640,

Oakland, CA 94612 by the Ford Foundation, the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes

Foundation, the James Irvine Foundation, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the University of

California Office of the President, with in-kind support from the California Community

Colleges Chancellor’s Office. For a more complete view of the project, please refer to Woodlief,

Thomas, and Orozco (2003).

Address correspondence to Graciela L. Orozco, Department of Counseling, San Francisco

State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, BH 532, San Francisco, CA 94132. E-mail: orozco@

sfsu.edu

Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 34: 717–737, 2010

Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1066-8926 print=1521-0413 online

DOI: 10.1080/10668920701831571

717

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

evidenced by the 53% of students who were students of color inCalifornia community colleges (Phillippe & Patton, 2000). MoreLatino, African American, and Native American first-time freshmenattend community colleges (about 75%) than the California StateUniversity or University of California systems (California Post-secondary Education Commission, 2000). Parallel to this shift inracial demographics, community college counselors will need to aligntheir counseling and advising services in a manner that is academi-cally and culturally responsive to the needs of this diverse population.

Student use of counseling and advising is critical given the researchthat identifies academic advising and academic advisers as key linksbetween students, curricula, and colleges (Astin, 1985; Crockett,1985; Levin & Levin, 1991; Thomas, 1990). Various scholars haveconvincingly argued that academic advising and exposure toresources such as mentors, high-quality online courses, internships,and applied learning (DiMaria, 2005), as well as personal counselingon psychosocial concerns (Durodoye, Harris, & Bolden, 2000) cancontribute to the academic persistence of community collegestudents. Indeed, the need for advising is particularly crucial withincommunity colleges in light of the high numbers of communitycollege students who do not complete their education. For instance,whereas 51% of community college student who intended to completea credential or transfer to a four-year institution did so within sixyears (Hoachlander, Sikora, & Horn, 2003), 63% of those attendingfour year institutions had completed their bachelor’s degree in thesame time period (Berkner, He, & Cataldi, 2002). Hence, academicadvising is vital to student retention in that it helps students becomeintegrated, involved members of the academic and social systems ona campus (King, 1993; Summers, 2003). Consequently, a primarygoal of the current study is to explore how students of color incommunity colleges perceive and utilize academic advising andpersonal counseling.

Despite the clear value of counseling and advising, researchershave found low rates of utilization and negative perceptions of suchservices among students of color. For instance, there are substantialdifferences among students in their use of guidance and advising incommunity colleges, with students most in need of the services poss-ibly failing to use the available resources (Grubb, 2001; Rendon &Valadez, 1993). Rendon (1995) found that first-generation studentsreceive poor counseling and advising; too often these students aretracked into vocational, technical, and=or remedial programs. Whitestudents in transfer programs receive significantly more advisingthan Black students in transfer programs and White students in

718 G. L. Orozco et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

nontransfer majors (Herndon, Kaiser, & Creamer, 1996). Research-ers point out that different groups of students have different advisingand academic needs (Herndon et al., 1996).

A major limitation of the current research on advising and reten-tion is that it tends to be dominated by studies conducted atfour-year institutions (Bailey & Alfonso, 2005). In general, little isknown about the college experience of first-generation college stu-dents (Pascarella, Wolniak, Pierson, & Terenzini, 2003); and evenless is known about those who are at community colleges. Giventhe paucity of information that addresses the unique challenges facedby community college students, it is unclear how student retention isaffected by significant concerns such as family responsibilities, workcommitments, diverse learning styles, adjustment to a new environ-ment with different cultural values, and so forth. Although empiricalstudies have focused on the concept of academic and social inte-gration (Tinto, 1994) as a framework for understanding studentretention, some researchers have argued that this theoretical frame-work may be more relevant for students who attend a residentialliberal arts college than for community college students (Bailey &Alfonso, 2005). For instance, it stands to reason that the challengeof retaining a full-time, nonworking student who lives on campusand is a third-generation college student might be quite distinctfrom the challenge of retaining a part-time, first-generation collegestudent who works full-time while living at home. Indeed, Hornand Nevill (2006) in their report for the National Center forEducation Statistics found that only 31% of community collegestudents attended school full-time (compared to 63% of four-yearinstitution students). They also found that among students whoworked, 41% of community college students did so full time(compared to 23% of four-year college students).

Given the unique stressors faced by community college students,the need to investigate the relationship between advising and reten-tion for community college students is clear. In particular, with thelimited research in this area, it may be valuable to examine the livedexperiences and culture of the students in community colleges fromthe perspective of the students themselves (Laden, 1999; Rhoads &Solorzano, 1995; Rhoads & Valadez, 1996; Weis, 1985). As anexploratory tool, qualitative methods allow researchers to probemore deeply into the experiences of students of color (Rendon &Valadez, 1993; Bailey & Alfonso, 2005) in order to discover thereasons, intentions, and motivations behind their academic persist-ence (Summers, 2003). Students, too, can benefit from qualitativeresearch methods that allow them to reflect on their life experiences,

Effective Advising of Diverse Students 719

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

thus helping them to process and understand key themes derivedfrom those experiences (Attinasi, 1992). Consequently, to advancethe methodology in this area of the literature, the current studywas based on in-depth interviews with students of color in ninecommunity colleges in California about their advising and counselingexperiences.

METHOD

The current article reports a portion of a larger study (CaliforniaTomorrow, 2002; Woodlief, Thomas, & Orozco, 2003) that qualita-tively analyzed multiple experiences of Latino, African American,Asian, Native American, White, and Immigrant students in theCalifornia community college system. This qualitative study wasdesigned utilizing purposeful sampling approaches, including strati-fied purposeful sampling and criterion sampling (Patton, 1990), toobtain information-rich cases and facilitate comparisons betweenparticular ethnic groups. Patton (1990) has defined the purpose ofstratified purposeful sampling as a strategy that aims to capturemajor variations rather than commonalities between the strata,although both variations and common elements can emerge in theanalysis. While probability sampling depends on selecting a truly ran-dom and statistically representative sample that permitsgeneralization to a larger population, purposeful sampling concernsitself with identifying information-rich cases, which allows morein-depth learning about the central research questions.

The rationale for conducting purposeful sampling in this study wasto obtain an in-depth understanding of the experiences of a smallgroup of community college students, as opposed to gatheringstandardized information from a statistically representative samplefrom which to make generalizations for a larger population. Criterionsampling, according to Patton (1990), takes into account allcases that may be information-rich with respect to a predeterminedcriterion.

Interview data were collected during site visits to nine communitycolleges in California, based on the criteria that the campuses wererepresentative of urban, suburban, and rural areas, ranging frommajority White campuses to majority non-White campuses, and vary-ing both in terms of size and mission. Campuses were consideredbased on two factors: geographic region (north, central, south) andethnic=racial demographics of students. In a rough approximationof campuses across the state, three were selected in the northern part


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

of the state, four in the south, and two in central California.Campuses that represented different demographic mixes within eachregion were then selected. The final set of nine campuses includedLaney College in Oakland; College of the Redwoods in Eureka; DeAnza College in Cupertino; College of the Sequoias in Visalia; SanJoaquin Delta College in Stockton; Los Angeles Trade TechnicalCollege in Los Angeles; Los Angeles Southwest College in LosAngeles; Pasadena City College in Pasadena; and San Diego MesaCollege in San Diego (see Table 1).

Conducted in the spring and fall of 2001, the overall goal was tointerview 30–40 students at each campus and to obtain a total of30–60 students from each ethnic subgroup. To accomplish that

Table 1. Student demographic information: 363 students interviewed

College: Number of students

interviewed per campus

In support programs

(in at least one program)

167 (46%)

College of the Sequoias 34 EOPS 110

De Anza College 31 Puente 19

LA Trade Tech College 36 CalWorks 44

San Diego Mesa College 39 CARE (child care support) 12

San Joaquin Delta College 53

College of the Redwoods 46

Pasadena City College 30

LA Southwest College 39

Laney College 49

Other colleges (for Native

American students only)

6

Enrollment status Number of semesters enrolled

Currently enrolled 345 (95%) First semester 113 (31%)

Not currently enrolled 17 (5%) 2–3 semesters 119 (33%)

Unknown 1 4–5 semesters 63 (17%)

6–7 semesters 28 (8%)

8þ semesters 19 (5%)

Unknown 21 (6%)

Immigrant status Working (any hours) 186 (51%)

Immigrant (not born in U.S.) 136 (38%) Full time 58 (16%)

International student visa 17 (5%) Part time 109 (30%)

Unknown 19 (5%)

Receiving financial aid 178 (49%) Family college background

Have children 137 (38%) Parent attended college 141 (39%)

Sibling attended college 139 (38%)

Goals

Transfer

(with or without AA=AS)

206 (57%)

AA=AS degree only 70 (19%)

Vocational certificate 46 (13%)

Learn English 29 (8%)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

goal, 60 students were scheduled for interviews at each campus.Focus groups with student leaders took place at three of thecampuses. Project staff conducted special outreach beyond thenine campuses to reach a large enough sample of Native Americanstudents.

Two main methods were used to recruit students for this study:(a) ‘‘cold calls’’ to students from lists provided by campus research-ers, and (b) hiring a student at each campus to conduct outreachand find volunteers in classes and student meetings. Throughcriterion sampling, students from diverse backgrounds, bothpersonally and academically, were selected nonrandomly from listsprovided by campus researchers and student leaders, contacted byphone and invited to be part of the study. Groups of students weresought who reflected specific characteristics of the overall com-munity college student population, such as being female, Hispanic,in support programs like Extended Opportunity Program &Services (EOPS) and PUENTE (an academic preparation programin California whose mission is to increase the number of education-ally disadvantaged students who enroll in four-year colleges),or coming from a cross-section of classes—Advanced ESL,pre-transfer level English, Basic Skills Math, and vocational areaslike Early Childhood Development, Computer InformationSystems, and Auto Technology, depending on the offerings of thecampus. Students who had 40 or more units were also invited tothe interviews to ensure that more experienced students’ viewpointswere represented. Attempts were made to include students who hadbeen enrolled the previous semester but were no longer attending(drop=stop list). Of the 363 interviewees, 17, or 5%, were notcurrently enrolled.

For the purposes of this study, ‘‘immigrant’’ students were definedas those students born in another country and who had migrated tothe United States. A total of 137 students from the sample fit thisbroad definition. Of these, 34% were male (n¼ 46) and 66% werefemale (n¼ 91). Only 5% of the students (n¼ 17) were internationalstudents who had arrived with student visas. Slightly more than halfof the students (55%) were enrolled in ESL courses. About 36% of thestudents had been in the United States five years or less. Anadditional 10% of the students had been in this country between5–10 years.

The final student sample consisted of 28% Latino (n¼ 100), 20%African American (n¼ 71), 11% Native American (n¼ 39), 11%White (n¼ 39), 23% Asian (n¼ 84), 6% multiracial (n¼ 23), 2% othernon-White (n¼ 6), unknown (n¼ 1) (see Table 2).


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

The ages of students in the sample ranged from 20 years of ageand under (31%) to 51 years of age and over (5%), with 52% of thestudents being under the age of 26 (see Table 3).

Procedure

A standardized 60-minute open-ended interview protocol wasdesigned for this study. Questions pertained to the students’ goals,how they had learned to navigate or find what they needed at thecommunity college, where they had received their information ontransferring=degrees=vocational, how well prepared they felt for

Table 3. Ages of interviewees

Age Number of interviewees

20 and under 114 (31%)

21–25 74 (20%

26–30 57 (16%)

31–40 62 (17%)

41–50 36 (10%)

51þ 18 (5%)

Unknown 2

Under 26 52%

Table 2. Ethnicity/gender/full or part time attendance of

interviewees

Number of interviewees

Ethnicity

Latino 100 (28%)

African American=Black 71 (20%)

Native American 39 (11%)

White 39 (11%)

Asian=Pacific Islander 84 (23%)

Multiracial 23 (6%)

Other non-White 6 (2%)

Gender

Male 144 (40%)

Female 219 (60%)

Full- or part-time

Part-time 106 (29%)

Full-time 242 (67%)

Unknown 15 (4%)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

transferring, what kind of support or help they had received fromgeneral support services, how they had come to be a part of anyspecial support program and what was it like being in that program,characteristics of good and poor teaching, and several questionsrelated to the diversity of students and teachers on campus. Intervie-wees were asked questions that helped to uncover the student’ssupport system while attending a community college: ‘‘Has anyonehelped you learn how to navigate the system and how did that personhelp you?’’ and ‘‘What are the top two or three things or peoplethat help keep you in school?’’ Themes that emerged from theseand similar questions were categorized by three researchers in anongoing analytical process of identifying, coding, and categorizingprimary patterns in the data. This process resulted in the organizationof data into that which appeared to support a student as well asinformation that appeared to be less supportive of students.

Interviews took place individually. Approximately 5% of theinterviews took place in pairs. Three focus groups consisting of5–10 student leaders each also took place. All interviews, includingthe focus groups, were audiotape-recorded and transcribed.The majority of the interviews took place in English; a few wereconducted either in Spanish, Vietnamese, Mandarin, or Cambodian,depending on the language preference of the interviewee and theavailability of an interviewer who spoke that language. Interviewsconducted in languages other than English were transcribed intheir original language and then translated to English.

Data Analysis

Interview data were analyzed using an inductive grounded theoryapproach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to develop a conceptual frame-work based on the thick, detailed descriptions presented by students.The NUD�IST software program, which sorts and indexes largeamounts of textual information, was used to code and organize thedata. (This software is sold by Qualitative Solutions & ResearchPty, Ltd.) Preliminary categories were refined and recoded over aperiod of about nine months by three researchers. Emerging themeswere identified and then later subsumed or expanded to accommo-date new ones. Themes that were common across campuses andacross student subgroups were emphasized as well as themes thatwere distinctive to individual campuses or student subgroups. Simplefrequency counts, calculated by the number of people reportingcertain experiences or perceptions, were important in identifyingsalient themes and variations across groups.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

FINDINGS & DISCUSSION

The following salient themes emerged with respect to the supportsand barriers in the area of counseling and advising: (a) Differencesin the Use of Counseling and Advising; (b) The Importance of theCounseling Relationship; (c) Knowing the System; and (d) CulturalUnderstanding and Racism.

Differences in the Use of Counseling and Advising

This study found that the use of counseling services varies along raciallines. Although a majority of the students interviewed for this study(55%) had seen a general counselor at least one time, two groupsstood out as being more likely to see a counselor: White students(70%) and Asian students (65%). Interestingly, students from thesetwo groups were also the ones more likely to complain about thequality of the counseling, mentioning for example that they saw coun-selors frequently and received good information, but that they alsoreceived conflicting or inaccurate information. For White students,one explanation for this seemingly contradictory perspective may bethat they expect a certain quality of service. The Asian students in thisstudy are not a homogeneous group (consisting of Vietnamese,Cambodian, Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, etc., from differing socio-economic status, family educational levels, and immigrant status).About half of the Asian students in our sample were immigrants,and finding bilingual counselors to guide and assist them seemed tobe a strong barrier. However, similar to the White students, theyreturned to seek the services from other counselors even after experi-encing what they considered to be poor counseling. Native Americanstudents as a group were least likely to seek out counselors, only 37%of Native Americans in our sample had done so. For NativeAmerican students living in rural areas, this may partially be due totransportation barriers. Yet, Native American students in this samplewere also the group that most often reported that they had notreceived useful information, thus indicating that there are otherreasons beyond transportation for their low accessing of counselingservices. With respect to Latinos and African Americans, this studyfound that just over half of those students had seen a counselor.

Several reasons may help to explain these differences in the useof counseling services. Many of the Native American, Latino, andAfrican American students are first-generation college students;thus, they are unfamiliar with many aspects of the college setting(King, 1993).


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Another possibility is that some of these students may havehad poor experiences with teachers and counselors who have stereo-typically viewed them as ‘‘noncollege material’’ in their previousyears of schooling (Sue & Sue, 2003). Cultural differences betweenadviser and student can also result in poor quality advising sessions;all students benefit from and trust advisers who are personally caringand invested in the students’ overall progress (Brown & Rivas, 1993).Balancing family and school responsibilities was an additional barrierfor finding counselors who were available at hours convenient to thestudents’ schedules.

The Importance of the Counseling Relationship

Data collected from interviewees described supportive counselors asindividuals who have time to listen to student needs, impart basiceducational planning, provide support beyond academics, acceptthe student’s cultural background, and understand the family,school, and work responsibilities of their counselees. Culturallyand ethnically diverse students enrolled in support programs,such as EOPS, Puente Project, and Math, Engineering, ScienceAchievement (MESA), etc., expressed high satisfaction with theirprogram counselors. Students emphasized the quality of the relation-ship with their counselors, including the benefits of interactingmore with counselors and peers in small learning communities andfeeling accepted with respect to their history and past experiences.Students in this study repeatedly stated that they wanted counselorsand teachers who understand and who encourage them to succeed.While all students expressed the importance of supportive teachers,family, and peers, only 15% of the interviewees reported findingsupportive counselors. Interviewees stated how counselors can makea big difference:

The counselor is helpful and some of the teachers have been helpful,

when they tell me ‘‘I hope you’ll be successful’’ I feel encouraged to

keep on going, they don’t really have to help you, just need peopleto be there for you. (20-year-old African-American female, AA &

Transfer Goals)

Although interviewees stated that they received helpful infor-mation from general counselors, students did not appear to buildstrong relationships with those counselors. Many students reportedseeing a general counselor only once or twice a year. This contactmay be sufficient for students who come from families where at least


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

one parent has a college education, but it may not be true for studentswho are the first in their families to attend college. In comparingwhat students of color had to say about general counselorsversus what they said about support program counselors, it was veryclear that the quality of the relationships is very different in each set-ting. Students in support programs—EOPS, Puente, Care, etc.—overwhelmingly had positive comments about the counselors inthose programs, describing their counselors as people who carepassionately about their work.

Language is an important tool for students to identify with theircounselors. Since most general counselors are monolingual Englishspeakers, they may expect students to communicate using standardEnglish. They may also expect students to be verbally expressive.They may unknowingly judge students who speak nonstandardEnglish as being less capable, less knowledgeable, etc. Most advisingservices are provided in English, which is an obstacle for immigrantstudents who are not yet English fluent:

Not sensitive because I cannot observe anything friendly from them.

No counseling or tutoring service available in Vietnamese language.

Almost every Vietnamese student has the handbook but no teacher

has taught it. (52-year-old Vietnamese male, AS Degree Goal)

Few students of color in the sample expressed having a longer-term or more established relationship with general counselors. Iveyand Ivey (2003) indicate that for counseling to be effective, thecounselor and the counselee must be able to relate to each otherand communicate effectively both verbally and nonverbally. Thetherapeutic or healing relationship is consistently mentioned inthe literature as a vital element in all cultures (Fischer, Jome, &Atkinson, 1998; Ivey & Ivey, 2003). Effective communication isparticularly important between individuals who speak different lan-guages or who have different cultural backgrounds. As one22-year-old African-American male interested in transferring statedin this study: ‘‘No one has been especially helpful. It’s kind of weirdhere, everything’s a little different. Maybe it’s because I’m fromBaltimore, a big city. I come here and it’s like everything’s totallydifferent. I can’t read people like I used to read people. SometimesI think I get wrong messages.’’ Another student clearly brought upthe issue of distrust:

It took me a while to figure things out for myself . . . In general coun-

seling you really don’t get a chance to build a personal relationship


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

with your counselor unless you speak to that counselor all the time

and it’s really not encouraged . . .At EOPS you have a better chance

of developing a personal relationship with your counselor. I’ve always

kept in touch with the counselor even when picking my classes but as

far as asking the counselor stuff, I’m just quiet, not really trusting

people. (25-year-old Latino male, Transfer Goal)

Knowing the System

For students of color, especially those who are first-generationcollege, immigrants, or underprepared academically, access toinformation is crucial (Striplin, 1999). Freshman seminars (Chaves,2003), mentoring, and a supportive campus climate have beendocumented in the research as critical elements for strengtheningthe retention rates of minority students (Beatty-Guenter, 1994;Szelenyi, 2001). Stovall (2000) indicates that minority studentsand first-generation college students benefit from Introduction toCollege courses and workshops that promote a sense of integrationto the campus. Findings from the current study support the needfor extended access to information. Interviewees mentioned collegeorientation, guidance classes, and personal workshops as beingbeneficial.

Access to counselors would undoubtedly provide studentswith access to information. However, the high counselor-to-studentratio is a major barrier. Part-time students in particular havedifficulty accessing counselors because their own schedule is solimited. In support programs where counselors have smallercaseloads, counselors can meet more often with their counselees.Without appropriate and timely information, students take coursesthey do not need, lose precious time, and may drop out:

I think they actually should have more time to spend with students

rather than just like half-an-hour or so. I made an appointment withone counselor and he was going over my plan for the rest of the year

and it was cut short because he was like, ‘‘Oh, I’m out of time, but

make sure you make another appointment.’’ Students don’t have time

to make appointments all the time . . . . He goes, ‘‘Yeah, just make

another appointment.’’ And when you come in the next time, he just

refreshes you with what you guys talked about and by the time you

start talking about something else, time’s up. (18-year-old Asian Male,

Transfer Goal)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Many students of color are the first in their families to go tocollege. The entire process of going to college is a novelty for thosestudents:

I haven’t talked to a counselor yet. I thought they assigned a counselor

to you. I didn’t know you just go in there and make an appointment. I

don’t really know which classes I need. Right now I am just taking the

basic classes—the math and the English and history and health—just

the basic classes you need, period. (18-year-old African-American

male, Transfer Goal)

Cultural Understanding and Racism

Researchers (Brown & Rivas, 1993; Lee & Mixon, 1995; Pedersen,Draguns, Lonner, & Trimble, 1996) state that the challenge ofadvising ethnic minorities requires that counselors develop an aware-ness of the diversity of cultural experiences and how these affectthe advising relationship. Students of color may often preferworking with counselors or helping professionals who are of thesame ethnicity or with whom they share cultural characteristics(Pomales, Claiborn, & LaFromboise, 1986; Rhoads & Valadez,1996; Sanchez & Atkinson, 1983). Hiring diverse counselors whoare knowledgeable and skilled in understanding students from allbackgrounds is thus critical.

Latino and African American students in the current study talkedabout how having a sense of community enhanced their educationalexperiences. According to Levin and Levin (1991), the quality of theinteractions with peers, advisers, and faculty increases a student’ssatisfaction with an institution and will ultimately affect academicpersistence. Being part of a support program provides qualityinteractions with peers and counselors and contributes to a student’ssense of belonging to a larger community. The following studentdescribes what it was like being in a cohort of the Liberal & IntegralStudies Transfer Opportunity Program (LISTO):

My first year in college I went to all my different classrooms, kind

of saw people in my classrooms, never really got to know any of them.

I was able in one class to find a buddy to do homework, but most

people want to go to class and get out and they’re gone. And then this

last year being in the LISTO program and going from class to class to

class with the same people, you have a little learning community and


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

you get phone numbers going and you just become a little family. . . .being in the community helped me because I was involved with so

many people in all the classes and we worked together all the time.

I was able to tutor some of the people that had problems and I

brought my GPA up from 3.0 to 3.81 last semester. In a couple of

weeks I got to go to an award ceremony and I got a 4.0 last semester,which is the first time I’ve ever been able to do that in my life.

(41-year-old multiethnic female, AS & Transfer Goals)

Students considered it important to find counselors who under-stood their cultural background and could relate to their life experi-ences. An 18-year old African-American male stated: ‘‘They wouldknow how we’d been raised; they know where we are, where we’recoming from, what we’re talking about, a basis, people who don’tknow where we’re coming from, there’s no basis.’’ AnotherAfrican-American male stated this about counselors: ‘‘If they arecommunity-oriented, it really shows, or if they are like have moreof a family perspective and look at you as a brother or sister, it showstoo.’’ Rendon (1994) found that students of color are more likely topersist when they find academic and social communities that validateand affirm them as capable students. The following Latino male feltvery connected to the Puente Program because he was discovering hishistory as a Chicano in this country, something that had been lackingin his previous 12 years of public education:

It is important for all teachers to know what has really happened

historically in this world . . . It should be a prerequisite for all of

them to . . . understand what really happened as far as colonialism,as far as the slave trade, and as far as genocide in the Americas-things

like that. That is what shapes the world. (25-year-old Latino male,

Transfer Goal)

Cultural stereotyping within the educational system has beenone of the reasons for the poor academic performance of Latinos(Rodriguez, Guido-DiBrito, Torres, & Talbot, 2000). Students inthe current study talked about wanting respect, wanting to be treatedas equals along with everyone else, and feeling that what they have tosay carries as much weight as what other students say. Because ofpast experiences with racism, students of color sometimes believe thatthey are unfairly placed into classes that are remedial and, especially,classes that do not transfer. One Latina interviewee who graduated inthe top 10% of her high school class stated that she was given twotransferable classes and three that were not transferable in her first


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

semester. This was done by a counselor who wanted her to ease intothe college environment. She had to attend an additional summer inorder to make up those three courses that were nontransferable. Lowexpectations and stereotypes produce emotional distress and causeconflict (Kim & Yeh, 2002); ultimately, they limit a student’s abilityto function academically. The following 15-year-old student takescommunity college classes and clearly excels in school, but he toofeels that he is being stereotyped:

As an Asian person going to school, a lot of people expect me to excel

in math and science and I’m just wondering why they expect me to be

that . . . I mean do they . . . expect all Asian kids to be good in math

and science? Just like 20–30 years ago they expected black kids tobe bad in school. It’s that kind of mentality. (15-year-old Asian male,

Transfer Goal)

Students in the sample expressed interest in being able to discussand find support on matters of racism. Students of color voiced whatit feels like when stereotypical or racist remarks are made in theirpresence:

During the history class, the instructor was talking about civil rights

and asked (because I was the only Asian student and the rest were

Caucasian students): ‘‘Do you still feel like whenever you see Black

people, they are below you?’’ Some students laugh and nod to agree.

I got the feeling there is still racism among Caucasian society. The

teacher didn’t say anything, but just went on with the lesson.

(26-year-old Korean male Immigrant, Transfer Goal)

Recent immigrant students in the transition between two culturesare forced to learn how to navigate a new educational system withlimited English-language skills. Cultural differences often becomethe center of their interaction with counselors. They do not go tocounselors because they do not know English well enough to feelcomfortable conversing. They need bilingual tutoring and morematerials in their primary language, and they prefer to speak tocounselors who speak their language:

Three years ago I came from Taiwan to this country. My English

was so poor. I hardly can understand any English. I went to the

Adult School first, and after that I came to community college. I

remembered the first day when I registered, I looked at the stack of

application forms, and I was so confused. I didn’t know how to do.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

I just stood in the office for at least 20 minutes. Suddenly a staff spoke

to me in Chinese, ‘‘Can I help you?’’ he asked. I was so surprised that

someone can help me in my language . . . . I am so lucky. I feel

comfortable to speaking English now and my listening is improving.

I can understand most of what the teacher said. (25-year-old Chinese

female, Immigrant, Transfer Goal)

For immigrant students, there is the added challenge of figuringout cultural differences. Attending school in United States institu-tions can require a totally different approach:

For us Asians, we are good at paper work, but not at speaking up,

and they want us to speak in classes. (It’s) different from Korea.

The big thing is we were the receivers in my country, just listenand take directions. But here it’s different. (I) need to speak up

more and here the classmates are more important than the teacher.

Without them, I cannot survive. I used to just listen and shut my

mouth, but now, even though I have language problems, I wanna

speak up and I push myself to do it. It doesn’t get easier though.

In my country, mostly student keep quiet, they ask if they cannot

understand, but just keep quiet, not show the feeling, but here is

a freedom, if you don’t like, you disagree with what the teacher said,you can explain. (23-year-old Korean female, Immigrant, AA &

Certificate Goal)

About one-fifth (20%) of immigrant students brought up invalidat-ing types of situations or racist comments encountered in theircommunity college experience, such as this one:

It hurt me so much. I am very serious about my school, and always

put lots of effort into my assignment. Last quarter in my ESL writingclass, I turned in my essay assignment. When I had it back, I got an F.

I really didn’t understand why, so I asked my teacher. He said, ‘‘I don’t

believe you did this essay by yourself.’’ I was so upset and surprised, I

almost cried. I spend almost one month to do this essay. I even stayed

at home on the weekend just for this assignment. I worked so hard,

and I met my tutor to fix some grammar errors. I really paid attention

to this essay. I told him I did it all by myself, but he didn’t believe me.

‘‘Dare you swear to me?’’ he said in front of the class. And I did it, Iswore to him. He said he would give me credit, but that he didn’t think

I would pass the class. I said, ‘‘That’s fine, I just want my credit on

this essay.’’ In the end, I didn’t pass the class and because of that


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

I can’t transfer when I wanted to. It was the first time I felt so

frustrated. When I think about this, I really want to cry. (21-year-old

Chinese female, Immigrant, Transfer Goal)

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Results from this study strongly suggest the need for coursework andtraining that sensitizes students to the experiences of others fromdiverse backgrounds. Developing an awareness of the life experiencesthat different racial and ethnic groups encounter is an importantstep in countering the effects of racism both in and off campus.The manner in which administrators and professors address or donot address issues of racism sets an important example for howstudents then will approach similar instances. Creating a welcomingclimate for students of all backgrounds, immigrants included, seemsto be an important environmental factor that will increase under-standing and acceptance among the diverse groups of students,whether they are older or younger, part-time or full-time.

Another important implication from this study relates to the trustthat develops as a unique factor in the relationship between counse-lor and counselee. Seeing a counselor with whom they could con-nect was highly valued, particularly those individuals who hadhigh expectations for them, listened actively to their needs, andwho understood them in terms of their culture, history, and experi-ences. So much of what happens when a students goes in to see acounselor seems to hinge on the nature of the relationship thatdevelops during a brief 15 or 30 minute session. Many studentsnever return to seek a counselor. Others will seek the advice of adifferent counselor. As highly influential people in the life of a stu-dent, counselors can play a central role in acknowledging, validat-ing, and welcoming students onto the campus. Based on whatstudents said in this study, counselors who ‘‘go the extra mile,’’speak their language, and who understand their culture and valuesare in a unique position to help them.

For the institutions, this study continues to point to a majorchallenge of how to meet the advising needs of such varying groupsof students: transfer, vocational, reentry, immigrant, physical orlearning disabled, as well as ethnically and racially diverse students.Colleges must develop strategies and provide resources so that coun-seling services are available to students in a wide range of formats(person-to-person, online, in print) with services in primary languages


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

as much as possible. Counselors must provide a range of services thatwill reach the highest numbers of students including orientations,introduction to college workshops, group counseling, presentationsto parents, etc. College personnel must find ways to welcome andconnect with immigrant students. In this study, programs like EOPS,LISTO, and Puente stood out as model programs that provided astrong connection for students.

Lastly, existing research has largely overlooked the studentswho attend community colleges. This gap in the research is especiallypronounced with respect to the college experience of minority,low-income, first-generation, and other underserved students, whoare the majority in the community colleges of the United States.One critical link is for research projects to combine quantitativeresearch with qualitative research to gain insight on student outcomesfrom the group most affected, the students themselves (Bailey &Alfonso, 2005).

REFERENCES

Astin, A. W. (1985). Achieving educational excellence: A critical assessment of priorities

and practices in higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Attinasi, L. C. (1992). Rethinking the study of the outcomes of college attendance.

Journal of College Student Development, 33(1), 61–70.

Bailey, T. R., & Alfonso, M. (2005). Paths to persistence: An analysis of research on

program effectiveness in community colleges. New Agenda Series, 6(1). (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No. ED484 239)

Beatty-Guenter, P. (1994). Sorting, supporting, connecting, and transforming:

Retention strategies at community colleges. Community College Journal of

Research and Practice, 18, 113–129.

Berkner, L., He, S., & Cataldi, E. (2002). Descriptive summary of 1995–96 Beginning

postsecondary students: Six years later (NCES 2003-151). Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Brown, T., & Rivas, M. (1993). Advising multicultural populations for achievement

and success. In M. King (Ed.), Academic advising: Organizing and delivering

services for student success (pp. 83–96). New Directions for Community Colleges,

No. 112. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

California Postsecondary Education Commission. (2000). Student profiles 2000.

Commission Report 00-8. Sacramento, CA: Author.

California Tomorrow. (2002, April). The high-quality learning conditions needed

to support students and immigrants at California community colleges: Policy report.

Paper presented at the California Joint Legislation Committee, Sacramento,

CA, Author. (ERIC Reproduction Service No. JC020 407)

Chaves, C. A. (2003). Student involvement in the community college setting. (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No. ED477 911)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Crockett, D. S. (1985). Academic advising. In L. Noel, R. Levitz, D. Saluri (Eds.),

Increasing student retention: Effective programs and practices for reducing the drop-

out rate. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

DiMaria, J. P. (2005). NEACRAO keynote speech. College and University, 80(4),

37–41.

Durodoye, B. A., Harris, H. L., & Bolden, V. L. (2000). Personal counselling as a

function of the community college counseling experience. Community College

Journal of Research and Practice, 24(6), 455–468.

Fischer, A. R., Jome, L. M., & Atkinson, D. R. (1998). Reconceptualizing

multicultural counseling: Universal healing conditions in a culturally specific

context. The Counseling Psychologist, 26(4), 525–591.

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL:

Aldine.

Grubb, W. N. (2001). ‘‘Getting into the world’’: Guidance and counseling in community

colleges. Working paper #1. New York, NY: Community College Research

Center, Teachers College, Columbia University.

Herndon, J., Kaiser, J., & Creamer, D. (1996). Student preferences for advising

styles in community college environments. Journal of College Student Develop-

ment, 37(6), 637–648.

Hoachlander, G., Sikora, A. C., & Horn, L. (2003). Community college students:

Goals, academic preparation, and outcomes, (NCES 2003-164). Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Horn, L., & Nevill, S. (2006). Profile of undergraduates in U.S. postsecondary

education institutions: 2003–04: With a special analysis of community college

students (NCES 2006-184). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics.

Ivey, A. E., & Ivey, M. B. (2003). Intentional interviewing and counseling: Facilitating

client development in a multicultural society, (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks=Cole–Thomson Learning.

Kim, A., & Yeh, C. J. (2002). Stereotypes of Asian American students. ERIC Digest,

ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. Retrieved from http://ericcass.uncg.

edu/virtuallib/diversity/1077.html

King, M. (Ed.) (1993). Academic advising, retention, and transfer. In M. King (Ed.),

Academic advising: Organizing and delivering services for student success

(pp. 21–32). New Directions for Community Colleges, 21(2), San Francisco,

CA: Jossey-Bass.

Laden, B. V. (1999). Celebratory socialization of culturally diverse students through

academic programs and support services. In K. M. Shaw, J. R. Valadez, & R. A.

Rhoads (Eds.), Community colleges as cultural texts: Qualitative explorations of

organizational and student culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Lee, W., & Mixon, R. J. (1995). Asian and Caucasian client perceptions of the

effectiveness of counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development,

23(1), 48–56.

Levin, M. E., & Levin, J. R. (1991). A critical examination of academic retention

programs for at-risk minority college students. Journal of College Student Develop-

ment, 32, 323–334.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Pascarella, E. T., Wolniak, G. C., Pierson, C. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2003). Experi-

ences and outcomes of first-generation students in community colleges. Journal

of College Student Development, 44, 420–429.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. (2nd ed.).

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Pedersen, P. B., Draguns, J. G., Lonner, W. J., & Trimble, J. E. (Eds.). (1996).

Counseling across cultures. (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Phillippe, K. A., & Patton, M. (2000). National profile of community colleges: Trends

and statistics. (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Community College Press, American

Association of Community Colleges.

Pomales, J., Claiborn, C. D., & LaFromboise, T. D. (1986). Effects of Black

students’ racial identity on perceptions of White counselors varying in cultural

sensitivity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33(1), 57–61.

Rendon, L. (1994, August 15). Beyond involvement: Creating validating academic

and social communities in the community college. Keynote address to the Amer-

ican River Community College, Sacramento, CA. (ERIC Document Repro-

duction Service No. ED 374 728)

Rendon, L. (1995, March). Facilitating retention and transfer for first generation

students in community colleges. Paper presented at the New Mexico Institute,

Rural community College Initiative, Espanola, NM. (ERIC Document Repro-

duction Service No. ED 383 369)

Rendon, L., & Valadez, J. R. (1993). Qualitative indicators of Hispanic student

transfer. Community College Review, 20(4), 27–38.

Rhoads, R. A., & Solorzano, S. M. (1995). Multiculturalism and the community

college: A case study of an immigrant education program. Community College

Review, 23(2), 3–16.

Rhoads, R. A., & Valadez, J. R. (1996). Democracy, multiculturalism, and the com-

munity college: A critical perspective (Vol. 5, pp. 85–110). New York, NY: Garland.

Rodriguez, A. L., Guido-DiBrito, F., Torres, V., & Talbot, D. (2000). Latina college

students: Issues and challenges for the 21st century.NASPA Journal, 37(3), 511–527.

Sanchez, A. R., & Atkinson, D. R. (1983). Mexican-American cultural commitment,

preference for counselor ethnicity, and willingness to use counseling. Journal

of Counseling Psychology, 30(2), 215–220.

Stovall, M. (2000). Using success courses for promoting persistence and completion.

In S. R. Aragon (Ed.), Beyond access: Methods and models for increasing retention

and learning among minority students (pp. 45–54). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Striplin, J. J. (1999). Facilitating transfer for first-generation community college

students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. BBB309904)

Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice.

New York, NY: John Wiley.

Summers, M. D. (2003). ERIC Review: Attrition research at community colleges.

Community College Review, 30(4), 64–84.

Szelenyi, K. (2001). Minority student retention and academic achievement in

community colleges. In S. R. Aragon (Ed.), Beyond access: Methods and models

for increasing retention and learning among minority students. New Directions

for Community Colleges (Number 112). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Thomas, R. O. (1990). Programs and activities for improved retention. In D. Hossler,

J. P. Bean, & Associates. The strategic management of college enrollments

(pp. 186–201). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Tinto, V. (1994). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition.

(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Weis, L. (1985). ‘‘Excellence’’ and student class, race, and gender cultures. In

P. G. Altbach, G. P. Kelly, & L. Weis (Eds.), Excellence in educational perspectives

on policy and practice (pp. 217–232). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.

Woodlief, B., Thomas, C., & Orozco, G. (2003). California’s gold: Claiming the

promise of diversity in our community colleges. Oakland, CA: California Tomorrow.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

DU

T L

ibra

ry]

at 1

1:15

07

Oct

ober

201

4

Documents

Effective Advising of Diverse Students in Community Colleges